Paul the Apostle

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Saint Paul the Apostle
Bartolomeo Montagna - Saint Paul - Google Art Project.jpg
Saint Paul, by Bartolomeo Montagna, 1482
Apostle to the Gentiles
Martyr
Born c. 5 AD[1]
Tarsus, Cilicia, Roman Empire[Acts 22:3]
Died c. 64 or c. 67 AD (aged 61�62 or 64�65)[2][3][4]
Rome, Roman Empire[2][5]
Venerated in All Christian denominations that venerate saints
Canonized Pre-Congregation
Feast
January 25 �Feast of the Conversion of Saint Paul
February 10 �Feast of Saint Paul's Shipwreck in Malta
June 29 �Feast of Saints Peter and Paul, Epip 5 (Coptic Orthodox)[6]
June 30 �Former solo feast day, still celebrated by some religious orders)
November 18 �Feast of the dedication of the basilicas of Saints Peter and Paul)
Attributes Christian martyrdom, sword, book
Patronage Missionaries, theologians, evangelists, and Gentile Christians
Paul the Apostle
Education School of Gamaliel[Acts 22:3]
Occupation Christian missionary
Years active c. 5 AD � c. 64 or c. 67 AD
Notable work
Epistle to the Romans
Epistle to the Galatians
1st Epistle to the Corinthians
2nd Epistle to the Corinthians
1st Epistle to the Thessalonians
Epistle to Philemon
Epistle to the Philippians
Theological work
Era Apostolic Age
Language Latin, Greek and Hebrew
Tradition or movement Paulinism, Trinitarianism
Main interests Torah, Eschatology, Soteriology, Christology, Ecclesiology
Notable ideas Pauline privilege, Law of Christ, Holy Spirit, unknown God,
Divinity of Jesus, thorn in the flesh, Pauline mysticism, biblical inspiration,
supersessionism, non-circumcision, salvation
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Paul the Apostle (Latin: Paulus; Greek: ?a????, romanized: Paulos; Coptic: ??????;
c. 5 � c. 64 or 67),[2][5] commonly known as Saint Paul and also known by his
Hebrew name Saul of Tarsus (Hebrew: ???? ??????, romanized: Sha'ul ha-Tarsi; Greek:
Sa???? ?a?se??, romanized: Saulos Tarse�s),[7][Acts 9:11] was an apostle (although
not one of the Twelve Apostles) who taught the gospel of Christ to the first-
century world.[8] Paul is generally considered one of the most important figures of
the Apostolic Age[7][9] and from the mid-30s to the mid-50s AD he founded several
Christian communities in Asia Minor and Europe. He took advantage of his status as
both a Jew and a Roman citizen to minister to both Jewish and Roman audiences.

According to the New Testament book Acts of the Apostles (often simply called
Acts), Paul persecuted some of the early disciples of Jesus, possibly Hellenised
diaspora Jews converted to Christianity,[10] in the area of Jerusalem prior to his
conversion.[note 1] In the narrative of Acts, Paul was traveling on the road from
Jerusalem to Damascus on a mission to "arrest them and bring them back to
Jerusalem" when the resurrected Jesus appeared to him in a great light. He was
struck blind, but after three days his sight was restored by Ananias of Damascus
and Paul began to preach that Jesus of Nazareth is the Jewish Messiah and the Son
of God.[Acts 9:20-9:21] Approximately half of the book of Acts deals with Paul's
life and works.

Thirteen of the twenty-seven books in the New Testament have traditionally been
attributed to Paul.[11] Seven of the Pauline epistles are undisputed by scholars as
being authentic, with varying degrees of argument about the remainder. Pauline
authorship of the Epistle to the Hebrews is not asserted in the Epistle itself and
was already doubted in the 2nd and 3rd centuries.[note 2] It was almost
unquestioningly accepted from the 5th to the 16th centuries that Paul was the
author of Hebrews,[12] but that view is now almost universally rejected by
scholars.[12][13] The other six are believed by some scholars to have come from
followers writing in his name, using material from Paul's surviving letters and
letters written by him that no longer survive.[8][7][note 3] Other scholars argue
that the idea of a pseudonymous author for the disputed epistles raises many
problems.[15]

Today, Paul's epistles continue to be vital roots of the theology, worship and
pastoral life in the Latin and Protestant traditions of the West, as well as the
Eastern Catholic and Orthodox traditions of the East.[16] Paul's influence on
Christian thought and practice has been characterized as being as "profound as it
is pervasive", among that of many other apostles and missionaries involved in the
spread of the Christian faith.[8] Martin Luther's interpretation of Paul's writings
influenced Luther's doctrine of sola fide.

Contents
1 Names
2 Biography
2.1 Available sources
2.2 Biblical narrative
2.2.1 Early life
2.2.2 Persecution and conversion
2.2.3 Post-conversion
2.2.4 Early ministry
2.2.5 First missionary journey
2.2.6 Council of Jerusalem
2.2.7 Incident at Antioch
2.2.8 Second missionary journey
2.2.9 Interval in Corinth
2.2.10 Third missionary journey
2.2.11 Journey from Rome to Spain
2.2.12 Visits to Jerusalem in Acts and the epistles
2.2.13 Last visit to Jerusalem and arrest
2.2.14 Two years in Rome
2.2.15 Death
3 Remains
4 Church tradition
5 Physical appearance
6 Writings
6.1 Authorship
6.2 Acts
7 Views
7.1 Self-view
7.2 Understanding of Jesus Christ
7.3 Atonement
7.4 Relationship with Judaism
7.5 World to come
7.6 Role of women
7.7 Views on homosexuality
8 Influence
8.1 Pauline Christianity
8.2 Marcion
8.3 Augustine
8.4 Reformation
8.5 Modern theology
9 Views on Paul
9.1 Jewish views
9.2 Gnosticism
9.3 Muslim views
9.4 Other views
10 See also
11 References
11.1 Notes
11.2 Citations
11.3 Bibliography
11.4 Further reading
12 External links
Names
It has been popularly assumed that Saul's name was changed when he became a
follower of Jesus Christ, but that is not the case.[17][18][19] His Jewish name was
"Saul" (Hebrew: ???????, Modern: Sha'�l, Tiberian: �a'�l), perhaps after the
biblical King Saul,[17] a fellow Benjamite and the first king of Israel. According
to the Book of Acts, he was a Roman citizen.[Acts 22:25�29] As a Roman citizen, he
also bore the Latin name of "Paul" (essentially a Latin transliteration of Saul)�in
biblical Greek: ?a???? (Paulos),[20] and in Latin: Paulus.[note 4][Acts 16:37]
[22:25�28] It was typical for the Jews of that time to have two names: one Hebrew,
the other Latin or Greek.[21][22][23]

Jesus called him "Saul, Saul"[Acts 9:4;22:7;26:14] in "the Hebrew tongue" in the
book of Acts, when he had the vision which led to his conversion on the Road to
Damascus.[Acts 26:14] Later, in a vision to Ananias of Damascus, "the Lord"
referred to him as "Saul, of Tarsus".[Acts 9:11] When Ananias came to restore his
sight, he called him "Brother Saul".[Acts 9:17; 22:13]

In Acts 13:9, Saul is called "Paul" for the first time on the island of Cyprus�much
later than the time of his conversion. The author (Luke) indicates that the names
were interchangeable: "Saul, who also is called Paul." He thereafter refers to him
as Paul, apparently Paul's preference since he is called Paul in all other Bible
books where he is mentioned, including those that he authored. Adopting his Roman
name was typical of Paul's missionary style. His method was to put people at their
ease and to approach them with his message in a language and style to which they
could relate, as in 1 Cor 9:19�23.[18]

Biography
Available sources
Further information: Historical reliability of the Acts of the Apostles

The Conversion of Saul, fresco by Michelangelo, 1542�1545

The main source for information about Paul's life is the material found in his
epistles and in Acts.[24] However, the epistles contain little information about
Paul's pre-conversion past. The book of Acts recounts more information but leaves
several parts of Paul's life out of its narrative, such as his probable but
undocumented execution in Rome.[25] Some scholars believe Acts also contradicts
Paul's epistles on multiple accounts, in particular concerning the frequency of
Paul's visits to the church in Jerusalem.[26][27]

Sources outside the New Testament that mention Paul include:

Clement of Rome's epistle to the Corinthians (late 1st/early 2nd century);

Ignatius of Antioch's letters To the Romans and to the Ephesians[28] (early 2nd
century);
Polycarp's letter to the Philippians (early 2nd century);
Biblical narrative
Early life

Geography relevant to Paul's life, stretching from Jerusalem to Rome

The two main sources of information by which we have access to the earliest
segments of Paul's career are the Bible's Book of Acts and the autobiographical
elements of Paul's letters to the early Christian communities.[24] Paul was likely
born between the years of 5 BC and 5 AD.[29] The Book of Acts indicates that Paul
was a Roman citizen by birth, but Helmut Koester takes issue with the evidence
presented by the text.[30][Acts 16:37][Acts 22:25�29]

He was from a devout Jewish family[31] based in the city of Tarsus,[17] one of the
largest trade centers on the Mediterranean coast.[32] It had been in existence
several hundred years prior to his birth. It was renowned for its university.
During the time of Alexander the Great, who died in 323 BC, Tarsus was the most
influential city in Asia Minor.[31]

Paul referred to himself as being "of the stock of Israel, of the tribe of
Benjamin, a Hebrew of the Hebrews; as touching the law, a Pharisee".[Phil. 3:5][33]
The Bible reveals very little about Paul's family. Acts quotes Paul referring to
his family by saying he was "a Pharisee, born of Pharisees".[Acts 23:6][34] Paul's
nephew, his sister's son, is mentioned in Acts 23:16. In Romans 16:7 he states that
his relatives, Andronicus and Junia, were Christians before he was and were
prominent among the Apostles.

The family had a history of religious piety.[2 Timothy 1:3][note 5] Apparently the
family lineage had been very attached to Pharisaic traditions and observances for
generations.[Philippians 3:5�6] Acts says that he was an artisan involved in the
leather or tent-making profession.[Acts 18:1�3][35] This was to become an initial
connection with Priscilla and Aquila with whom he would partner in tentmaking[Acts
18:3] and later become very important teammates as fellow missionaries.[Rom. 16:4]

Professor Robert Eisenman of California State University, Long Beach argues that
Paul was a member of the family of Herod the Great.[36] Eisenman makes a connection
between Paul and an individual identified by Josephus as "Saulus", a "kinsman of
Agrippa".[37] Another oft-cited element of the case for Paul as a member of Herod's
family is found in Romans 16:11 where Paul writes, "Greet Herodion, my kinsman".
While he was still fairly young, he was sent to Jerusalem to receive his education
at the school of Gamaliel,[Acts 22:3][33] one of the most noted rabbis in history.
Although modern scholarship agrees that Paul was educated under the supervision of
Gamaliel in Jerusalem,[33] he was not preparing to become a rabbi and probably
never had any contact with the Hillelite school.[33] Some of his family may have
resided in Jerusalem since later the son of one of his sisters saved his life
there.[Acts 23:16][17] Nothing more is known of his biography until he takes an
active part in the martyrdom of Stephen,[Acts 7:58�60; 22:20] a Hellenised diaspora
Jew converted to Christianity.[10]

Although we know from his biography and from Acts that Paul could and did speak
Hebrew,[17] modern scholarship suggests that Koine Greek was his first language.
[38][39] In his letters, Paul drew heavily on his knowledge of Stoic philosophy,
using Stoic terms and metaphors to assist his new Gentile converts in their
understanding of the Gospel and to explain his Christology.[40][41]

Persecution and conversion

Main article: Conversion of Paul the Apostle

Conversion on the Way to Damascus (1601), by Caravaggio

Paul confesses that "beyond measure" he persecuted the church of God, more
specifically Hellenised diaspora Jews converted to Christianity who had returned to
the area of Jerusalem,[42][note 1] prior to his conversion.[Gal. 1:13�14] [Phil.
3:6] [Acts 8:1�3] According to James Dunn, the Jerusalem community consisted of
"Hebrews," Jews speaking both Aramaic and Greek, and "Hellenists," Jews speaking
only Greek, possibly diaspora Jews who had resettled in Jerusalem.[43] Paul's
initial persecution of Christians probably was directed against these Greek-
speaking "Hellenists" converted to Christianity due to their anti-Temple attitude.
[44] Within the early Jewish Christian community, this also set them apart from the
"Hebrews" and their continuing participation in the Temple cult.[44]

Paul's conversion can be dated to 31�36[45][46][47] by his reference to it in one

of his letters. In Galatians 1:16 Paul writes that God "was pleased to reveal his
son to me." In 1 Corinthians 15:8, as he lists the order in which Jesus appeared to
his disciples after his resurrection, Paul writes, "last of all, as to one untimely
born, He appeared to me also."

According to the account in Acts, it took place on the road to Damascus, where he
reported having experienced a vision of the resurrected Jesus. The account says
that "he fell to the earth, and heard a voice saying unto him, Saul, Saul, why
persecutest thou me?" Saul replied, "Who art thou, Lord? And the Lord said, I am
Jesus whom thou persecutest: [it is] hard for thee to kick against the pricks
(goads)."[Acts 9:4�5]

According to the account in Acts 9:1�22, he was blinded for three days and had to
be led into Damascus by the hand. During these three days, Saul took no food or
water and spent his time in prayer to God. When Ananias of Damascus arrived, he
laid his hands on him and said: "Brother Saul, the Lord, [even] Jesus, that
appeared unto thee in the way as thou camest, hath sent me, that thou mightest
receive thy sight, and be filled with the Holy Ghost."[Acts 9:17] His sight was
restored, he got up and was baptized.[Acts 9:18] This story occurs only in Acts,
not in the Pauline epistles.[48]

The author of Acts of the Apostles may have learned of Paul's conversion from the
church in Jerusalem, or from the church in Antioch, or possibly from Paul himself.
[49]

According to Timo Eskola, early Christian theology and discourse was influenced by
the Jewish Merkabah tradition.[50] Similarly, Alan Segal and Daniel Boyarin regard
Paul's accounts of his conversion experience and his ascent to the heavens as the
earliest first person accounts we have of a Merkabah mystic in Jewish or Christian
literature. Conversely, Timothy Churchill has argued that Paul's Damascus road
encounter does not fit the pattern of Merkabah.[51]

Post-conversion

Caravaggio (1571�1610), The Conversion of Saint Paul, 1600

Paul the Apostle, by Rembrandt Harmensz van Rijn c. 1657

According to Acts,

And immediately he proclaimed Jesus in the synagogues, saying, "He is the Son of
God." And all who heard him were amazed and said, "Is not this the man who made
havoc in Jerusalem of those who called upon this name? And has he not come here for
this purpose, to bring them bound before the chief priests?" But Saul increased all
the more in strength, and confounded the Jews who lived in Damascus by proving that
Jesus was the Christ.

�?Acts 9:20�22
Early ministry

The house believed to be of Ananias of Damascus in Damascus

Bab Kisan, believed to be where Paul escaped from persecution in Damascus

After his conversion, Paul went to Damascus, where Acts 9 states he was healed of
his blindness and baptized by Ananias of Damascus.[52] Paul says that it was in
Damascus that he barely escaped death.[2 Cor. 11:32] Paul also says that he then
went first to Arabia, and then came back to Damascus.[Gal. 1:17][53] Paul's trip to
Arabia is not mentioned anywhere else in the Bible, and some suppose he actually
traveled to Mount Sinai for meditations in the desert.[54][55] He describes in
Galatians how three years after his conversion he went to Jerusalem. There he met
James and stayed with Simon Peter for 15 days.[Gal. 1:13�24] Paul located Mount
Sinai in Arabia in Galatians 4:24�25.

Paul asserted that he received the Gospel not from man, but directly by "the
revelation of Jesus Christ".[Gal 1:11�16] He claimed almost total independence from
the Jerusalem community[56] (possibly in the Cenacle), but agreed with it on the
nature and content of the gospel.[Gal 1:22�24] He appeared eager to bring material
support to Jerusalem from the various growing Gentile churches that he started. In
his writings, Paul used the persecutions he endured to avow proximity and union
with Jesus and as a validation of his teaching.

Paul's narrative in Galatians states that 14 years after his conversion he went
again to Jerusalem.[Gal. 2:1�10] It is not known what happened during this time,
but both Acts and Galatians provide some details.[57] At the end of this time,
Barnabas went to find Paul and brought him to Antioch.[58]Acts 11:26 The Christian
community at Antioch had been established by Hellenised diaspora Jews converted to
Christianity living in Jerusalem, who played an important role in reaching a
Gentile, Greek audience, notably at Antioch, which had a lage Jewish community and
significant numbers of Gentile "God-fearers."[59] From Antioch the mission to the
Gentiles started, which would fundamentally change the character of the early
Christian movement, eventually turning it into a new, Gentile religion.[10]

When a famine occurred in Judea, around 45�46,[60] Paul and Barnabas journeyed to
Jerusalem to deliver financial support from the Antioch community.[61] According to
Acts, Antioch had become an alternative center for Christians following the
dispersion of the believers after the death of Stephen. It was in Antioch that the
followers of Jesus were first called "Christians".Acts 11:26

First missionary journey

The author of Acts arranges Paul's travels into three separate journeys. The first
journey,[Acts 13�14] for which Paul and Barnabas were commissioned by the Antioch
community,[62] and led initially by Barnabas,[note 6] took Barnabas and Paul from
Antioch to Cyprus then into southern Asia Minor (Anatolia), and finally returning
to Antioch. In Cyprus, Paul rebukes and blinds Elymas the magician[Acts 13:8�12]
who was criticizing their teachings.

They sail to Perga in Pamphylia. John Mark leaves them and returns to Jerusalem.
Paul and Barnabas go on to Pisidian Antioch. On Sabbath they go to the synagogue.
The leaders invite them to speak. Paul reviews Israelite history from life in Egypt
to King David. He introduces Jesus as a descendant of David brought to Israel by
God. He said that his team came to town to bring the message of salvation. He
recounts the story of Jesus' death and resurrection. He quotes from the
Septuagint[63] to assert that Jesus was the promised Christos who brought them
forgiveness for their sins. Both the Jews and the "God-fearing" Gentiles invited
them to talk more next Sabbath. At that time almost the whole city gathered. This
upset some influential Jews who spoke against them. Paul used the occasion to
announce a change in his mission which from then on would be to the Gentiles.[Acts
13:13�48]

Antioch served as a major Christian homebase for Paul's early missionary

activities,[5] and he remained there for "a long time with the disciples"[Acts
14:28] at the conclusion of his first journey. The exact duration of Paul's stay in
Antioch is unknown, with estimates ranging from nine months to as long as eight
years.[64]

In Raymond Brown's An Introduction to the New Testament (1997), a chronology of

events in Paul's life is presented, illustrated from later 20th century writings of
biblical scholars.[65] The first missionary journey of Paul is assigned a
"traditional" (and majority) dating of 46-49 AD, compared to a "revisionist" (and
minority) dating of after 37 AD.[66]

Council of Jerusalem
Main article: Council of Jerusalem
See also: Circumcision controversy in early Christianity
A vital meeting between Paul and the Jerusalem church took place in the year 49 by
"traditional" (and majority) dating, compared to a "revisionist" (and minority)
dating of 47/51.[67] The meeting is described in Acts 15:2 and usually seen as the
same event mentioned by Paul in Galatians 2:1.[25] The key question raised was
whether Gentile converts needed to be circumcised.[68][Acts 15:2][Galatians 2:1] At
this meeting, Paul states in his letter to the Galatians, Peter, James, and John
accepted Paul's mission to the Gentiles.

The Jerusalem meetings are mentioned in Acts, and also in Paul's letters.[69] For
example, the Jerusalem visit for famine relief[Acts 11:27�30] apparently
corresponds to the "first visit" (to Peter and James only).[Gal. 1:18�20][69] F. F.
Bruce suggested that the "fourteen years" could be from Paul's conversion rather
than from his first visit to Jerusalem.[70]

Incident at Antioch
Main article: Incident at Antioch
Despite the agreement achieved at the Council of Jerusalem, Paul recounts how he
later publicly confronted Peter in a dispute sometimes called the "Incident at
Antioch", over Peter's reluctance to share a meal with Gentile Christians in
Antioch because they did not strictly adhere to Jewish customs.[68]
Writing later of the incident, Paul recounts, "I opposed [Peter] to his face,
because he was clearly in the wrong", and says he told Peter, "You are a Jew, yet
you live like a Gentile and not like a Jew. How is it, then, that you force
Gentiles to follow Jewish customs?"[Gal. 2:11�14] Paul also mentions that even
Barnabas, his traveling companion and fellow apostle until that time, sided with
Peter.[68]

The final outcome of the incident remains uncertain. The Catholic Encyclopedia
suggests that Paul won the argument, because "Paul's account of the incident leaves
no doubt that Peter saw the justice of the rebuke".[68] However Paul himself never
mentions a victory and L. Michael White's From Jesus to Christianity draws the
opposite conclusion: "The blowup with Peter was a total failure of political
bravado, and Paul soon left Antioch as persona non grata, never again to return".
[71]

The primary source account of the Incident at Antioch is Paul's letter to the
Galatians.[Gal. 2:11�14]

Second missionary journey

Saint Paul delivering the Areopagus sermon in Athens, by Raphael, 1515. This sermon
addressed early issues in Christology.[72][73]
Paul left for his second missionary journey from Jerusalem, in late Autumn 49,[74]
after the meeting of the Council of Jerusalem where the circumcision question was
debated. On their trip around the Mediterranean Sea, Paul and his companion
Barnabas stopped in Antioch where they had a sharp argument about taking John Mark
with them on their trips. The book of Acts said that John Mark had left them in a
previous trip and gone home. Unable to resolve the dispute, Paul and Barnabas
decided to separate; Barnabas took John Mark with him, while Silas joined Paul.

Paul and Silas initially visited Tarsus (Paul's birthplace), Derbe and Lystra. In
Lystra, they met Timothy, a disciple who was spoken well of, and decided to take
him with them. Paul and his companions, Silas and Timothy, had plans to journey to
the southwest portion of Asia Minor to preach the gospel but during the night, Paul
had a vision of a man of Macedonia standing and begging him to go to Macedonia to
help them. After seeing the vision, Paul and his companions left for Macedonia to
preach the gospel to them.[Acts 16:6�10] The Church kept growing, adding believers,
and strengthening in faith daily.[Acts 16:5]

In Philippi, Paul cast a spirit of divination out of a servant girl, whose masters
were then unhappy about the loss of income her soothsaying provided.[Acts 16:16�24]
They turned the city against the missionaries, and Paul and Silas were put in jail.
After a miraculous earthquake, the gates of the prison fell apart and Paul and
Silas could have escaped but remained; this event led to the conversion of the
jailor.[Acts 16:25�40] They continued traveling, going by Berea and then to Athens,
where Paul preached to the Jews and God-fearing Greeks in the synagogue and to the
Greek intellectuals in the Areopagus. Paul continued from Athens to Corinth.

Interval in Corinth
Around 50�52, Paul spent 18 months in Corinth. The reference in Acts to Proconsul
Gallio helps ascertain this date (cf. Gallio Inscription).[25] In Corinth, Paul met
Priscilla and Aquila,[Acts 18:2] who became faithful believers and helped Paul
through his other missionary journeys. The couple followed Paul and his companions
to Ephesus, and stayed there to start one of the strongest and most faithful
churches at that time.[Acts 18:18�21]

In 52, departing from Corinth, Paul stopped at the nearby village of Cenchreae to
have his hair cut off, because of a vow he had earlier taken.[Acts 18:18] It is
possible this was to be a final haircut prior to fulfilling his vow to become a
Nazirite for a defined period of time.[75] With Priscilla and Aquila, the
missionaries then sailed to Ephesus[Acts 18:19�21] and then Paul alone went on to
Caesarea to greet the Church there. He then traveled north to Antioch, where he
stayed for some time (Greek: p???sa? ??????, perhaps about a year), before leaving
again on a third missionary journey.[citation needed] Some New Testament texts[note
7] suggest that he also visited Jerusalem during this period for one of the Jewish
feasts, possibly Pentecost.[Acts 18:21] Textual critic Henry Alford and others
consider the reference to a Jerusalem visit to be genuine[76] and it accords with
Acts 21:29, according to which Paul and Trophimus the Ephesian had previously been
seen in Jerusalem.

Third missionary journey

The Preaching of Saint Paul at Ephesus by Eustache Le Sueur (1649)[77]

According to Acts, Paul began his third missionary journey by travelling all around
the region of Galatia and Phrygia to strengthen, teach and rebuke the believers.
Paul then traveled to Ephesus, an important center of early Christianity, and
stayed there for almost three years, probably working there as a tentmaker,[Acts
20:34] as he had done when he stayed in Corinth. He is claimed to have performed
numerous miracles, healing people and casting out demons, and he apparently
organized missionary activity in other regions.[25] Paul left Ephesus after an
attack from a local silversmith resulted in a pro-Artemis riot involving most of
the city.[25] During his stay in Ephesus, Paul wrote four letters to the church in
Corinth.[78]

Paul went through Macedonia into Achaea[Acts 20:1�2] and stayed in Greece, probably
Corinth, for three months[Acts 20:1�2] during 56�57 AD.[25] Commentators generally
agree that Paul dictated his Epistle to the Romans during this period.[79] He then
made ready to continue on to Syria, but he changed his plans and traveled back
through Macedonia because of some Jews who had made a plot against him. In Romans
15:19 Paul wrote that he visited Illyricum, but he may have meant what would now be
called Illyria Graeca,<[80] which was at that time a division of the Roman province
of Macedonia.[81] On their way back to Jerusalem, Paul and his companions visited
other cities such as Philippi, Troas, Miletus, Rhodes, and Tyre. Paul finished his
trip with a stop in Caesarea, where he and his companions stayed with Philip the
Evangelist before finally arriving at Jerusalem.[Acts 21:8�10] [21:15]

Journey from Rome to Spain

Among the writings of the early Christians, Pope Clement I said that Paul was
"Herald (of the Gospel of Christ) in the West", and that "he had gone to the
extremity of the west".[82] John Chrysostom indicated that Paul preached in Spain:
"For after he had been in Rome, he returned to Spain, but whether he came thence
again into these parts, we know not".[83] Cyril of Jerusalem said that Paul, "fully
preached the Gospel, and instructed even imperial Rome, and carried the earnestness
of his preaching as far as Spain, undergoing conflicts innumerable, and performing
Signs and wonders".[84] The Muratorian fragment mentions "the departure of Paul
from the city [of Rome] [5a] (39) when he journeyed to Spain".[85]

Visits to Jerusalem in Acts and the epistles

This table is adapted from White, From Jesus to Christianity.[69] Note that the
matching of Paul's travels in the Acts and the travels in his Epistles is done for
the reader's convenience and is not approved of by all scholars.

Acts Epistles
First visit to Jerusalem[Acts 9:26�27]
"after many days" of Damascus conversion
preaches openly in Jerusalem with Barnabas
meets apostles
First visit to Jerusalem[Gal. 1:18�20]
three years after Damascus conversion[Gal. 1:17�18]
sees only Cephas (Peter) and James
Second visit to Jerusalem[Acts 11:29�30] [12:25]
for famine relief
There is debate over whether Paul's visit in Galatians 2 refers to the visit for
famine relief[Acts 11:30, 12:25] or the Jerusalem Council.[Acts 15] If it refers to
the former, then this was the trip made "after an interval of fourteen years".[Gal.
2:1]
Third visit to Jerusalem[Acts 15:1�19]
with Barnabas
"Council of Jerusalem"
followed by confrontation with Barnabas in Antioch[Acts 15:36�40]
Another[note 8] visit to Jerusalem[Gal. 2:1�10]
14 years later (after Damascus conversion?)
with Barnabas and Titus
possibly the "Council of Jerusalem"
Paul agrees to "remember the poor"
followed by confrontation with Peter and Barnabas in Antioch[Gal. 2:11�14]
Fourth visit to Jerusalem[Acts 18:21�22]
to "greet the church"
Apparently unmentioned.
Fifth visit to Jerusalem[Acts 21:17ff]
after an absence of several years[Acts 24:17]
to bring gifts for the poor and to present offerings
Paul arrested
Another[note 9] visit to Jerusalem.[Romans 15:25],[2 Corinthians 8�9],[1
Corinthians 16:1�3]
to deliver the collection for the poor
Last visit to Jerusalem and arrest

Saint Paul arrested, early 1900s Bible illustration

In 57, upon completion of his third missionary journey, Paul arrived in Jerusalem
for his fifth and final visit with a collection of money for the local community.
Acts reports that he initially was warmly received. However, Acts goes on to
recount how Paul was warned by James and the elders that he was gaining a
reputation for being against the Law, saying "they have been told about you that
you teach all the Jews who are among the Gentiles to forsake Moses, telling them
not to circumcise their children or walk according to our customs". Paul underwent
a purification ritual in order to give the Jews no grounds to bring accusations
against him for not following their law.[Acts 21:17�26]

After seven days in Jerusalem, some "Jews from Asia" (most likely from Roman Asia)
accused Paul of defiling the temple by bringing gentiles into it. He was seized and
dragged out of the temple by an angry mob. He narrowly escaped being killed by
surrendering to a group of Roman centurions, who arrested him, put him in chains
and took him to the tribune.[Acts 21:27�36]

When a plot to kill Paul on his way to an appearance before the Jews was
discovered, he was transported by night to Caesarea Maritima. He was held as a
prisoner there for two years by Marcus Antonius Felix, until a new governor,
Porcius Festus, reopened his case in 59. When Festus suggested that he be sent back
to Jerusalem for further trial, Paul exercised his right as a Roman citizen to
"appeal unto Caesar".[25] Finally, Paul and his companions sailed for Rome where
Paul was to stand trial for his alleged crimes.[86]

Acts recounts that on the way to Rome for his appeal as a Roman citizen to Caesar,
Paul was shipwrecked on "Melita" (Malta),[Acts 27:39�44] where the islanders showed
him "unusual kindness" and where he was met by Publius.[Acts 28:1�10] From Malta,
he travelled to Rome via Syracuse, Rhegium and Puteoli.[Acts 28:11�14]
Two years in Rome

Paul Arrives in Rome, from Die Bibel in Bildern

He finally arrived in Rome around 60, where he spent another two years under house
arrest.[86] The narrative of Acts ends with Paul preaching in Rome for two years
from his rented home while awaiting trial.[Acts 28:30�31]

Irenaeus wrote in the 2nd century that Peter and Paul had been the founders of the
church in Rome and had appointed Linus as succeeding bishop.[87] Paul was not a
bishop of Rome, nor did he bring Christianity to Rome since there were already
Christians in Rome when he arrived there.[Acts 28:14�15] Also, Paul wrote his
letter to the church at Rome before he had visited Rome.[Romans
1:1,7,11�13;15:23�29] Paul only played a supporting part in the life of the church
in Rome.[88]

Death

The Beheading of Saint Paul by Enrique Simonet, 1887

The date of Paul's death is believed to have occurred after the Great Fire of Rome
in July 64, but before the last year of Nero's reign, in 68.[2] According to
several Church Fathers and apocryphal books, Paul was beheaded in Rome by orders of
Nero.[note 10]

A legend later[when?] developed that his martyrdom occurred at the Aquae Salviae,
on the Via Laurentina. According to this legend, after Paul was decapitated, his
severed head rebounded three times, giving rise to a source of water each time that
it touched the ground, which is how the place earned the name "San Paolo alle Tre
Fontane" ("St Paul at the Three Fountains").[100][101] Also according to legend,
Paul's body was buried outside the walls of Rome, at the second mile on the Via
Ostiensis, on the estate owned by a Christian woman named Lucina. It was here, in
the fourth century, that the Emperor Constantine the Great built a first church.
Then, between the fourth and fifth centuries it was considerably enlarged by the
Emperors Valentinian I, Valentinian II, Theodosius I, and Arcadius. The present-day
Basilica of Saint Paul Outside the Walls was built there in 1800.[100]

Remains
Caius in his Disputation Against Proclus (198 AD) mentions this of the places in
which the remains of the apostles Peter and Paul were deposited: "I can point out
the trophies of the apostles. For if you are willing to go to the Vatican or to the
Ostian Way, you will find the trophies of those who founded this Church".[102]

Jerome in his De Viris Illustribus (392 AD) writing on Paul's biography, mentions
that "Paul was buried in the Ostian Way at Rome".[97]

In 2002, an 8-foot (2.4 m)-long marble sarcophagus, inscribed with the words "PAULO
APOSTOLO MART" ("Paul apostle martyr") was discovered during excavations around the
Basilica of Saint Paul Outside the Walls on the Via Ostiensis. Vatican
archaeologists declared this to be the tomb of Paul the Apostle in 2005.[103] In
June 2009, Pope Benedict XVI announced excavation results concerning the tomb. The
sarcophagus was not opened but was examined by means of a probe, which revealed
pieces of incense, purple and blue linen, and small bone fragments. The bone was
radiocarbon-dated to the 1st or 2nd century. According to the Vatican, these
findings support the conclusion that the tomb is Paul's.[104][105]

Church tradition

Greek Orthodox mural painting of Saint Paul

Various Christian writers have suggested more details about Paul's life.
1 Clement, a letter written by the Roman bishop Clement of Rome around the year 90,
reports this about Paul:

By reason of jealousy and strife Paul by his example pointed out the prize of
patient endurance. After that he had been seven times in bonds, had been driven
into exile, had been stoned, had preached in the East and in the West, he won the
noble renown which was the reward of his faith, having taught righteousness unto
the whole world and having reached the farthest bounds of the West; and when he had
borne his testimony before the rulers, so he departed from the world and went unto
the holy place, having been found a notable pattern of patient endurance.

�?Lightfoot 1890, p. 274, The First Epistle of Clement to the Corinthians, 5:5�6
Commenting on this passage, Raymond Brown writes that while it "does not explicitly
say" that Paul was martyred in Rome, "such a martyrdom is the most reasonable
interpretation".[106] Eusebius of Caesarea, who wrote in the 4th century, states
that Paul was beheaded in the reign of the Roman Emperor Nero.[107] This event has
been dated either to the year 64, when Rome was devastated by a fire, or a few
years later, to 67. According to one tradition, the church of San Paolo alle Tre
Fontane marks the place of Paul's execution. A Roman Catholic liturgical solemnity
of Peter and Paul, celebrated on June 29, commemorates his martyrdom, and reflects
a tradition (preserved by Eusebius) that Peter and Paul were martyred at the same
time.[108] The Roman liturgical calendar for the following day now remembers all
Christians martyred in these early persecutions; formerly, June 30 was the feast
day for St. Paul.[109] Persons or religious orders with special affinity for St.
Paul can still celebrate their patron on June 30.

Statue of St. Paul, Community Mausoleum of All Saints Cemetery, Des Plaines,
Illinois
The apocryphal Acts of Paul and the apocryphal Acts of Peter suggest that Paul
survived Rome and traveled further west. Some think that Paul could have revisited
Greece and Asia Minor after his trip to Spain, and might then have been arrested in
Troas, and taken to Rome and executed.[2 Tim. 4:13][note 5] A tradition holds that
Paul was interred with Saint Peter ad Catacumbas by the via Appia until moved to
what is now the Basilica of Saint Paul Outside the Walls in Rome. Bede, in his
Ecclesiastical History, writes that Pope Vitalian in 665 gave Paul's relics
(including a cross made from his prison chains) from the crypts of Lucina to King
Oswy of Northumbria, northern Britain. Paul is considered the patron saint of
London.

The Feast of the Conversion of Saint Paul is celebrated on January 25.[110]

Physical appearance
The New Testament offers little if any information about the physical appearance of
Paul, but several descriptions can be found in apocryphal texts. In the Acts of
Paul[111] he is described as "A man of small stature, with a bald head and crooked
legs, in a good state of body, with eyebrows meeting and nose somewhat hooked".
[112] In the Latin version of the Acts of Paul and Thecla it is added that he had a
red, florid face.[112]

In The History of the Contending of Saint Paul his countenance is described as

"ruddy with the ruddiness of the skin of the pomegranate".[113] The Acts of Saint
Peter confirms that Paul had a bald and shining head, with red hair.[114] As
summarised by Barnes,[115] Chrysostom records that Paul's stature was low, his body
crooked and his head bald. Lucian, in his Philopatris, describes Paul as "corpore
erat parvo (he was small), contracto (contracted), incurvo (crooked), tricubitali
(of three cubits, or four feet six)".[21]
Nicephorus claims that Paul was a little man, crooked, and almost bent like a bow,
with a pale countenance, long and wrinkled, and a bald head. Pseudo-Chrysostom
echoes Lucian's height of Paul, referring to him as "the man of three cubits".[21]

Writings
Part of a series of articles on
Paul in the Bible
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Pauline literature
Authorship
Related literature
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Main article: Pauline epistles

Statue of St. Paul in the Archbasilica of Saint John Lateran by Pierre-�tienne

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Of the 27 books in the New Testament, 14 have been attributed to Paul; 7 of these
are widely considered authentic and Paul's own, while the authorship of the other 7
is disputed.[116][117][118] The undisputed letters are considered the most
important sources since they contain what everyone agrees to be Paul's own
statements about his life and thoughts. Theologian Mark Powell writes that Paul
directed these 7 letters to specific occasions at particular churches. As an
example, if the Corinthian church had not experienced problems concerning its
celebration of the Lord's Supper,[1 Cor. 11:17�34] today we would not know that
Paul even believed in that observance or had any opinions about it one way or the
other. Powell asks if we might be ignorant of other matters simply because no
crises arose that prompted Paul to comment on them.[119]

In Paul's writings, he provides the first written account of what it is to be a

Christian and thus a description of Christian spirituality. His letters have been
characterized as being the most influential books of the New Testament after the
Gospels of Matthew and John.[7][note 11]

Authorship

Paul Writing His Epistles, painting attributed to Valentin de Boulogne, 17th

century
Main article: Authorship of the Pauline epistles
Seven of the 13 letters that bear Paul's name � Romans, 1 Corinthians, 2
Corinthians, Galatians, Philippians, 1 Thessalonians and Philemon � are almost
universally accepted as being entirely authentic (dictated by Paul himself).[7]
[116][117][118] They are considered the best source of information on Paul's life
and especially his thought.[7]

Four of the letters (Ephesians, 1 and 2 Timothy and Titus) are widely considered
pseudepigraphical, while the authorship of the other two is subject to debate.[116]
Colossians and 2 Thessalonians are possibly "Deutero-Pauline" meaning they may have
been written by Paul's followers after his death. Similarly, 1 Timothy, 2 Timothy,
and Titus may be "Trito-Pauline" meaning they may have been written by members of
the Pauline school a generation after his death. According to their theories, these
disputed letters may have come from followers writing in Paul's name, often using
material from his surviving letters. These scribes also may have had access to
letters written by Paul that no longer survive.[7]

The authenticity of Colossians has been questioned on the grounds that it contains
an otherwise unparalleled description (among his writings) of Jesus as "the image
of the invisible God", a Christology found elsewhere only in John's gospel.[120]
However, the personal notes in the letter connect it to Philemon, unquestionably
the work of Paul. Internal evidence shows close connection with Philippians.[21]

Ephesians is a letter that is very similar to Colossians, but is almost entirely

lacking in personal reminiscences. Its style is unique. It lacks the emphasis on
the cross to be found in other Pauline writings, reference to the Second Coming is
missing, and Christian marriage is exalted in a way which contrasts with the
reference in 1 Cor. 7:8�9. Finally, according to R.E. Brown, it exalts the Church
in a way suggestive of a second generation of Christians, "built upon the
foundation of the apostles and prophets" now past.[121]

The defenders of its Pauline authorship argue that it was intended to be read by a
number of different churches and that it marks the final stage of the development
of Paul's thinking. It has been said, too, that the moral portion of the Epistle,
consisting of the last two chapters, has the closest affinity with similar portions
of other Epistles, while the whole admirably fits in with the known details of
Paul's life, and throws considerable light upon them.[122]

Russian Orthodox icon of the Apostle Paul, 18th century (Iconostasis of

Transfiguration Church, Kizhi Monastery, Karelia, Russia)
Three main reasons have been advanced by those who question Paul's authorship of 1
Timothy, 2 Timothy, and Titus � also known as the Pastoral Epistles.

First, they have found a difference in these letters' vocabulary, style, and
theology from Paul's acknowledged writings. Defenders of the authenticity say that
they were probably written in the name and with the authority of the Apostle by one
of his companions, to whom he distinctly explained what had to be written, or to
whom he gave a written summary of the points to be developed, and that when the
letters were finished, Paul read them through, approved them, and signed them.[122]
Second, there is a difficulty in fitting them into Paul's biography as we have it.
[123] They, like Colossians and Ephesians, were written from prison but suppose
Paul's release and travel thereafter.[21]
Third, 2 Thessalonians, like Colossians, is questioned on stylistic grounds with,
among other peculiarities, a dependence on 1 Thessalonians � yet a distinctiveness
in language from the Pauline corpus. This, again, is explainable by the possibility
that Paul requested one of his companions to write the letter for him under his
dictation.[21]
Acts
Although approximately half of Acts deals with Paul's life and works, the Book of
Acts does not refer to Paul writing letters. Historians believe that the author of
Acts did not have access to any of Paul's letters. One piece of evidence suggesting
this is that Acts never directly quotes from the Pauline epistles. Discrepancies
between the Pauline epistles and Acts would further support the conclusion that the
author of Acts did not have access to those epistles when composing Acts.[124][125]

British Jewish scholar Hyam Maccoby contended that the Paul as described in the
book of Acts and the view of Paul gleaned from his own writings are very different
people. Some difficulties have been noted in the account of his life. Paul as
described in the Book of Acts is much more interested in factual history, less in
theology; ideas such as justification by faith are absent as are references to the
Spirit, according to Maccoby. He also pointed out that there are no references to
John the Baptist in the Pauline Epistles, although Paul mentions him several times
in the book of Acts.

Others have objected that the language of the speeches is too Lukan in style to
reflect anyone else's words. Moreover, George Shillington writes that the author of
Acts most likely created the speeches accordingly and they bear his literary and
theological marks.[126] Conversely, Howard Marshall writes that the speeches were
not entirely the inventions of the author and while they may not be accurate word-
for-word, the author nevertheless records the general idea of them.[127]

F. C. Baur (1792�1860), professor of theology at T�bingen in Germany, the first

scholar to critique Acts and the Pauline Epistles, and founder of the T�bingen
School of theology, argued that Paul, as the "Apostle to the Gentiles", was in
violent opposition to the original 12 Apostles. Baur considers the Acts of the
Apostles were late and unreliable. This debate has continued ever since, with Adolf
Deissmann (1866�1937) and Richard Reitzenstein (1861�1931) emphasising Paul's Greek
inheritance and Albert Schweitzer stressing his dependence on Judaism.

Views

Saint Paul, Byzantine ivory relief, 6th � early 7th century (Mus�e de Cluny)
Self-view
In the opening verses of Romans 1, Paul provides a litany of his own apostolic
appointment to preach among the Gentiles[Gal. 1:16] and his post-conversion
convictions about the risen Christ.[7] Paul described himself as set apart for the
gospel of God and called to be an apostle and a servant of Jesus Christ. Jesus
Christ had revealed Himself to Paul, just as He had appeared to Peter, to James, to
the Twelve, after his Resurrection.[1 Cor. 9:1] Paul experienced this as an
unforeseen, sudden, startling change, due to all-powerful grace, not as the fruit
of his reasoning or thoughts.[Gal. 1:12�15] [1 Cor. 15:10]

Paul also describes himself as inflicted with a debilitating physical condition

akin to having a handicap which he refers to as "a thorn in the flesh";[2 Cor.
12:7]

There are debates as to whether Paul understood himself as commissioned to take the
gospel to the Gentiles at the moment of his conversion.[128] Before his conversion
he believed his violent persecution of the church to be an indication of his zeal
for his religion;[Phil. 3:6] after his conversion he believed Jewish hostility
toward the church was sinful opposition, that would incur God's wrath.[1 Thess.
2:14�16][129] Paul believed he was halted by Christ, when his fury was at its
height.[Acts 9:1�2] It was "through zeal" that he persecuted the Church,
[Philippians 3:6] and he obtained mercy because he had "acted ignorantly in
unbelief".[1 Tim. 1:13][note 5]

Understanding of Jesus Christ

Paul's writings emphasized the crucifixion, Christ's resurrection and the Parousia
or second coming of Christ.[45] Paul saw Jesus as Lord (kyrios), the true messiah
and the Son of God, who was promised by God beforehand, through his prophets in the
holy Scriptures. While being a biological descendant from David ("according to the
flesh"),[Rom. 1:3] He was declared to be the Son of God by his resurrection from
the dead.

According to E. P. Sanders, Paul "preached the death, resurrection, and lordship of

Jesus Christ, and he proclaimed that faith in Jesus guarantees a share in his
life."[7] In Paul's view, "Jesus� death was not a defeat but was for the believers�
benefit,"[7] a sacrifice which substitutes for the lifes of others, and frees them
from the bondage of sin. Believers participate in Christ's death and resurrection
by their baptism. The resurrection of Jesus was of primary importance to Paul,
bringing the promise of salvation to believers. Paul taught that, when Christ
returned, those who had died believing in Christ as the saviour of mankind would be
brought back to life, while those still alive would be "caught up in the clouds
together with them to meet the Lord in the air" [1 Thes. 4:14�18][7]

Sanders concludes that Paul's writings reveal what he calls the essence of the
Christian message: "(1) God sent his Son; (2) the Son was crucified and resurrected
for the benefit of humanity; (3) the Son would soon return; and (4) those who
belonged to the Son would live with him forever. Paul�s gospel, like those of
others, also included (5) the admonition to live by the highest moral standard:
�May your spirit and soul and body be kept sound and blameless at the coming of our
Lord Jesus Christ� ([1 Thes. 5:23])"[7]

In Paul's writings, the public, corporate devotional patterns towards Jesus in the
early Christian community are reflective of Paul's perspective on the divine status
of Jesus in what scholars have termed a "binitarian" pattern of devotion. For Paul,
Jesus receives prayer (1 Cor. 1:2; 2 Cor. 12:8-9; 1 Thess. 3:11), the presence of
Jesus is confessionally invoked by believers (1 Cor. 16:22; Romans 10:9-13; Phil.
2:10-11), people are baptized in Jesus� name (1 Cor. 6:11; Rom. 6:3), Jesus is the
reference in Christian fellowship for a religious ritual meal (the Lord�s Supper; 1
Cor. 11:17-34 � in pagan cults, the reference for ritual meals is always to a
deity), and Jesus is the source of continuing prophetic oracles to believers (1
Thess. 4:15-17).[130]

Atonement
Main article: Atonement in Christianity
Paul taught that Christians are redeemed from sin by Jesus' death and resurrection.
His death was an expiation as well as a propitiation, and by Christ's blood peace
is made between God and man.[131] By grace, through faith,[Ephesiahs 2:8�9] a
Christian shares in Jesus' death and in his victory over death, gaining as a free
gift a new, justified status of sonship.[Galatians 4:4�7]

According to Krister Stendahl, the main concern of Paul's writings on Jesus' role,
and salvation by faith, is not the individual conscience of human sinners, and
their doubts about being chosen by God or not, but the problem of the inclusion of
gentile (Greek) Torah observers into God's covenant.[132][133][134][135][note 12]
'Dying for our sins' refers to the problem of gentile Torah-observers, who, despite
their faithfulness, cannot fully observe commandments, including circumcision, and
are therefore 'sinners', excluded from God's covenant. [136] Jesus' death and
resurrection solved this problem of the exclusion of the gentles from God's
covenant, as indicated by Rom 3:21-26.[137]

Paul's conversion fundamentally changed his basic beliefs regarding God's covenant
and the inclusion of Gentiles into this covenant. Paul believed Jesus' death was a
voluntary sacrifice, that reconciled sinners with God.[Rom. 5:6�10][Phil. 2:8] The
law only reveals the extent of people's enslavement to the power of sin � a power
that must be broken by Christ.[Rom. 3:20b][7:7�12] Before his conversion Paul
believed Gentiles were outside the covenant that God made with Israel; after his
conversion he believed Gentiles and Jews were united as the people of God in Christ
Jesus.[Gal. 3:28] Before his conversion he believed circumcision was the rite
through which males became part of Israel, an exclusive community of God's chosen
people;[Phil. 3:3�5] after his conversion he believed that neither circumcision nor
uncircumcision means anything, but that the new creation is what counts in the
sight of God,[Gal. 6:15] and that this new creation is a work of Christ in the life
of believers, making them part of the church, an inclusive community of Jews and
Gentiles reconciled with God through faith.[Rom. 6:4]

According to E.P. Sanders, who initiated the New Perspective on Paul with his 1977
publication Paul and Palestinian Judaism, Paul saw the faithful redeemed by
participation in Jesus' death and rising. Though "Jesus� death substituted for that
of others and thereby freed believers from sin and guilt," a metaphor derived from
"ancient sacrificial theology,"[7][note 13] the essence of Paul's writing is not in
the "legal terms" regarding the expiation of sin, but the act of "participation in
Christ through dying and rising with him."[note 14] According to Sanders, "those
who are baptized into Christ are baptized into his death, and thus they escape the
power of sin [...] he died so that the believers may die with him and consequently
live with him."[7] By this participation in Christ's death and rising, "one
receives forgiveness for past offences, is liberated from the powers of sin, and
receives the Spirit."

Relationship with Judaism

Main article: Paul the Apostle and Judaism
Some scholars see Paul (or Saul) as completely in line with 1st-century Judaism (a
Pharisee and student of Gamaliel as presented by Acts),[142] others see him as
opposed to 1st-century Judaism (see Marcionism), while the majority see him as
somewhere in between these two extremes, opposed to insistence on keeping the
"Ritual Laws" (for example the circumcision controversy in early Christianity) as
necessary for entrance into God's New Covenant,[143][144] but in full agreement on
"Divine Law". These views of Paul are paralleled by the views of Biblical law in
Christianity.

Paul redefined the people of Israel, those he calls the "true Israel" and the "true
circumcision" as those who had faith in the heavenly Christ, thus excluding those
he called "Israel after the flesh" from his new covenant (Galatians 6:16;
Philippians 3:3). He also held the view that the Torah given to Moses was valid
"until Christ came," so that even Jews are no longer "under the Torah," nor
obligated to follow the commandments or mitzvot as given to Moses (Galatians 3�4).
� Professor James D. Tabor for the Huffington Post [145]
Paul is critical both theologically and empirically of claims of moral or lineal
superiority [Rom. 2:16�26] of Jews while conversely strongly sustaining the notion
of a special place for the Children of Israel.[9�11] Paul's theology of the gospel
accelerated the separation of the messianic sect of Christians from Judaism, a
development contrary to Paul's own intent. He wrote that faith in Christ was alone
decisive in salvation for Jews and Gentiles alike, making the schism between the
followers of Christ and mainstream Jews inevitable and permanent. He argued that
Gentile converts did not need to become Jews, get circumcised, follow Jewish
dietary restrictions, or otherwise observe Mosaic laws to be saved.[25] According
to Fredriksen, Paul's opposition to male circumcison for Gentiles is in line with
Old Testament predictions that "in the last days the gentile nations would come to
the God of Israel, as gentiles (e.g., Zechariah 8:20-23), not as proselytes to
Israel."[146] For Paul, Gentile male circumcison was therefore an affront to God's
intentions.[146] According to Hurtado, "Paul saw himself as what Munck called a
salvation-historical figure in his own right," who was "personally and singularly
deputized by God to bring about the predicted ingathering (the �fullness�) of the
nations (Romans 11:25)."[146]
According to Sanders, Paul insists that salvation is received by the grace of God;
according to Sanders, this insistence is in line with Judaism of ca. 200 NCE until
200 CE, which saw God's covenant with Israel as an act of grace of God. Observance
of the Law is needed to maintain the covenant, but the covenant is not earned by
observing the Law, but by the grace of God.[141]

Sanders' publications[143][147] have since been taken up by Professor James Dunn

who coined the phrase "The New Perspective on Paul".[148] N.T. Wright,[149] the
Anglican Bishop of Durham, notes a difference in emphasis between Galatians and
Romans, the latter being much more positive about the continuing covenant between
God and his ancient people than the former. Wright also contends that performing
Christian works is not insignificant but rather proof of having attained the
redemption of Jesus Christ by grace (free gift received by faith).[Rom. 2:13ff] He
concludes that Paul distinguishes between performing Christian works which are
signs of ethnic identity and others which are a sign of obedience to Christ.[149]

World to come
See also: Christian eschatology, Second Coming, End times, and World to Come
According to Bart Ehrman, Paul believed that Jesus would return within his
lifetime.[150] Paul expected that Christians who had died in the meantime would be
resurrected to share in God's kingdom, and he believed that the saved would be
transformed, assuming heavenly, imperishable bodies.[1 Cor. 15:51-53]

Paul's teaching about the end of the world is expressed most clearly in his letters
to the Christians at Thessalonica. He assures them that the dead will rise first
and be followed by those left alive.[1 Thes. 4:16ff] This suggests an imminent end
but he is unspecific about times and seasons, and encourages his hearers to expect
a delay.[151] The form of the end will be a battle between Jesus and the man of
lawlessness[2 Thess. 2:3][note 5] whose conclusion is the triumph of Christ.

Before his conversion he believed God's messiah would put an end to the old age of
evil, and initiate a new age of righteousness; after his conversion he believed
this would happen in stages that had begun with the resurrection of Jesus, but the
old age would continue until Jesus returns.[Rom. 16:25] [1 Cor. 10:11] [Gal. 1:4]
[129]

Role of women

Paul the Apostle, (16th-century) attributed to Lucas van Leyden

Main article: Paul the Apostle and women
See also: 1 Timothy 2:12 ("I suffer not a woman")
The second chapter of the first letter to Timothy � one of the six disputed letters
� is used by many churches to deny women a vote in church affairs, reject women
from serving as teachers of adult Bible classes, prevent them from serving as
missionaries, and generally disenfranchise women from the duties and privileges of
church leadership.[152]

9 In like manner also, that women adorn themselves in modest apparel, with
shamefacedness and sobriety; not with broided hair, or gold, or pearls, or costly
array;
10 But (which becometh women professing godliness) with good works.
11 Let the woman learn in silence with all subjection.
12 But I suffer not a woman to teach, nor to usurp authority over the man, but to
be in silence.
13 For Adam was first formed, then Eve.
14 And Adam was not deceived, but the woman being deceived was in the
transgression.
15 Notwithstanding she shall be saved in childbearing, if they continue in faith
and charity and holiness with sobriety.
�?1 Timothy 2:9�15
The KJV translation of this passage taken literally says that women in the churches
are to have no leadership roles vis-�-vis men.[153]

Fuller Seminary theologian J. R. Daniel Kirk[154] finds evidence in Paul's letters

of a much more inclusive view of women. He writes that Romans 16 is a tremendously
important witness to the important role of women in the early church. Paul praises
Phoebe for her work as a deaconess and Junia who is described by Paul in Scripture
as being respected among the Apostles.[Romans 16:7] It is Kirk's observation that
recent studies have led many scholars to conclude that the passage in 1 Corinthians
14 ordering women to "be silent" during worship was a later addition, apparently by
a different author, and not part of Paul's original letter to the Corinthians.

Other scholars, such as Giancarlo Biguzzi, believe that Paul's restriction on women
speaking in 1 Corinthians 14 is genuine to Paul but applies to a particular case
where there were local problems of women � who were not allowed in that culture to
become educated � asking questions or chatting during worship services. He does not
believe it to be a general prohibition on any woman speaking in worship settings
since in 1 Corinthians Paul affirms the right (responsibility) of women to
prophesy.[1 Cor. 11][155]

Biblical prophecy is more than "fore-telling": two-thirds of its inscripturated

form involves "forth-telling", that is, setting the truth, justice, mercy, and
righteousness of God against the backdrop of every form of denial of the same.
Thus, to speak prophetically was to speak boldly against every form of moral,
ethical, political, economic, and religious disenfranchisement observed in a
culture that was intent on building its own pyramid of values vis-a-vis God's
established system of truth and ethics.[156]

There were women prophets in the highly patriarchal times throughout the Old
Testament.[156] The most common term for prophet in the Old Testament is nabi in
the masculine form, and nebiah in the Hebrew feminine form, is used six times of
women who performed the same task of receiving and proclaiming the message given by
God. These women include Miriam, Aaron and Moses' sister,[Exod 15:20] Deborah,
[Judges 4:4] the prophet Isaiah's wife,[Isa. 8:3] and Huldah, the one who
interpreted the Book of the Law discovered in the temple during the days of Josiah.
[2 Kings 22:14] [2 Chron. 34:22] There were false prophetesses just as there were
false prophets. The prophetess Noadiah was among those who tried to intimidate
Nehemiah.[Neh 6:14] Apparently they held equal rank in prophesying right along with
Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, Moses, Elisha, Aaron, and Samuel.[156]

Kirk's third example of a more inclusive view is Galatians 3:28:

There is neither Jew nor Gentile, neither slave nor free, nor is there male and
female, for you are all one in Christ Jesus.

�?Galatians 3:28
In pronouncing an end within the church to the divisions which are common in the
world around it, he concludes by highlighting the fact that "there were New
Testament women who taught and had authority in the early churches, that this
teaching and authority was sanctioned by Paul, and that Paul himself offers a
theological paradigm within which overcoming the subjugation of women is an
anticipated outcome".[157]

Classicist Evelyn Stagg and theologian Frank Stagg believe that Paul was attempting
to "Christianize" the societal household or domestic codes that significantly
oppressed women and empowered men as the head of the household. The Staggs present
a serious study of what has been termed the New Testament domestic code, also known
as the Haustafel.[158] The two main passages that explain these "household duties"
are Paul's letters to the Ephesians 5:22 � 6:5 and to the Colossians 3:18�4:1. An
underlying Household Code is also reflected in four additional Pauline letters and
1 Peter: 1 Timothy 2:1ff., 8ff.; 3:1ff., 8ff.; 5:17ff.; 6:1f.; Titus 2:1�10 and 1
Peter 2:13�3:9. Biblical scholars have typically treated the Haustafel in Ephesians
as a resource in the debate over the role of women in ministry and in the home.
[159] Margaret MacDonald argues that the Haustafel, particularly as it appears in
Ephesians, was aimed at "reducing the tension between community members and
outsiders".[160]

E. P. Sanders has labeled the Apostle's remark in 1 Cor. 14:34�36 about women not
making any sound during worship as "Paul's intemperate outburst that women should
be silent in the churches".[143][147] Women, in fact, played a very significant
part in Paul's missionary endeavors:

He became a partner in ministry with the couple Priscilla and Aquila who are
specifically named seven times in the New Testament � always by their couple name
and never individually. Of the seven times they are named in the New Testament,
Priscilla's name appears first in five of those instances, suggesting to some
scholars that she was the head of the family unit.[161] They lived, worked, and
traveled with the Apostle Paul, becoming his honored, much-loved friends and
coworkers in Christ Jesus.[162] In Romans 16:3�4, thought to have been written in
56 or 57, Paul sends his greetings to Priscilla and Aquila and proclaims that both
of them "risked their necks" to save Paul's life.
Chloe was an important member of the church in Corinth[1 Cor. 1:11]
Phoebe was a "deacon" and a "benefactor" of Paul and others[Rom. 16:1�2]
Romans 16 names eight other women active in the Christian movement, including Junia
("prominent among the apostles"), Mary ("who has worked very hard among you"), and
Julia
Women were frequently among the major supporters of the new Christian movement[7]
Views on homosexuality
See also: Homosexuality in the New Testament
Most Christian traditions[163][164][165] say Paul clearly portrays homosexuality as
sinful in two specific locations: Romans 1:26�27, and 1 Corinthians 6:9�10. Another
passage addresses the topic more obliquely: 1 Timothy 1:8�11. Since the nineteenth
century, however, most scholars have concluded that 1 Timothy, along with 2 Timothy
and Titus, are not original to Paul, but rather an unknown Christian writing in
Paul's name some time in the late-first-to-mid-2nd century.[166][167]

Influence

Statue of St. Paul (1606) by Gregorio Fern�ndez

Paul's influence on Christian thinking arguably has been more significant than any
other New Testament author.[7] Paul declared that "Christ is the end of the law",
[Romans 10:4] exalted the Christian church as the body of Christ, and depicted the
world outside the Church as under judgment.[25] Paul's writings include the
earliest reference to the "Lord's Supper",[1 Corinthians 10:14�17]11:17�34 a rite
traditionally identified as the Christian communion or Eucharist. In the East,
church fathers attributed the element of election in Romans 9 to divine
foreknowledge.[25] The themes of predestination found in Western Christianity do
not appear in Eastern theology.

Pauline Christianity
Main article: Pauline Christianity
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This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (April 2019)
Paul had a strong influence on early Christianity. Hurtado notes that Paul regarded
his own Christological views and those of his predecessors and that of the
Jerusalem Church as essentially similar. According to Hurtado, this "work[s]
against the claims by some scholars that Pauline Christianity represents a sharp
departure from the religiousness of Judean 'Jesus movements'."[168]

Marcion
Main articles: Marcion and Marcionites
Marcionism, regarded as heresy by contemporary mainstream Christianity, was an
Early Christian dualist belief system that originated in the teachings of Marcion
of Sinope at Rome around the year 144.[note 15] Marcion asserted that Paul was the
only apostle who had rightly understood the new message of salvation as delivered
by Christ.[169]

Marcion believed Jesus was the savior sent by God, and Paul the Apostle was his
chief apostle, but he rejected the Hebrew Bible and the God of Israel. Marcionists
believed that the wrathful Hebrew God was a separate and lower entity than the all-
forgiving God of the New Testament.

Augustine
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This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (March 2019)
Augustine's foundational work on the gospel as a gift (grace), on morality as life
in the Spirit, on predestination, and on original sin all derives from Paul,
especially Romans.[25]

Reformation
Main article: Reformation
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This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (March 2019)
Modern theology
Visit any church service, Roman Catholic, Protestant or Greek Orthodox, and it is
the apostle Paul and his ideas that are central � in the hymns, the creeds, the
sermons, the invocation and benediction, and of course, the rituals of baptism and
the Holy Communion or Mass. Whether birth, baptism, confirmation, marriage or
death, it is predominantly Paul who is evoked to express meaning and significance.
� Professor James D. Tabor for the Huffington post [170]
See also: Pauline Christianity and Jesuism
In his commentary The Epistle to the Romans (Ger. Der R�merbrief; particularly in
the thoroughly re-written second edition of 1922) Karl Barth argued that the God
who is revealed in the cross of Jesus challenges and overthrows any attempt to ally
God with human cultures, achievements, or possessions.

In addition to the many questions about the true origins of some of Paul's
teachings posed by historical figures as noted above, some modern theologians also
hold that the teachings of Paul differ markedly from those of Jesus as found in the
Gospels.[171] Barrie Wilson states that Paul differs from Jesus in terms of the
origin of his message, his teachings and his practices.[172] Some have even gone so
far as to claim that, due to these apparent differences in teachings, that Paul was
actually no less than the "second founder" of Christianity (Jesus being its first).
[173][174]

As in the Eastern tradition in general, Western humanists interpret the reference

to election in Romans 9 as reflecting divine foreknowledge.[25]

Views on Paul
Jewish views

A statue of Paul holding a scroll (symbolising the Scriptures) and the sword
(symbolising his martyrdom)
Main article: Paul the Apostle and Judaism
See also: Messianic Judaism
Jewish interest in Paul is a recent phenomenon. Before the positive historical
reevaluations of Jesus by some Jewish thinkers in the eighteenth and nineteenth
centuries, he had hardly featured in the popular Jewish imagination and little had
been written about him by the religious leaders and scholars. Arguably, he is
absent from the Talmud and rabbinical literature, although he makes an appearance
in some variants of the medieval polemic Toledot Yeshu (as a particularly effective
spy for the rabbis).[175]

However, with Jesus no longer regarded as the paradigm of gentile Christianity,

Paul's position became more important in Jewish historical reconstructions of their
religion's relationship with Christianity. He has featured as the key to building
barriers (e.g. Heinrich Graetz and Martin Buber) or bridges (e.g. Isaac Mayer Wise
and Claude G. Montefiore) in interfaith relations,[176] as part of an intra-Jewish
debate about what constitutes Jewish authenticity (e.g. Joseph Klausner and Hans
Joachim Schoeps),[177] and on occasion as a dialogical partner (e.g. Richard L.
Rubenstein and Daniel Boyarin).[178]

He features in an oratorio (by Felix Mendelssohn), a painting (by Ludwig Meidner)

and a play (by Franz Werfel),[179] and there have been several novels about Paul
(by Shalom Asch and Samuel Sandmel).[180] Jewish philosophers (including Baruch
Spinoza, Leo Shestov, and Jacob Taubes)[181] and Jewish psychoanalysts (including
Sigmund Freud and Hanns Sachs)[182] have engaged with the apostle as one of the
most influential figures in Western thought. Scholarly surveys of Jewish interest
in Paul include those by Hagner 1980, pp. 143-165, Meissner 1996, Langton 2010,
Langton 2011a, pp. 55�72 and Langton 2011b, pp. 585�587.

Gnosticism
In the second (and possibly late first) century, Gnosticism was a competing
religious tradition to Christianity which shared some elements of theology.

Elaine Pagels concentrated on how the Gnostics interpreted Paul's letters and how
evidence from gnostic sources may challenge the assumption that Paul wrote his
letters to combat "gnostic opponents" and to repudiate their statement that they
possess secret wisdom.[183]

Muslim views
Muslims have long believed that Paul purposefully corrupted the original revealed
teachings of Jesus,[184][185][186] through the introduction of such elements as
paganism,[187] the making of Christianity into a theology of the cross,[188] and
introducing original sin and the need for redemption.[189]

Sayf ibn Umar claimed that certain rabbis persuaded Paul to deliberately misguide
early Christians by introducing what Ibn Hazm viewed as objectionable doctrines
into Christianity.[190][191] Ibn Hazm repeated Sayf's claims.[192] Rabbi Jacob
Qirqisani also believed that Paul created Christianity by introducing the doctrine
of Trinity.[190] Paul has been criticized by some modern Muslim thinkers. Syed
Muhammad Naquib al-Attas wrote that Paul misrepresented the message of Jesus,[186]
and Rashid Rida accused Paul of introducing shirk (polytheism) into Christianity.
[187] Mohammad Ali Jouhar quoted Adolf von Harnack's critical writings of Paul.
[188]

In Sunni Muslim polemics, Paul plays the same role (of deliberately corrupting the
early teachings of Jesus) as a later Jew, Abdullah ibn Saba', would play in seeking
to destroy the message of Islam from within (by introducing proto-Shi'ite beliefs).
[191][192][193] Among those who supported this view were scholars Ibn Taymiyyah
(who believed while Paul ultimately succeeded, Ibn Saba failed) and Ibn Hazm (who
claimed that the Jews even admitted to Paul's sinister purpose).[190]

Other views
Among the critics of Paul the Apostle was Thomas Jefferson, a Deist, who wrote that
Paul was the "first corrupter of the doctrines of Jesus."[194] Christian anarchists
Tolstoy 1891, p. 17 and Hennacy 2010 took a similar view.