METACOGNITION:
Learning is
(John Flavell, 1987) – “learning how to learn”
- metacognitive knowledge
- metacognitive experiences/regulation
Metacognitive Knowledge – refers to the
acquired knowledge about cognitive
processes involving H.O.T.S. which include:
- making hypothesis/hypotheses
-defining terms operationally
- investigating
- making comic strips
- interpreting data/in graphs/matrix
- demonstrating / role playing
- getting the main idea
- creative writing
- designing a project
- making model with creativity
- analyzing word-problems
- making conclusions
- making reflections/insights
- formulating concepts/generalizations
- inductive reasoning
- deriving formula
- deductive reasoning
Metacognitive experiences/regulation -
controlling cognitive processes
Categories of Metacognitive Knowledge:
 Person Variables – viewing a person as a
learner and as a thinker
• Task Variables - knowing the nature of
the task and what is really to be
accomplished
• Strategy Variables - being aware of how
to learn or perform a task
LEARNER-CENTERED PSYCHOLOGICAL
PRINCIPLES
• Nature of learning process. Learning is
effective when it is an intentional process:
ex: habit formation in motor learning;
learning which involves generation of
knowledge or cognitive skills.
• Goals of learning process.
meaningful and a coherent representation
of knowledge.
• Construction of Knowledge. The
successful learner can link new knowledge
with existing knowledge in meaningful
ways.
• Strategic Thinking. A learner is expected
to create and use a repertoire of thinking
and reasoning strategies to achieve
complex learning goals.
• Thinking about thinking. Higher order
strategies for selecting and monitoring
mental operations facilitate creative and
critical thinking.
• Context of Learning. Learning is
influenced by environmental factors,
including culture, technology and
instructional practices.
• Motivational and emotional influences on
learning. What and how much is learned is
influenced by the learner’s motivation.
• Intrinsic motivation to learn. Learner’s
creativity, higher order thinking, and nature
of curiosity all contribute to motivation to
learn.
• Effects of motivation on efforts. Learning
requires the learner’s effort and guided
practice.
• Developmental influences on learning.
Materials for learning must be appropriate
to the learner’s developmental level.
• Social influences on learning. Learning is
best when the learner is involved in a
social interaction, interpersonal relations,
and communication with others.
• Individual differences in learning. Learners
vary in their strategies, approaches and
capabilities for learning.
• Learning is affected by students’ diversities
in language, cultural and social
backgrounds.
• Standards and assessment.
THEORIES OF LEARNING
Jean Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development
Stage 1. Sensori-motor stage (birth to infancy)-
the child is initially reflexive in grasping; sucking
and reaching.
 - Object performance: this is the ability of
the child to know that an object still exists even
when out of sight.
Stage 2. Pre-operational Stage (about 2 – 7 yrs.
Old) – the pre-school years. Intelligence at this
period is intuitive in nature.
- Symbolic function (pretending and make-
believe)
- egocentrism (a child sees only his own
point of view)
- centration (a child focuses only on one
aspect of an object)
- reversibility (inability of the child to
reverse his thinking)
- animism (a child attributes human like
traits to inanimate
objects)
- transductive reasoning (child reasons out
neither inductive nor deductive, reasoning is from
particular to particular)
Stage 3. Concrete-Operational Stage. (8 – 11
yrs. Old)
The child can think logically but only in
terms of concrete objects.
- Decentering (child’s ability to perceive
different features of objects and situations)
- Conservation (ability of a child to know
certain properties of objects like mass, volume or
area)
- seriation (child can arrange things in a
series)
Stage 4. Formal Operational Stage. (12 -15
years old)
- hypothetical reasoning
- Analogical reasoning (perceiving
relationship)
- deductive/analytic reasoning (applying a
general rule to a particular situation in a logical
manner)
Erik Erikson’s Psycho-Social Dev. Theory
- Trust and Mistrust (infancy & early
childhood) - feeling of optimism or pessimism
- Autonomy vs. Shame & doubt (infancy to
childhood) - making a decision but with a feeling
of doubt
- Initiative vs. Guilt (infancy and
childhood) - confident of carrying out plans, but
guilty if plans turn out unsuccessful
- Industry vs. Inferiority (infancy and
childhood)
- Identity vs. identity diffusion
(adolescence feeling proud to be the sort of
person he is)
- Intimacy vs. Isolation (early adulthood) a
feeling of togetherness or a feeling of being
alone)
Lev Vygotsky’s Socio-Cultural Theory
- use of SCAFFOLDING technique
(teacher assists a learner to accomplish a task)
- social interaction and language play an
important role in cognitive development
Lawrence Kohlberg’s Moral Development Theory
- Pre-conventional - moral reasoning is
based on the consequence or result
of the act (punishment/obedience & mutual
benefit)
- Conventional - moral reasoning is based
on the norms of the society (Social approval, law
and order)
- Post-conventional – moral reasoning is
based on enduring or consistent principles (social
contract, universal principles)
BEHAVIORISTS’ PERSPECTIVE
a. Ivan Pavlov (Russian Psychologist is
well known for his work in classical
conditioning or stimulus substitution.
Edward Thorndike
- Connectionism Theory (S –R Bond) of
Behavioral psychology
- 3 Laws of Learning:
a) Law of Effect
b) Law of Exercise
c) Law of Readiness
John Watson. The first American psychologist to
work with Pavlov’s idea. He applied classical
conditioning to a young child and a white rat.
Burrhus Frederick Skinner. Operant conditioning
either by a positive or negative reinforcer. It is
based upon the notion that learning is a result of
change in overt behavior due to an individual’s
response to events that occur in the environment.
Implications of operant conditioning:
- practice should take the form of
question-answer frames which expose the
student to the subject in gradual steps.
- require the learner to make a
response for every frame and receive immediate
feedback.
Neo Behaviorism: Tolman and Bandura
A. Edward TOLMAN:
A. Tolman’s Purposive Behaviorism or
Sign Learning Theory.
- Learning is purposive and goal-directed
- Tolman believed that learning is mediated or
influenced by expectations, perceptions,
representations, needs and other environmental
variables.
- Latent learning is a kind of learning that remains
or stays with the individual until needed.
Albert Bandura’s Social Learning Theory
- Social learning focuses on the learning
that occurs within a social context. It considers
that people learn from one another, including
concepts as:
- observational learning
- imitation
- modeling
Bandura’s Four conditions necessary before an
individual can successfully model the behavior of
someone else:
1. Attention
2. Retention
3. Motor Reproduction
4. Motivation
GESTALT PSYCHOLOGY
1. Wolfgang Kohler
2. Kurt Koffka
3. Max Wortheimer
Gestalt Principles:
1. Law of Proximity – Elements that are
closer together will be perceived coherent
object.
2. Law of Similarity – Elements that look
similar will be perceived as part of the same form.
3. Law of Closure – learner tends to fill the
gaps or “close” the figures he perceives to form
the whole.
4. Law of Continuation – individuals have
the tendency to continue contours whenever the
elements of the pattern establish an implied
direction
5. Law of Pragnanz - the stimulus is
organized into as good figure as possible.
BRUNER’S CONSTRUCTIVIST THEORY
- learning is an active process in which
learners construct new ideas or concepts based
upon their current/past knowledge.
1. Development of learning
representations:
SYMBOLIC
ICONIC
ENACTIVE
2. SPIRAL CURRICULUM (J. Bruner)
- In a spiral curriculum, teachers must
revisit the curriculum by teaching the same
content in different ways depending on students’
developmental levels.
- Certain topics are initially presented in
grade school in a manner appropriate for grade
schoolers, and then the same topics are tackled
in high school, but on a much deeper or higher
level.
- Bruner stated that instruction needs to be
anchored on the learner’s cognitive capabilities.
3. Discovery Learning (J. Brune)
Discovery learning refers to obtaining
knowledge for oneself. The teacher plans and
arranges activities in such a way that students
search, manipulate, explore and investigate….
And finally discover new knowledge.
 4. Bruner’s Theory of Instruction includes
4 major aspects:
a) Predisposition to learn (readiness for
learning)
b) Structure of knowledge (knowledge can
be structured)
c) Effective sequencing (lesson arranged
in hierarchy)
4. Reinforcement (increasing motivation
for learning)
5. Categorization (J. Bruner)
a) Identity categories – based on attributes
of objects.
b) Equivalent categories - based on
related functions/criteria
c) Coding system of categorization –
major organizational variables in higher cognitive
functioning.
DAVID AUSUBEL’S VERBAL LEARNING
The most important factors influencing
learning are: quantity, clarity, and organization of
the learner’s present knowledge.
• Ausubel’s Reception of Information
- Learner’s cognitive structure
- Use of advance graphic organizers
- Subsumption
Four Processes of Ausubel’s Meaningful
Verbal Learning:
• Derivative subsumption – describes a
situation in which the new information one
has learned is an example of a concept
that he /she has already learned.
• Correlative subsumption – in order to
accommodate a new information, one has
to change or expand the attributes which
include other characteristics
• Superordinate learning - in this case the
learner knows already a lot of examples of
a concept
• Combinatorial learning – this is when newly
acquired knowledge combines with prior
knowledge to enrich understanding of both
concepts
ROBERT GAGNE’S CONDITIONS OF
LEARNING / HIERARCHY OF LEARNING &
GUIDED DISCOVERY LEARNING PROCESS
In Gagne’s Theory, several types or levels
of learning stressed the different external and
internal conditions needed.
Nine instruction events served as bases for
the sequencing of instruction:
1. guidance of students’ performance (semantic
encoding)
2. recall prior learning (retrieval through memory)
3. enhance retention and transfer (generalization)
4. gain attention (reception)
5. provide feedback
6. assess performance (testing)
7. present stimulus
8. elicit performance/identify (perception)
9. objective (expectancy)
GAGNE’S PRINCIPLES OF LEARNING
1. Different instruction is required for
different learning outcomes.
- verbal information
- intellectual skills
- cognitive strategies
- motor skills
- attitudes
1. Learning hierarchies define what
intellectual skills are to be learned and a
sequence of instruction.
2. Events of learning operate on the
learner in ways that constitute the
condition of learning.
3.
MOTIVATION IN LEARNING
MOTIVATION – an inner drive that causes one to
something and persevere at something to achieve
success.
TYPES:
1. Intrinsic motivation – source of motivation is
from within the persons’ feelings. It is based on
motives.
2. Extrinsic motivation – source of motivation is
from external factors as incentives or material
rewards/punishment known as incentives.
 CONSTRUCTIVISM: KNOWLEDGE
CONSRUCTTION/CONCEPT LEARNING
TWO VIEWS OF CONSTRUCTIVISM:
1. Individual constructivism – emphasizes
individual, internal construction of knowledge
2. Social constructivism - knowledge exists
in a social context and is initially shared with
others instead of being represented solely in
the mind of an individual.
CHARACTERISTICS:
1. Learners construct understanding
2. New learning depends on current
understanding
3. Learning is facilitated by social interaction
4. Meaningful learning occurs within
authentic learning tasks.
5.
TRANSFER OF LEARNING
Types of Transfer:
1. Positive transfer
2. Negative transfer
3. Near transfer
4. Far transfer / general transfer
Problem Solving & Creativity
Edward Paul Torrance - “Father of Creativity”,
an educational psychologist.
Framework of creative thinking:
1. Fluency (convert, count, define, describe,
explain, identify, label, paraphrase, predict,
summarize)
2. Flexibility – (change, demonstrate,
distinguish, employ, extrapolate,
interpolate, interpret, predict)
3. Elaboration – (appraise, critique, determine,
evaluate, grade, judge, measure, select, test)
4. Originality - (compose, create, design,
generate, integrate, modify, rearrange,
reconstruct, reorganize, revise)
THEORIES: ON FACTORS AFFECTING
MOTIVATION
1. Attribution Theory – success or failure may
be attributed to parent’s
performance/characteristics
- Locus (internal or external)
- Stability (inherited)
- Controllability/uncontrollability
2. Self-efficacy Theory – high sense of
competence, one has the necessary
capabilities to perform a task.
- mastery - confidence
- progress - exposure
3.Self-determination and Self-regulation
Theory – individual has sense of determination
control regarding things he does.
4. Choice Theory - a biological theory that
suggests we are born with specific needs
and that, we are genetically instructed to
satisfy.
5. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs - needs that
lead to self-actualization:
- physiological needs
- safety and security
- love and belongingness
- self-respect and self-esteem
- SELF-ACTUALIZATION
6. Goal Theory - goals we set for ourselves
affect our level of motivation.
OTHER FACTORS AFFECTING MOTIVATION:
1. Environmental factor
2. Teacher factor
3. Parent factor
4. classmates factor
5. Learning resources