Ringkasan Perilaku Organisasi

Disusun oleh : Muhammad Firman (Akuntansi FE UI 2012)
PERILAKU ORGANISASI
-Communication : Exchanging routine information and
CHAPTER 1 processing paperwork
-Human Resource Management : Motivating, disciplining,
managing conflict, staffing and training
What is Organizational Behaviour ? -Networking : Socializing, politicking and interacting with
others
Pentingnya interpersonal skills o Psychology : The science that seeks to measure, explain
Keahlian kepemimpinan dan komunikasi sangat penting and sometimes change the behavior of humans and other
untuk keberhasilan organisasi. Manajer yang memiliki animals in Individual unit of analysis. Offer insight like
interpersonal skill akan sangat diuntungkan karena : learning, motivation, training and job satisfaction,
- Rendahnya turnover pegawai yang berkualitas individual decision making, employee selection, work
-pelamar yang berkualitas tinggi saat perekrutan design and work stress.
- kinerja keuangan yang lebih baik o Social Psychology : An area within psychology that blends
concepts from psychology and sociology that focuses on
Apa yang dilakukan manajer the influence of people on one another, So it is Group unit
-melakukan banyak hal melalui orang lain of analysis and in OB it offers Behavioral change,
-aktivitas manajemen : membuat keputusan, Communication, group processes and group decision
mengalokasikan sumber daya, mengarahkan aktivitas making.
untuk mencapai tujuan
-fungsi manajemen : o Sociology : The study of people in relation to their fellow
human beings, its unit of analysis are Organizational
1. Perencanaan : Menentukan tujuan System and Group. Contributions in OB are Group
organisasi,membentuk strategi untuk mencapai tujuan Dynamics, work teams, power, conflict, organizational
tersebut mengkoordinasikan serangkaian rencana culture.
komprehensi untuk menerapkan strategi tersebut o Anthropology : The Study of societies to learn about
human beings and their activities. Its units of analysis are
2. Pengorganisasian : memutuskan apa tugas yang harus Organizational System and Group. Contributions in OB are
dilakukan , siapa yang harus melakukannya, bagaimana Organization environment, Comparative values, Cross
tugas itu dikelompokkan,siapa yang melaporkan ke Cultural Analysis.
siapa,dan dimana keputusan harus dibuat
Challenges and Opportunities for OB
3. Pengendalian : Memastikan hal-hal agar berjalan o During economic difficulties, the need for effective
seharusnya dengan memonitor kinerjanya. managers is heightened. Anyone can manage during good
Membandingkan hasil dari pengawasan itu dengan tujuan times; it is much tougher to manage through economic
yang telah dibuat dan dikoreksi jika dibutuhkan struggles. Often when there are economic pressures,
managers are forced to make decisions based on resource
o Mintzberg’s Managerial Roles : Manajer melakukan 10 constraints. These situations may include laying off
tipe perilaku di pekerjaannya. Tiga peran utama employees, motivating employees when there are limited
diantaranya : resources, and encouraging employees when they are
o Interpersonal : manajer diharuskan melakukan tugas stressed about their futures.
yang seremonial dan simbolis o Increased Foreign Assignments, managers need to be
o Informational : manajer mengelola informasi dari luar able to manage a workforce that is different than what you
dan dari dalam organisasi may be used to and may bring different needs, aspirations
o Decisional : Managers to make decisions. and attitudes to the workplace.
o There are Three of Essential Management Skills o Working with people from different cultures, individuals
-Technical Skills : Ability to apply specialized knowledge or coming to work in manager’s home country that come
expertise from different cultures and managers need to find ways to
-Human Skills : Ability to work with, understand, and accommodate their needs and help them assimilate to
motivate other people, both individually and in groups. home workplace culture.
-Conceptual Skills : Mental ability to analyze and diagnose o Overseeing movement of jobs to countries with low-cost
complex situations. labor, managers face difficult task of balancing the
o Luthans’ Study of Managerial Activities : There are four interests of their organization with their responsibilities to
types of Managerial Activities. Effective Managers relied the communities in which they operate.
more on communication, Successful managers relied on o Managing workforce diversity, The people in
networking organizations are becoming more heterogeneous
-Traditional Management : Decision Making, planning and demographically. Managers need to embrace diversity,
controlling find ways to manage it effectively, changing management
Mata kuliah lain y ang b elum ada di PD F ini akan say a update di www. A kuntansidanb isniswordpress .com
Contac t me : muhammad.f irman177@gmail.com /@f irmanmhmd (Line) 2186
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philosophy in a way that recognizes and utilize differences Sexual harassment: unwanted sexual advances and other
to create productivity, profitability and welcoming verbal or physical conduct of sexual nature
cultures. Intimidation: bullying directed at members of specific
group.
Coming Attractions: Developing an OB Model Mockery & insult: jokes or negative stereotypes,
o Model : an abstraction of reality - a simplified sometimes the result of jokes taken so far.
representation of some real-world phenomenon. It Exclusion: exclusion of certain people from job
proposes three types of variables : Input, Processes, opportunities and other events.
Outcomes Incivility: disrespectful treatment, including behaving in an
o In OB, we utilize the representation of the world as aggressive manner, interrupting the person, etc.
broken down into three levels analysis by three types of
variables. BIOGRAPHICAL CHARACTERISTIC
o Inputs : Variables like personality, group structure and Age: Older workers bring experience, judgment, a strong
organizational structures that lead to processes. work ethic, and commitment to quality.
o Processes : Actions that individuals, groups, and Gender: that there are very few differences between men
organizations engage in as a result of inputs that lead to and women that impact job performance. For example,
certain outcomes. women, especially those with pre-school age children, do
o Outcomes : key variables that you want to explain or prefer flexible work schedules and will seek an employer
predict and that are affected by some other variables. who offers options in their schedules
Tenure: People with job tenure (seniority at a job) are
o Understanding the Goals of OB : more productive, absent less frequently, have lower
o Attitudes and Stress : Employee attitudes are the turnover, and are more satisfied.
evaluations employees make, ranging from positive to Race & Ethnicity: Contentious issue: differences exist, but
negative about objects, people, or events. could be more culture based than race based
o Task Performance : Combination of effectiveness and Religion: May impact the workplace in areas of dress,
efficiency at doing your core job tasks is a reflection of task grooming and scheduling
performance. Sexual Orientation: Federal law does not protect against
o Citizenship Behavior : Behavior that is not part of an discrimination (but state or local laws may). Domestic
employee’s formal job requirements and that contributes partner benefits are important considerations.
to psychological and social environment of the workplace. Gender Identity: Relatively new issue – transgendered
o Withdrawal Behavior : Set of actions that employees take employees
to separate themselves form the organization like
absenteeism and turnover. Managerial Implication
o Group Cohesion : the extent to which members of a Should not be used in management decisions: possible
group support and validate one another at work. source of bias
o Group Functioning : Refers to the quantity and quality of Global Implication
a group’s work output. There are many differences in biographical characteristics
o Productivity : Combination of the effectiveness and across cultures, but there is no evidence to support that
efficiency of an organization there is global relevance to the relationships we looked at
o Organizational Survival : The degree to which an in this chapter.
organization is able to exist and grow over the long term.
ABILITY->Directly influences employee’s level of
CHAPTER 2 performance.
is an individual’s capacity to perform the various tasks
associated with the job.
Diversity in Organization Two key factors of ability are:
Intellectual Abilities are needed To perform mental
activities
DIVERSITY - General Mental Ability (GMA) is a measure of overall
Levels of Diversity: intelligence.and is generally recognized by researchers.
1. Surface-level diversity: differences in easily perceived - Wonderlic Personnel Test: a quick measure of intelligence
characteristic, such as gender, race, ethnicity, age, or for recruitment screening.
disability, that do not necessarily reflect the ways people - No correlation between intelligence and job satisfaction.
think or feel but that may activate certain stereotypes.
2. Deep-level diversity: differences in values, personality, Dimensions of intellectual abilities:
and work preferences that become progressively more Number Aptitude: ability to do speedy and accurate
important for determining similarity as people get to know arithmetic and will be effective in jobs requiring
one another better. mathematical ability, such as an accountant.
Verbal Comprehension: ability to understand what is read
Discrimination: making judgments about individuals based or heard and the relationship of words to each other. This
on stereotypes regarding their demographic group. Types ability will be helpful in jobs where the manager needs to
of discrimination: understand policies in order to carry out their job tasks.
Discriminatory policies or practices: deny equal Perceptual Speed: ability to identify visual similarities and
opportunity to perform or unequal rewards for differences quickly and accurately. This particular ability is
performance helpful when an employee needs to take in a lot of
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information and make decisions about the patterns, such Attracting-> placing diversity advertisements in
as a detective or inspector. publications toward specific demographic with significant
Inductive Reasoning: present when an individual can numbers of underrepresented minorities
identify a logical sequence in a problem in order to help Selecting -> using fairness and objectivity and focus on the
find a solution. An employee who needs to make decisions productive potential
about the future based on historical information will need Developing -> deep level diversity factors are more
the ability of inductive reasoning. important than the surface level as those whose
Deductive Reasoning: ability to use logic and assess the personality traits are similar to those of their co-workers
implications of the argument. When making choices are more likely to be promoted
between two different possible solutions to a problem, a Retaining the Diverse Employees -> creating positive
manager would need to call upon their deductive diversity climate as it is related to higher commitment and
reasoning skills. lower turnover intentions
Spatial Visualization: when someone can imagine how an Working with Diversity in Groups: groups with different
object would look if its position in space was changed. An types of expertise and education are more effective if
employee who needs to make decisions about office setup leaders can show how members have a common interest
or interior design would need to have a high level of spatial in the group’s success.
visualization ability. Effective Diversity Programs:
Memory: the ability to retain and recall past experiences. -Teach managers about legal framework for equal
Individuals who need to act quickly in a situation, such as a employment opportunities and encourage fair treatment
paramedic or nurse, would need a significant degree of of all people
memory ability. . -Teach managers how a diverse workforce will be better
able to serve a diverse market of customers
Managerial Implications
-Managers need to focus on ability in selection, promotion, -Organizational training and personal development
and transfer. programs that can bring out skills and abilities of all
-Fine-tune job to fit incumbent’s abilities workers.
.
Global Implication Managerial Implications
Most evidence recognizes that the structures and Must be an ongoing commitment at all levels of the
measures of intellectual abilities work in many different organization.
cultures . Policies must include multiple perspectives and be long
term in their orientation to be effective.
Physical Abilities
The capacity to do tasks demanding stamina, dexterity, Global Implications
strength, and similar characteristics. Diversity management is important in all cultures;
There are three main categories of physical ability: however, each culture does approach diversity differently.
Strength Factors: For example, the type of demographic variables used to
- Dynamic strength: ability to exert muscular force identify diversity varies in each culture.
repeatedly
- Trunk strength: ability to exert muscular strength using
trunk
- Static strength: ability to exert force against external CHAPTER 3
objects
- Explosive strength. Ability to expend a maximum of Attitudes and Job Satisfaction
energy in one or a series of explosive acts
Flexibility factors: ATTITUDES
- Extent flexibility: ablity to move the trunk and back Attitudes are evaluative statements – either favorable –
muscles as far as possible about objects, people, or events.
- Dynamic flexibility: ability to make rapid, repeated flexing
movements Main components of attitudes:
Other strength factors - Cognitive = evaluation; a description of or belief in the
- Body coordination: ability to coordinate the simultaneous way things are.
actions of different parts pf the body - Affective = feeling; emotional segment of an attitude.
- Balance: ability to maintain equilibrium despite forces - Behavioral = action; intention to behave in a certain way
pulling off balance toward something or someone.All components of attitudes
- Stamina:.ability to continue maximum effort requiring are closely related and leads to certain attitudes toward
prolonged effort over time the supervisor.
Role of Disabilities Cognitive dissonance is any incompatibility between two
Do not make assumptions about people on the basis of or more attitudes or between behavior and attitudes.
disability but make accommodation for disabilities Individuals will attempt to reduce inconsistency which is
uncomfortable (from Festinger). Desire to reduce
IMPLEMENTING DIVERSITY MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES dissonance depends on moderating factors, such as:
by Making everybody more aware and sensitive to the - Importance of the elements creating it. The more
needs of others. Managers start by: important it is, the more
motivated people to reduce the dissonance.
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- The degree of influence we believe we have over them. Use one general question such as “All things considered,
People will be more how satisfied are you with your job?”
motivated to reduce dissonance that they can control. - Summation of job facets
- Rewards of dissonance. Higher rewards brings people be It identifies key elements in a job such as the nature of the
more motivated to work, supervision,
reduce dissonance. present pay, promotion opportunities, and relations with
co-workers.
Moderating variables is the moderators of the attitudes
relationship. They are: What causes job satisfaction?
- Importance of attitude; reflect people’s fundamental - Job conditions; pay, happiness, passion.
values, self-interest, or identification with individuals or - Core self-evaluations; bottom-line conclusions individuals
group they value. have about their
- Its correspondence to behavior; general attitudes tend to capabilities, competence, and worth as person.
best predict general behavior.
- Its accessibility; attitudes that our memory can easily Responses to job dissatisfaction
access are more likely to predict our behavior.
- The presence of social pressures; discrepancies between
attitudes and behavior tend to occur when social pressures
to behave in certain ways hold exceptional power.
- Whether the person has direct experience with the
attitudes.
What are major job attitudes? Job attitudes tap positive or
negative evaluation that employees hold about aspects of
their work environment.
- Job satisfaction; describe a positive feeling about a job,
result from an evaluation of its characteristics. Higher job
satisfaction means employees have positive feeling from
his job.
- Job involvement; measure the degree to which people
identify Psychologically with their job and consider their
perceived performance level important to selfworth.
This concept is closely related to psychological
empowerment,
employee’s beliefs in the degree to which they influence
their work environment, their competence, the Specific outcomes of job satisfaction and dissatisfaction in
meaningfulness of their job, and their perceived the workplace
autonomy. 1. Job satisfaction and job performance
- Organizational commitment; identification of employee Organizations with more satisfied employees tend to be
with a particular more effective than
organization and its goals and wishes to remain a member. organization with fewer.
Three separate 2. Job satisfaction and OCB
dimensions: People who are more satisfied with their jobs are more
o Affective commitment; emotional attachment to the likely to engage in OCB (organizational citizenship
organization and a behavior).
belief in its values. 3. Job satisfaction and customer satisfaction
o Continuance commitment; the perceived economic value Satisfied employees increase customer satisfaction and
of remaining loyalty.
with an organization. 4. Job satisfaction and absenteeism
o Normative commitment; an obligation to remain with Dissatisfied employee tend to miss work and have high
the organization for absence rate.
moral or ethical reasons. 5. Job satisfaction and turnover
- Perceived organizational support (POS); the degree to Job dissatisfaction is more likely to translate into turnover
which employees believe the organization values their when employment
contribution and cares about their well-being. opportunities are plentiful because employees perceive it
- Employee engagement; an individual involvement with, is easy to move.
satisfaction with, and enthusiasm for, the work she does. 6. Job satisfaction and workplace deviance
High employee engagement will leads to higher level of If employees don’t like their work environment, they’ll
consumer satisfaction, higher productivity, higher profit, respond somehow.
and lower turnover level. 7. Managers often “don’t get it
JOB SATISFACTION
CHAPTER 4
Measuring job satisfaction
Two popular approaches: Emotions and Moods
- Single global rating
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What are emotions & moods 5. Social activities – for most people, social activities
Affect : a broad range of feelings that people experience increase positive mood & have little affect on negative
Emotions : intense feelings that are directed at someone or mood.
something; clearly revealed by facial expressions; more 6. Sleep – sleep quality does affect mood; poor / reduced
action oriented sleep impairs decision making & makes it difficult to
Moods: feelings that tend to be less intense than emotions control our emotions
& that lack a contextual stimulus; may be more cognitive; 7. Exercise – exercise enchances people’s positive mood
cause to think/brood. 8. Age – negative emotions seem to occur less as people
“but emotions can turn into moods when you lose focus” get older
The Basic moods – Positive & Negative affect 9. Gender – women are more emotionally expressive than
Positive affect/positive moods : a mood dimension that men
consists of specific positive emotions such as excitement,
self-assurance, & cheerfulness at high end, and boredom, Emotional Labor
sluggishness, and tiredness at low end. Emotional Labor : a situation in which an employee
Negative affect/negative moods : a mood dimension that expresses organizationally desired emotions during
consists of specific negative emotions such as nervousness, interpersonal transactions at work
stress & anxiety at high end, and relaxation, tranquility, & Emotional Dissonance : inconsistencies between the
poise at low end. emotions people feel and the emotions they project
“people to recall negative experiences more rapidly” Felt emotions : an individual’s actual emotions
Positivity offset : when nothing in particular is going on, Displayed emotions : those that the organization requires
most individuals experience a mildly positive mood. workers to show
Surface acting : hiding one’s inner feeling & forgoing
Function of emotions -> our emotions provide important emotional expressions in response to display rules
information about how we understand the world around Deep acting : trying to modify one’s true inner feelings
us & helps our thinking process. based on display rules.
Affective Events Theory
Affective Events Theory (AET) : a model that suggests that
workplace events cause emotional reactions on the part of
employees, which then influence workplace attitudes &
behaviors
Test of affective events theory suggest the following:
- An emotional episode is actually a series of emotional
experiences
- Current emotions influence job satisfaction at any given
time
- Moods & emotions fluctuate over time -> affect on
performance also fluctuates
- Emotion-driven behavior are typically short in duration &
high of variability
- Emotions (even the positive ones) tend to be
incompatible with behaviors required to a job, they
typically have a negative influence on job performance
Emotional Intelligence
Emotional Intelligence : the ability to detect & to manage
emotional cues & information; an assortment of non-
cognitive skills, capabilities, and competencies that
influence a person’s ability to succeed in coping with
environmental demands and pressures.
Sources of Emotions & moods Emotional Intelligence includes:

1.Personality – affect intensity (individual differences in 1.Self-awareness
the strength which individuals experience their moods) 2. Self-management
2. Day of the week & time of the day – negative moods 3. Self-motivation
mostly highest on Sundays & Mondays, positive moods are 4. Empathy
highest at the end of the week; morning / evening people. 5. Social skills
3. Weather – illusory correlation (The tendency of people “Based on Research: High EI scores, not high IQ scores,
to associate 2 events when in reality there’s no characterize high performers.”
connection); people tend to think nice weather improves
their mood, and vice versa. OB Applications of Emotions & Moods
4. Stress – mounting levels of stress can worsen our a.Selection – more employers are starting to use EI
moods, & we experience more negative emotions. measures to hire people
b.Decision Making – people in good moods are more likely
than others to use heuristics or rules of thumb to help
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make good decisions quickly; depressed people are slower - Low Level : Cold, disagreeable and antagonistic
at processing information. 3.) Conscientiousness : Measure of reliability - lead to job
c.Creativity – people in good moods tend to be more knowledge, greater effort and increasing performance.
creative than people in bad moods. - High Level : Responsible, Organized, Dependable
d.Motivation - positive moods tend to be more creative -> - Low Level : Easily distracted, disorganized, unreliable
positive feedback from those observing their work -> 4.)Emotional Stability : A person’s ability to withstand
perform better. stress - lead to higher job satisfaction.
e.Leadership – expressions of emotions in speeches is -High Level : Calm, Self-confident, secure
often the critical element that makes us accept / reject a - Low Level : Nervous, Anxious, Depressed, Insecure
leader’s message 5.) Openness to Experience : Address range of interests
f.Negotiation – a skilled negotiator has a “poker face”; and fascination with something new - lead to creative
anger should be used selectively in negotiation people and can be leader
g.Customer service – employees’ emotions can transfer to - High Level : Curious, Creative
the customer; emotional contagion (the process by which - Low Level : Conventional
peoples’ emotions are caused by the emotions of others.
h. Job attitudes – people who had a good day at work tend o Other Personality Traits Relevant to OB :
to be in a better mood at home that evening, and vice 1. Core Self Evaluation : Degree to which people like or
versa dislike themselves
i. Deviant workplace behaviors – people who feel negative 2. Machiavellianism : Pragmatic, emotionally distant
emotions are more likely than others to engage in deviant power, player who believes that ends justify the means.
behavior at work. High Mac - Manipulative and persuade more, they like to
j. Safety & injury at work – negative moods also make have direct interaction, minimal rules.
people more distractable -> distractions can obviously lead 3. Narcissism : Arrogant, entitled, self-important person
to careless behaviors who needs excessive admiration - lead to less effective in
k. How managers can influence moods – managers can use their jobs.
humors & give their employees small tokens of 4. Self Monitoring : Ability to adjust behavior to meet
appreciation for work well done. external and situational factors.
5. Risk Taking : The Willingness to take chances
6. Type A People : People who aggressive and need to
achieve more and more. Impatient, striving to multi task,
CHAPTER 5 don’t do well with leisure time and obsessed with
achievement numbers.
Personality and Values 7. Proactive Personality : Identifies opportunities, shows
initiative, takes action and preserves to completion
Personality Values
Personality : growth and development of a person’s whole o Values : Represent basic convictions on how to conduct
psychological system. Personality is also a way of an yourself or how to live your life that is personally or socially
individual reacts and interact with others. preferable. Attributes of Value :
o Content of Attribute : Levels of important the way of
Measuring personality is helpful in hiring decision. conduct or end state
Common method of Measuring personality is Self- o Intensity Attribute : How important the content is
Reporting Survey - a method where people is evaluating o Value System : A person’s value rank ordered by intensity
themselves on a series of factors. o Importance of Values
o Weakness : Respondent might lie or practice impression, o Provide understanding of the attitudes, motivation and
Less accurate. behaviors
Personality Determinants : Heredity/Genetics (refers to o Influence our perception of the world around us
physical stature and gender) and/or Environment o Represent the interpretations of right and wrong
o Imply that some behavior/outcomes are preferred
Personality Traits : Enduring Characteristics that describes o Terminal Values : Desirable end-states of existence; the
on Individual’s behavior. goals that a person would like to achieve during his or her
lifetime
Frameworks used to describe personality : o Instrumental Values : Preferable way of behavior or
o Myers-Brigg Type Indicator (MBTI) : Respondents means of achieving one’s terminal values .Linking an
classified within four scales describe 16 personality types. Individual’s Personality and Values to the Workplace
Problems : Forces a person into one type or another, no in-
between. o Person-Job Fit Theory : Satisfaction and the propensity
to leave a position depend on how well individuals match
The Big Five : Five basic dimension that encompass most of their personalities to a job. There are six personalities :
the significant variations in human personalities (pictures in next page)
1.) Extraversion : Comfort level with relationship - lead to
happier and good social skills people o The closer two fields or orientation in hexagon, the more
- High level : Sociable and Assertive compatible they are because adjacent categories are quite
- Low Level : Reserved, Timid and Quiet similar, while diagonally opposite are highly dissimilar.
2.) Agreeableness : Individual’s propensity to respect the
others - lead to good in social settings people.
- High Level : Cooperative, Warm, Trusting
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o Person Organization Fit : The employee personality must

fit with organizational culture, mismatched will result in
turnover
International Values
o Hofstede’s Framework : Values differ across cultures

based on five value dimensions of national culture : PERSON PERCEPTION
o Power Distance : Degree to which a society accepts that 1. Attribution Theory: Judging Others
power in institutions and organizations is distributed – Attribution Theory tries to explain the ways which we
unequally. High Level means extremely unequal power. judge people differently depending on to meaning we
Low level stress equality and opportunity attribute to a given behavior. When individuals observe
o Individualism Vs Collectivism : Individuality is degree to behavior, they attempt to determine whether it is
which people prefer to act as individuals rather than as a internally or externally caused.
member of groups. Collectivism is tight social framework in Internal causes are under that person’s control
which people expect others in groups of which they are a
part to look after them and protect them. External causes are not under the person’s control
o Masculinity Vs Femininity : Masculinity is extent to – The determination depends on the factors:
which culture prefers achievement, power and control Distinctiveness: Shows different behaviors in different
where culture separate roles for men and women, with situations
men dominating the society. Femininity means culture Consensus: Response is the same as others to same
sees little differentiation between male and female roles situation
and treats women as the equals of men in all respects Consistency: Responds in the same way over time
o Uncertainty Avoidance : The extent to which a society
feels threatened by uncertain and ambiguous situations Errors and Biases in Attributions
and tries to avoid them
o Short Term Orientation vs Long Term Orientation : ST - Fundamental Attribution Error: underestimate the
A National culture that emphasizes the present and they influence of external factors and overestimate the
accept change more readily and don’t see commitments as influence of internal factors. It is like We blame people
drawback to change. LT - A National Culture that first, not the situation
emphasizes the future and value thrift, persistence and Self-Serving Bias: when individuals attribute their own
tradition. successes to internal factors and blame external factors
o Additional from GLOBE FRAMEWORK : Humane when they don’t experience success. It is “our” success but
Orientation - How much society rewards people for “their” failure
altruistic and kind. Performance - How much society
encourages and rewards performance.
CHAPTER 6
Perception and Individual Decision Making
PERCEPTION is the way people organize the massive 2. Common shortcuts in Judging others
amounts of information they receive into patterns that – Selective Perception: People selectively interpret what
give it meaning. People will use their perceptions of reality, they see on the basis of their interests, background,
not reality itself, to decide how to behave experience, and attitudes.
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Ex: when the sales executives was asked what the most
important problem in the case given. Most of them rated
sales important because it is related to their own unit’s
activities.
– Halo Effect: Drawing a general impression about an
individual on the basis of a single characteristic.
Ex: if a chef is famous for making one particular dish, then
the halo effect allows people to assume that he can cook
anything with equal proficiency
– Contrast Effects: Evaluation of a person’s characteristics
that are affected by comparisons with other people
recently encountered who rank higher or lower on the
same characteristics.
Ex: When you meet two other people, you are likely to
compare each against the other on several dimensions to
decide which you prefer. This may include physical beauty,
similarity of interests and various personality factors.
– Stereotyping: making generalizations about an individual
based on the group to which that person belongs. This DECISION MAKING MODELS IN ORGANIZATION
generalization can be useful in making decisions, however, 1. Rational Decision Making
it can also be inaccurate and cause us to mistakenly – The “perfect world” model: assumes complete
develop a perception about an individual that is not information, all options known, and maximum payoff
representative of who they are. – Six-step decision-making process
Ex: people often assume older workers can’t learn new 1. Define the problem
skills 2. Identify the decision criteria
Profiling is an application of stereotyping where members 3. Allocate weights to all criteria
of a group are singled out for scrutiny based on a single 4. Develop the alternatives
trait. 5. Evaluate the best alternative
3. Specific Shortcut Applications in Organizations
– Analytical process that companies use to come up with a
Organizations use these shortcuts often to make decisions fact-based decision.
– Employment Interview – It is not always a realistic choice for organizations due to
Perceptual biases of raters affect the accuracy of time constraints and other pressures
interviewers’ judgments of applicants 2. Bounded Reality
– Performance Expectations – The “real world” model: seeks satisfactory and sufficient
Self-fulfilling prophecy (Pygmalion effect): The lower or solutions from limited data and alternatives
higher performance of employees reflects preconceived – was developed to explain why limits exist to how rational
leader expectations about employee capabilities a decision maker can actually be within a decision-making
The higher the expectations, the better people tend to environment
perform and vice versa. 3. Intuition
– Performance Evaluations – A non-conscious process created from distilled
Appraisals are often the subjective (judgmental) experience that results in quick decisions
perceptions of appraisers of another employee’s job Relies on holistic associations
performance Affectively charged – engaging the emotions
Critical impact on employees and their wages.
Common Biases and Errors in Decision Making
THE LINK BETWEEN PERCEPTION AND INDIVIDUAL 1. Overconfidence Bias: Believing too much in our own
DECISION MAKING ability to make good decisions especially when outside of
Problem: A perceived discrepancy between the current own expertise.
state of affairs and a desired state
Ex: when we’re asked to judge the probability of
Decisions: Choices made from among alternatives something, people tend to be too optimistic. When they
developed from data say 100 percent sure about something, they tend to be 70-
Perception Linkage: All elements of problem identification 85 percent correct.
and the decision-making process are influenced by 2. Anchoring Bias: when you make your decisions based on
perception. the information you received first and not on the new
Problems must be recognized information received, causing you to jump to a decision
Data must be selected and evaluated before you have the right information.
Ex: the initial price offered for a used car sets the standard
for the rest of the negotiations, so that prices lower than
the initial price seem more reasonable even if they are still
higher than what the car is really worth.
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3. Confirmation Bias: Selecting and using only facts that – Differences develop early
support our decision and Ignoring facts that go against Mental Ability
your decision can limit the success of the solution.
4. Availability Bias: Emphasizing information that is most People with higher levels of mental ability make decisions
readily at hand (recent & vivid) more quickly as well as make better decisions because they
Ex: more people fear flying than fear driving in a car are able to process information more effectively.
whereas car accident is more often happens. it is because Organizational Constraints
media give much more attention to air accidents Performance Evaluation: Managerial evaluation criteria
influence actions
5. Escalation of Commitment: Increasing commitment to a
decision in spite of evidence that it is wrong – especially if Reward Systems: Managers will make the decision with
responsible for the decision! the greatest personal payoff for them
Ex: When an investor buys stock expecting the price to rise Formal Regulations: Limit the alternative choices of
and then continues to buy more and more as the price decision makers
drops, they are escalating their commitment. Instead of System-Imposed Time Constraints: Restrict ability to
their original plan of investing $10,000, they end up paying gather or evaluate information
in much more in an attempt to make their original decision Historical Precedents: Past decisions influence current
right. decisions
6. Randomness Error: Creating meaning out of random
events – superstitions
Ex: people who believe in the myth Friday the 13th will
never make important decision on that day
7. Winner’s Curse
Ex: Highest bidder pays too much due to value
overestimation
Likelihood increases with the number of people in auction ETHICS IN DECISION MAKING
8. Hindsight Bias After an outcome is already known, Ethical Decision Criteria
believing it could have been accurately predicted Utilitarianism
beforehand Decisions made based solely on the outcome
Ex: before an ad campaign, a manager may have Seeking the greatest good for the greatest number
anticipated an 80 percent success rate. But if the campaign Dominant method for businesspeople
fails, he is likely to recall having given it a lower chance of So long as a course of action produces maximum benefits
success for everyone, utilitarianism does not care whether the
benefits are produced by lies, manipulation, or coercion.
Pro: Promotes efficiency and productivity
Con: Can ignore individual rights, especially minorities
Rights
Decisions consistent with fundamental liberties and
privileges
Respecting and protecting basic rights of individuals such
as whistleblowers
Pro: Protects individuals from harm; preserves rights
Con: Creates an overly legalistic work environment
Justice
Imposing and enforcing rules fairly and impartially
Equitable distribution of benefits and costs
Pro: Protects the interests of weaker members
Con: Encourages a sense of entitlement
Ex: union members typically favor this view to make
employers pay the same wage for a given job regardless of
INFLUENCES ON DECISION MAKING performance differences
Individual Differences
Personality
– Conscientiousness may affect escalation of commitment
Achievement strivers are likely to increase commitment
Dutiful people are less likely to have this bias
– Self-Esteem
High self-esteem people are susceptible to self-serving
bias
Gender
– Women analyze decisions more than men – rumination
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Improving Creativity in Decision Making o Internal factors: self-respect, autonomy, and

Creativity achievement.
– The ability to produce novel and useful ideas in terms of o External factors: status, recognition, and attention.
making better decisions - Social
Who has the greatest creative potential? o Affection, belongingness, acceptance, and friendship.
– Those who score high in Openness to Experience - Safety
– People who are intelligent, independent, self-confident, o Security and protection from physical and emotional
risk-taking, have an internal locus of control, tolerant of harm.
ambiguity, low need for structure, and who persevere in - Physiological
the face of frustration o Hunger, thirst, shelter, etc.
Theory X and Theory Y
- Theory X
Employees inherently dislike work and must therefore be
directed or even
coerced into performing it.
- Theory Y
Employees can view work as being as natural as rest or
play, and therefore the average person can learn to accept,
and even seek responsibility.
Two-Factor Theory (Motivation-hygiene theory)
- Motivation relates intrinsic factors to job satisfaction.
Ex: achievement, responsibility, growth.
- Hygiene relates extrinsic factors to job dissatisfaction.
When they’re adequate, people will not be dissatisfied;
neither they be satisfied.
Ex: salary, work conditions, company policies, relationship
The Three Component Model of Creativity with other.
Proposition that individual creativity results from a mixture To motivate people, Herzberg suggested emphasizing
of three components factors associated with work itself or with outcomes
– Expertise is the foundation and is based on the directly derived from it, such as promotional opportunities,
knowledge and experience of the individual. personal growth opportunities, etc.
– Creative-Thinking Skills are the personality McCelland’s Theory of Needs
characteristics associated with creativity, such as the ability - Need for achievement (nAch)
to use analogies and the talent to see things differently. The drive to excel, to achieve in relation to a set of
– Intrinsic Task Motivation is the desire to do the job standards, to strive to
because of the characteristics associated with the job succeed.
. - Need for power (nPow)
Elements of attribution Theory is used to see the The need to make others behave in a way in which they
connection between external or internal driven factors would not have behaved otherwise.
- Need for affiliation (nAff)
CHAPTER 7 The desire for friendly and close interpersonal
relationships.
Motivation CONTEMPORARY THEORIES OF MOTIVATION
Self-Determination Theory
DEFINING MOTIVATION A theory of motivation that is concerned with the
Motivation is the processes that account for an individual’s beneficial effects of intrinsic motivation and the harmful
intensity, direction, and persistence of effort toward effects of extrinsic motivation.
attaining a goal.
Another version of this theory
Three key elements of motivation: - Cognitive evaluation theory, which holds that allocating
- Intensity; how hard a person tries. extrinsic rewards for behavior that had been previously
- Direction; the effort of the employee have to meet the intrinsically rewarding tends to decrease the overall level
benefit that organization needs. of motivation if the rewards are seen as controlling.
- Persistence; how long a person can maintain effort. - Self-concordance, which considers how strongly peoples’
reasons for pursuing goals are consistent with their
EARLY THEORIES OF MOTIVATION interests and core values.
Hierarchy of needs theory (Abraham Maslow’s hierarchy
of needs) Goal-Setting Theory
- Self actualization A theory that says that specific and difficult goals, with
o Drive to become what we are capable of becoming. feedback, lead to higher performance.
- Esteem
Why are people motivated by difficult goals?
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- Challenging goals get our attention and thus tend to help Equity Theory/Organizational Justice
us focus. A theory that says that individuals compare their job inputs
- Difficult goals energize us because we have to work and outcomes with those of others and then respond to
harder to attain them. eliminate any inequities.
- When goals are difficult, people persist in trying to attain
them. Four referent comparisons:
Three other factors that influence the goals-performance 1. Self-inside; different position inside current
relationship: goal organization.
commitment, task characteristics, and national culture. 2. Self-outside; different position outside current
organization.
Management by objective (MBO) is a program that 3. Other-inside; other individual/group inside current
encompasses specific goals, participatively set, for an organization.
explicit time period, with feedback on goal progress. Four 4. Other-outside; other individual/group outside current
ingredients of MBO: organization.
1. Goal specificity
2. Participation in decision making Employees who perceive inequity will make one of six
3. An explicit time period choices:
4. Performance feedback. 1. Change their inputs.
2. Change their outcomes.
Self-Efficacy Theory (Social Cognitive Theory) 3. Distort perceptions of self.
A theory that says that an individual’s belief that he/she is 4. Distort perception of others.
capable of performing a task. The higher your self-efficacy, 5. Choose a different referent.
the more confidence you have in your ability to succeed. 6. Leave the field.
Setting difficult goals for employees will make them have a
higher level of self-efficacy and set higher goals for their Model of Organizational Justice
own performance because setting difficult goals for people
communicates your confidence in them.
Four ways self-efficacy can be increased:
1. Enactive mastery; gaining relevant experience with the
task or job.
2. Vicarious modeling; becoming more confident because
you see someone else doing the task.
3. Verbal persuasion; becoming more confident because
someone convinces you.
4. Arousal; an energized state which drives a person to
complete a task.
Reinforcement Theory
A theory that says that behavior is a function of its
consequences. This theory sees behavior as
environmentally caused. It ignores the inner state of the
individual and concentrates solely on what happens when
he/she takes some actions. Reinforcement strengthens a
behavior and increases the likelihood it will be repeated.
Behaviorism: a concept that argues that behavior follows
stimuli in a relatively unthinking manner.
Social-learning theory: the view that we can learn through Expectancy Theory
both observation and direct experience. A theory that says that the strength of a tendency to act in
a certain way depends on the
Four processes determine the influence of models as strength of an expectation that the act will be followed by
central of sociallearning a given outcome and on the
viewpoint on an individual: attractiveness of that outcome to the individual.
1. Attentional processes; people learn from a model only
when they recognize and pay attention to its critical
features.
2. Retention processes; a model’s influence depends on
how well the individual remembers the model’s action
after the model is no longer readily available.
3. Motor reproduction processes; demonstrate that the
individual can perform the modeled activities.
4. Reinforcement processes; positive incentives or rewards
are provided to 1. Effort-performance relationship; the probability
motivate individuals. perceived by the individual that exerting a given amount of
effort will lead to performance.
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2. Performance-reward relationship; the degree to which MPS = Skill Variety + Task Identity + Task Significance x
the individual believes performing at a particular level will Autonomy x Feedback
lead to the attainment of a desired outcome.
3. Rewards-personal goals relationship; the degree to How can Jobs redesigned?
which organizational Job Rotation (also called cross-training) – the periodic
rewards satisfy an individual’s personal goals or needs and shifting of an employee from one task to another with
the attractiveness of those potential rewards for the similar skill requirements at the same organizational level
individual. Strengths of Job rotation:
- Reduce boredom
Expectancy theory helps explain why a lot of workers - Increase motivation
aren’t motivated on their jobs and do only the minimum - Helps employees better understand how their work
necessary to get by. contributes in the organization
- Wider range of skills
- More flexibility in scheduling work
CHAPTER 8 - Adapting to changes
- Filling vacancies
Motivation : From Concept to Application
Weaknesses of Job rotation:
- Training cost
Motivating by Job Design: The Job Characteristics Model - Productivity reduced
Job Design: The way elements in a job are organized
Job Characteristics Model: A model that proposes that any Job enrichment : the vertical expansion of jobs, which
job can be described in terms of 5 core job dimensions. increases the degree to which the worker controls the
planning, execution, & evaluation of the work Guidelines
5 core job dimensions (based on JCM) for enriching job:
1. Skill Variety – degree to which a job requires a variety of
different activities
2. Task Identity – degree to which a job requires
completion of a whole & identifiable a piece of work
3. Task significance – degree to which a job has an impact
on the lives/work of other people
4. Autonomy – degree to which a job provides substantial
freedom & discretion to the individual in scheduling the
work & in determining the procedures to be used in
carrying it out
5. Feedback – degree to which carrying out activities
generates direct & clear information about your own
performance
Alternative Work Arrangements

1. Flextime – flexible work hours
2. Job sharing – an arrangement that allows 2 or more
individuals to split a traditional 40-hour-a-week job
3. Telecommuting – working from home at least 2 days a
week on a computer that’s linked to the employer’s office
Employee Involvement: A participative process that uses

Motivating Personal Score (MPS) : a predictive index that employees’ input to increase their commitment to the
suggests the motivating potential in a job organization’s success
Examples of employee involvement program:
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Participative Management insurance, disability insurance, and expanded health

A joint decision making, in which subordinates share a coverage.
significant degree of decision-making power with their
immediate superiors 4. How to Construct Employee Recognition Programs
 Motivating Employees in Organizations
Representative Participation a. Recognize individual differences.
Its goal is to redistribute power within an organization. b. Use goals and feedback.
There are two most common forms: c. Allow employees to participate in decisions that affect
1. Work councils them.
2. Board Representative d. Link rewards to performance.
e. Check the system for equity.
Using Rewards to Motivate Employees
1. What to Pay: Establishing a pay structure
The process of initially setting pay levels can be complex CHAPTER 9
and needs balancing internal & external equity.
2. How to Pay: Rewarding individual employees through Foundation of Group Behaviour
variable-pay programs
Why Do People Form Group?
Variable-pay program: a pay plan that bases a portion of Our tendency to take personal pride or offense for the
an employee’s pay on some individual and/or accomplishments of a group is the territory of social
organizational measure of performance identity theory. It propose that people have emotional
o Piece-Rate Pay: a pay plan in which workers are paid a reactions to failure or success of their group because their
fixed sum for each unit of production completed self-esteem gets tied into the performance of the group.
o Merit-Based Pay: pays for individual performance based Ingroup favoritism: we see members of our ingroup as
on appraisal ratings better than other people, and people not in our group as
o Bonuses: a pay plan that rewards employees for recent all the same.
performances rather than historical performances
o Skill-Based/Competency-Based/Knowledge-Based Pay: a Characteristics that make social identity important to a
pay plan that sets pay levels on the basis of how many person:
skills employees have or how many jobs they can do 1. Similarity; same value drives to higher levels of group
o Profit-Sharing Plans: an organization wide program that identification.
distributes compensation based on some established 2. Distinctiveness; people notice identities that show how
formula designed around company’s profitability they are different from other groups.
o Gainsharing: a formula-based group incentive plan 3. Status; people use identities to define themselves and
o Employee Stock Ownership Plan (ESOP): a company- increase self-esteem.
established benefits plan in which employees acquire 4. Uncertainty reduction; people understand who they are
stock, often at below- market prices, as part of their and how they fit into the world.
benefits
STAGES OF GROUP DEVELOPMENT
3. What Benefits and Choices to Offer
Flexible Benefits: Turn the benefits into motivators The Five-Stage Model
because it individualizes rewards by allowing each i. Stage I: Forming
employee to choose the compensation package that best Characterized by much uncertainty.
satisfies his or her current needs and situation. ii. Stage II: Storming
It can accommodate differences in employee needs based Characterized by intragroup conflict.
on age, marital status, spouses’ benefit status, and number iii. Stage III: Norming
and age of dependents. Characterized by close relationships and cohesiveness.
iv. Stage IV: Performing
3 popular types of benefits: During which the group is fully functional.
- Flexible Spending Account: allow employees to set aside v. Stage V: Adjourning
pretax dollars up to the dollar amount offered in the plan Characterized by concern with wrapping up activities
to pay for particular benefits, such as health care and rather than task performance.
dental premiums. Flexible spending accounts can increase
take-home pay because employees don’t pay taxes on the An Alternative Model for Temporary Groups with
dollars they spend from these accounts. Deadlines
- Core-plus option: consist of a core of essential benefits 1. Their first meeting sets the group’s direction.
and a menu like selection of others from which employees 2. The first phase of group activity is one of inertia.
can select. Typically, each employee is given “benefit 3. A transition takes place at the end of this phase.
credits,” which allow the purchase of additional benefits 4. A transition initiates major changes.
that uniquely meet his or her needs. 5. A second phase of inertia follows the transition.
- Modular Plans: predesigned packages or modules of 6. The group’s last meeting is characterized by markedly
benefits, each of which meets the needs of a specific group accelerated activity.
of employees. GROUP PROPERTIES: ROLE, NORMS, STATUS, SIZE, AND
A module designed for single employees with no
dependents might include only essential benefits. Another, COHESIVENESS
designed for single parents, might have additional life Group Property 1: Roles
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All group members have roles. Many of these roles are 4. Select members who have high motivation and prefer to
compatibles; some create conflicts. work in group.
Role perceptions: our view on how someone is supposed 5. Give reward if possible.
to act in a given situation.
Role expectations: how others believe a person should act Group Property 5: Cohesiveness
in a given situation. Cohesiveness: the degree to which group members are
Psychological contract: an unwritten agreement that exist attracted to each other and are
between employees and employer. motivated to stay in group.
Role conflict: a situation in which an individual is How to encourage group cohesiveness?
confronted by divergent role expectations. 1. Make the group smaller.
2. Encourage agreement with group goals.
Group Property 2: Norming 3. Increase the time members spend together.
Norms: acceptable standards of behavior within a group 4. Increase the group’s status and the perceived difficulty
that are shared by the group’s members. to attaining membership.
Norms can cover virtually any aspect of group behavior 5. Stimulate competition with other groups.
which is: 6. Give rewards to the group rather than to individual
1. Performance norm: explicit cues about how hard members.
member should work, etc. 7. Physically isolate the group.
2. Appearance norm; dress codes, unspoken rule about
when to look busy. GROUP DECISION MAKING
3. Social arrangement norm.
4. Allocation norm; distribution of resource, assignment of Group versus the Individual
difficult job, etc. Strengths of group decision making:
Conformity: the adjustment of one’s behavior to align with - More complete information and knowledge.
the norms of the group. People conform to reference - Increased diversity of views.
group, the important groups to which they belong or hope - Acceptance of a solution.
to belong. Weakness of group decision making:
Deviant workplace behavior: voluntary behavior that - Conformity pressures.
violates significant organizational norms and, in so doing, - Dominated by one or a few members.
threatens the well-being of the organization or its - Ambiguous responsibility.
members. Also called antisocial behavior or workplace Effectiveness and Efficiency:
incivility. - Speed: individuals better.
- Creativity: group better.
Group property 3: Status - Acceptance: group better.
Status: a socially defined position or rank given to groups
or group member by others. Status characteristic theory: a Groupthink: a phenomenon in which the norm for
theory that states that differences in status characteristics consensus overrides the realistic
create status hierarchies within groups. Status derives appraisal of alternative courses of action.
from one of three sources:
1. The power a person wields over others. Groupshift: a change in decision risk between a group’s
2. A person’s ability to contribute to a group’s goals. decision and an individual
3. An individual’s personal characteristic. decision that a member within the group would make; the
As high-status individuals, they’re given a wider range of shift can be toward either
discretion as long as their activities aren’t severely conservatism or greater risk.
detrimental to group goal achievement.
High-status people tend to be more assertive group Group Decision-Making Techniques
members. 1. Interacting groups; each member interact with other
It is important for group members to believe the status face to face.
hierarchy is equitable. Perceivable inequity creates 2. Brainstorming; an idea-generation process that
disequilibrium, which inspire various types of corrective specifically encourages any and
behavior. all alternatives while withholding any criticism of those
alternatives.
Group Property 4: Size 3. Nominal group technique; a group decision-making
Smaller groups are faster at completing tasks than larger method in which individual
ones and that individuals perform better in smaller groups members meet face to face to pool their judgments in a
than larger ones. But, in problem solving, large groups systematic but
consistently gets better marks than their smaller independent fashion.
counterparts. 4. Electronic meeting; a meeting in which members
interact on computers, allowing
Social loafing: the tendency for individuals to expend less for anonymity of comments and aggregation of votes.
effort when working collectively than alone.
To prevent social loafing:
1. Set group goals. CHAPTER 10
2. Increase intergroup competition.
3. Engage in peer evaluation. Understanding Team Work
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Differences between Groups and Teams

Work Group
– A group that interacts primarily to share information and
to make decisions to help each group member perform
within his or her area of responsibility
– No joint effort required
Work Team – Very common
– Generates positive synergy through coordinated effort. – Task forces
The individual efforts result in a performance that is – Committees
greater than the sum of the individual inputs
Virtual Teams
– Teams that use computer technology to tie together
physically dispersed members in order to achieve a
common goal
Characteristics
– Limited socializing
– The ability to overcome time and space constraints
To be effective, needs:
– Trust among members
– Close monitoring
– To be publicized
CREATING EFFECTIVE TEAMS
A Team-Effectiveness Model
Context: what factors determine whether teams are
Comparing Work Groups and Work Teams successful?
Types of Teams 1.) Adequate Resources
1.) Problem-Solving Teams – Need the tools to complete the job
– Groups of 5 to 12 employees from the same department 2.) Effective Leadership and Structure
who meet for a few hours each week to discuss ways of – Agreeing to the specifics of work and how the team fits
improving quality, efficiency, and the work environment together to integrate individual skills
2.) Self-Managed Work Teams – Even “self-managed” teams need leaders
– Groups of 10 to 15 people who take on the – Leadership especially important in multi-team systems
responsibilities of their former supervisors 3.) Climate of Trust
– Members must trust each other and the leader
4.) Performance and Rewards Systems that Reflect Team
Contributions
– Cannot just be based on individual effort
Composition
1.) Abilities of Members
– Need technical expertise, problem-
solving, decision-making, and good
interpersonal skills to accomplish
the task at hand
2.) Personality of Members
– Conscientiousness, openness to
experience, and agreeableness all
relate to team performance
– Important so that the team can
Global implication in Self-Managed Teams bond and form trust.
Do not work well in countries with low tolerance for
ambiguity and uncertainty and a high power distance Key Roles On Teams
Allocating Roles and Diversity
Cross-Functional Teams – Many necessary roles must be filled
– Employees from about the same hierarchical level, but – Diversity can often lead to lower performance
from different work areas, who come together to Size of Team
accomplish a task – The smaller the better: 5 to 9 is optimal
Members’ Preference for Teamwork
– Do the members want to be on teams?
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– Make team skills one of the interpersonal skills in the

hiring
process.
Training
– Individualistic people can learn
Rewards
– Rework the reward system to encourage cooperative
efforts
rather than competitive (individual) ones
– Continue to recognize individual contributions while still
emphasizing the importance of teamwork
Teams Aren’t Always the Answer
Teams take more time and resources than does individual
work.
Work Design Three tests to see if a team fits the situation:
Freedom and Autonomy 1. Is the work complex and is there a need for different
– Ability to work independently perspectives – will it be better with the insights of more
Skill Variety than one person?
– Ability to use different skills and talents 2. Does the work create a common purpose or set of goals
Task Identity for the group that is larger than the aggregate of the goals
– Ability to complete a whole and identifiable task or for individuals?
product 3. Are members of the group involved in interdependent
Task Significance tasks?
– Working on a task or project that has a substantial
impact on others
Process
Commitment to a Common Purpose
– Create a common purpose that provides direction
– Have reflexivity: willing to adjust plan if necessary
Establishment of Specific Team Goals
– Must be specific, measurable, realistic, and challenging
Team Efficacy
– Team believes in its ability to succeed
Mental Models
– Have an accurate and common mental map of how the CHAPTER 11
work gets done
A Managed Level of Conflict COMMUNICATION
– Task conflicts are helpful; interpersonal conflicts are not
Minimized Social Loafing
– Team holds itself accountable both individually and as a Communication : the transfer and understanding of
team meaning
Functions of Communication
Communications serves four major functions within a
group or organization :
Control, Motivation, Emotional Expression, and
Information
1. Control : Communication acts to control member
behaviour, Usually organization have authority hierarchies
and formal guidelines that have to be followed by the
employee
2. Motivation : Communication fosters motivation by
clarifying to
employees what is to be done, how well they are doing,
and how to improve their performance
3. Emotional Expression : Communication provides for the
emotional expression of feelings and fulfillment of social
needs
4. Information : Communication provides information
needed to make decisions
Turning Individuals into Team Players
Selection The Communication Process
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1. Communication that flows to higher level in the group or

organization
2. Used to provide feedback to higher-ups, inform them of
progress toward goals, and relay current problems
Problems : increasingly difficult because managers are
overwhelmed and easily distracted
Lateral
Communication takes place among members of the same
work group, same level, or any horizontally equivalent
workers
Advantages : saves time and facilitates coordination
Communication Process = the steps between a source and
a receiver that result in the transference and Interpersonal Communication
understanding of meaning Oral Communication
Such as speeches, formal one-on-one and group discussion
Elements of the Communication Process : - Advantages : Speed and feedback
1. The sender - Disadvantages : Distortion of message “the more people,
2. Encoding the greater the potential distortion”
3. The message
4. The channel – the medium selected by the sender Written Communication
through which the message travels to the receiver using memos, letters, fax transmissions, email, IM, and any
other device that transmits via written words or symbols.
Types : Written communications are more likely to be well thought
a. Formal Channel – are established by the organization out, logical, and clear
and transmit messages that are related to the professional - Advantages : Tangible and verifiable
activities of members. - Disadvantage : Time consuming and lacks feedback
b. Informal Channel - used to transmit personal or social
messages in the organization. These informal channels are Non-verbal Communication
spontaneous and emerge as a response to individual Such as body movement, facial expressions, intonations,
choices physical distance
- Advantages : Supports other communications and
5. Decoding provides observable expression of emotions and feelings
6. The receiver – the person(s) to whom the message is - Disadvantage : Misperception of body language or
directed, who must translate the symbols into gestures can influence receiver’s interpretation of message
understandable form
7. Noise – communication barriers that distort the clarity Organizational Communication
of the message, such as perceptual problems, information Formal Small-Group Networks
overload, etc
8. Feedback – is the check on how seccesful we have been
in transferring our messages originally intended.
Direction of Communication
3 common small groups :

In Chain model, we can see that there are three-level
organization.
Downward In Wheel, the communication relies on a central figure to
1. Communication that flows from one level of a group or act as a conduit for all the group’s commuication
organization to a lower level
2. Used by group leaders with employees to assign goals, In All Channel network,it permits all group members to
provide job Instructions, explain policies and procedures, actively communicate with each other > self-managed
etc teams, where all members are free to contribute and none
3. Doesn’t have to be oral or face to face take on a leadership role.
Problems : Managers have to fully explained the problem,
just one-way communication ( from manager to the
employees)
Upward
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Managing information
1. Dealing with information overload – a condition in which
information
2. Always on Call
3. Information security
Choice of Communication Channel
The model of “media richness” helps explain an
individual’s choice of communication channel - channels
vary in their capacity to convey information
Characteristics of Rich Channels, such as face-to-face
The Grapevine conversation:
The informal communication network in a group or -Handle multiple cues simultaneously
organization - Facilitate rapid feedback
Grapevine characteristics : -Are very personal in context
– Informal, not controlled by management.
– Perceived by most employees as being more believable
and reliable than formal communications.
– Largely used to serve the self-interests of those who use
it.
– Results from:
Desire for information about important situations
Ambiguous conditions
Conditions that cause anxiety
Suggestions for reducing the negative sequences or
Rumors:
1. Provide information
2. Explain actions and decisions that may appear
inconsistent, unfair, or secretive
3. Refrain from shooting the messenger – respond to them
calmly, rationally and respectfully
4. Maintain open communication channels
Electronic Communications
o Email
Advantages : quickly written, sent, and stored; low cost for High performing managers are tend to be very media-
distribution sensitive
Disadvantages: information overload, lack of emotional
content, cold and impersonal Barriers to Effective Communication
1. Filtering : A sender’s manipulation of information so that
o Instant Messaging and Text Messaging it will be seen more favorably by the receiver.
Advantage : “real time” e-mail transmitted straight to the 2. Selective Perception :People selectively interpret what
receiver’s desktop. they see on the basis of their interests, background,
Disadvantage : can be intrusive and distracting. experience, and attitudes.
3. Information Overload :A condition in which information
o Networking Software inflow exceeds an individual’s processing capacity.
Linked systems organically spread throughout the nation 4. Emotions :How a receiver feels at the time a message is
and world that can be accessed by a PC received will influence how the message is interpreted.
Includes: 5. Language :Words have different meanings to different
Social networks like MySpace® and Facebook® people.
Professional networks like Zoominfo® and Ziggs® 6. Silence :
Corporate networks such as IBM’s BluePages® - Defined by the absence of information
Key Points: - Silence is less likely where minority opinions are treated
These are public spaces – anyone can see what you post with respect, work group identification is high, and high
Can be used for job application screening procedural justice prevails.
Avoid “over stimulating” your contacts 7. Communication Apprehension
Undue tension and anxiety about oral communication,
o Blogs written communication, or both
websites about a single person (or entity) that are typically 8. Gender Differences
updated daily
o Video Conferencing – uses live audio and video Internet
streaming to create virtual meetings
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b. Emphasizing description rather than interpretation or

evaluation
c. Practicing empathy in communication
d. Treating your interpretations as working hypotheses
CHAPTER 12
LEADERSHIP
Leadership >> The ability to influence a group toward the

9. “Politically Correct” Communication achievement of a vision or set of goals
- Communication so concerned with being inoffensive that
meaning and simplicity are lost or free expression is Management>> Use of authority inherent in designated
hampered formal rank to obtain compliance from organizational
- Certain words stereotype, intimidate, and insult members
individuals.
- In an increasingly diverse workforce, we must be sensitive Trait Theories
to how words might offend others. Theories that consider personal qualities and
o Removed: handicapped, blind, and elderly characteristics that differentiate leaders from nonleaders,
o Replaced with: physically challenged, visually impaired, Leadership traits : etxtraversion (like being around people
and senior. and are able to assert themselves), conscientiousness
- Removing certain words from the vocabulary makes it (disciplined and able to keep commitments they make),
harder to communicate accurately. openness to experience (creative and flexible), and
o Removed: garbage, quotas, and women. emotional intelligence (qualified)
o Replaced with terms: postconsumer waste materials,
educational equity, and people of gender. Limitations :
No universal traits found that predict leadership in all
Global Implications situations.
Unclear evidence of the cause and effect of relationship of
A. Cultural Barriers leadership and traits.
Caused by : Better predictor of the appearance of leadership than
1. Semantics: some words aren’t translatable between distinguishing effective and ineffective leaders.
cultures
2. Word Connotations: some words imply multiple Behavioral Approach
meanings beyond their definitions in different languages Theories proposing that specific behaviors differentiate
3. Tone Differences: the acceptable level of formality of leaders from non-leaders. “Trait research provides a basis
language. In some cultures, language is formal, in others, for selecting the right people for leadership. But,
it’s informal. behavioral studies implied we could train people to be
4. Differences in tolerance for conflict and methods for leaders.”
resolving conflicts: the differences between people who
tend to be individualist and collectivist in solving the Two behavioural structure:
conflicts 1. Initiating structure – the extent to which a leader is
likely to define and structure his or her role and those of
B. Cultural Context employees in the search for goal attainment. This structure
- The importance of social context to meaning is closely related to production-oriented leader, which
emphasized the technical or task aspects of the job.
2. Consideration - the extent to which a leader is likely to
have job relationships characterized by mutual trust,
respect for subordinate’s ideas, and regard for their
feelings. This structure is closely related to employee-
oriented leader, which emphasized interpesersonal
relationship by taking a personal inerest in the needs of
employees and accepting individual
differences among them.
Contingency Theories = theories that isolating situational
variables
C. A Cultural Guide 3 approaches:

To reduce your chance of making a faux pas in another 1. THE FIEDLER MODEL – proposes that effective group
culture, err on the side of caution by: performance depends on the proper match between the
a. Assuming differences until similarity is proven leader’s style and the degree to which the situation gives
the leader control
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-Assumption : the leadership style is FIXED (task oriented -Leaders select certain followers to be “in” (favorites),
or relationship based on competenceand/or compatibility & similarity to
oriented) leader
-Three contingency or situational dimensions: -“Exchanges” with these “In” followers will be higher
1.Leader quality than with those who are “Out”
member relations = the degree of confidence, trust, abd - RESULT: “In” subordinates will have higher performance
respect members have in their leader ratings, less turnover, and greater job satisfaction
2. Task structure = the degree to which the job
assignments are Contemporary Leadership Theories
Pocedurized I. CHARISMATIC LEADERSHIP - A leadership theory that
3. Position power = the degree of influence a leader has states that followers make attributions of heroic or
over powervariables such as hiring, discipline, promotions, extraordinary leadership abilities when they obeserve
and salary increases certain behaviours
- Task-oriented leaders perform best in situations of high
and low control, Characteristics:
while relationship-oriented leaders perform best in -have vision
moderate control - willing to take personal risk to achieve that vision
situations - they are sensitive to follower needs
- 2 ways to improve leader effectiveness: - exhibit extraordinary behaviours
1) Select leader to fit situation
2) Change situation to fit leader A three-step process to make a change become a
charismatic one:
Other Contingency Theories: a) maintaining an optimistic view; using passion as a
2. SITUATIONAL LEADERSHIP THEORY - A contingency catalyst for generating enthusiasm
theory that focuses on b) draw others in by creating a bond that inspires them to
followers’ readiness; the more “ready” the followers (the follow
more willing and able) the less the need for leader support c) bring out the potential in followers by tapping into their
and supervision) emotions
How charismatic leaders influence followers?
1. Articulating an appealing vision, a long-term strategy for
attaining a goal by linking the present with a better future
for the organization
2. A vision is incomplete without an accompanying vision
statement – a formal articulation of an organization’s
vision or mission
3. The leader conveys a new set of values and sets an
example for followers to imitate
4. The leader engages in emotion-inducing and often
unconventional behavior to demonstrate courage and
conviction about the vision.
There are impressive correlation between charismatic
leadership and high performance and satisfaction among
followers.
The darkside : charismatic leaders who are larger than life
dont necessarily act in the best interests of their
3. PATH-GOAL THEORY organizations.
Leader must help followers attaining goals and reduce
roadblocks to II. TRANSFORMATIONAL LEADERSHIP
success ,provide followers with the information, support, Transformational leader: leaders who inspire followers to
or other transcend their own selfinterests and who are capable of
resources necessary to achieve their goals having a profound and
extraordinary effect on followers
4. LEADER-PARTICIPATION MODEL
- Rule based decision tree to guide leaders about when and Transactional leaders: leaders who guide or motivate their
when not to followers in the direction of established goals by clarifying
include subordinate participation in decision making role and task requirements
- Considers 12 contingency variables, 8 problem types, and
5 leadership Transformational leaders are more effective because they
styles to consider whether or not to include subordinates are more creative but also because they encourage those
in decision who follow them to be creative, too.
making o Greater decentralization of responsibility, more
propensity to risks
Leader-Member Exchange Theory o Show greeter agreement among top managers about the
organization’s goals which yields superior performance
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Transformational leaders are able to increase follower

self-efficacy, giving the group a “can do” spirit
Authentic Leadership
Authentic leaders know how they are, know what they
believe in and value, and act on those values and beliefs
openly and candidly.
- Socialized charismatic leadership – leadership that
conveys other centered (not selfcentered)
values by leaders who model ethical conduct
- Trust - a positive expectation that another will not act
opportunistically
Key characteristics that a leader is trustworthy:
1. Integrity, refers to honesty and truthfulness
2. Benevolence, means the trusted person has your
interests at heart, even if
yours arent necessarily in line with theirs
3. Ability, encom passes an individual’s technical and
interpersonal knowledge and skills BASES OF POWER
Two general groupings:
Trust propensity refers to how likely a particular employee 1. FORMAL POWER
is to trust a leader. Leaders who break the psychological -- based on individual’s position in an organization.
contract with workers, demonstrating they arent -- come from the ability to coerce or reward, or from
trustworthy, will find employees are less satisfied, less formal authority
committed, have higher intensions to turnover, engage in
less citizenship behaviour, and have lower task a) Coercive Power
performance. A power base dependent on fear of the negative results
from failing to comply. This power can also come from
Consequences of Trust: withholding key information >> people who have data or
1. Trust encorages taking risks knowledge others need can make those others dependent
2. Trust facilitates information sharing on them.
3. Trusting groups are more effective
4. Trust enhances productivity b) Reward Power
Compliance achieved based on the ability to distribute
Mentoring rewards that others view as valuable. E.g.: in financial
A mentor is a senior employee who sponsors and support a (such as controlling pay rates, raises, bonuses) and in non-
less-experienced employee. They present ideas clearly, financial (including recognition, promotions)
listen well, and emphatize with proteges.
c) Legitimate Power
CHAPTER 13 The power a person receives as a result of his or her
position in the formal hierarchy of an organization
POWER & POLITICS
2. PERSONAL POWER
-- comes from an individual’s unique characteristics
-- 2 bases: esxpertise and the respect and admiration of
A DEFINITION OF POWER others
Power: A capacity that A has to influence the behavior of B
so that B acts in accordance with A’s wishes. a) Expert Power
Influence based on expertise, special skills or knowledge.
The most important aspect of power is its function of As jobs become more specialized, we become increasingly
dependency - B’s relationship to A when A possesses dependent on experts to achieve goals. Eg: tax accountant,
something that B requires. The greater B’s dependence on doctor specialists
A, the greater A’s power in the relationship.
b) Referent Power
CONTRASTING LEADERSHIP & POWER Influence based on identification with a person who has
desirable resources or personal traits. This power develops
oout of admiration of another and a desire to be like that
person. Eg: brand-ambassador of a product
Which bases of power is more effective?
Personal power is more effective : both expert and
referent power are positively related to employee’s
satisfaction with supervision, their organizational
commitment and their performance; reward and
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legitimate power seem to be unrelated to these outcomes,

and coersive power actually can backfire in that is Other factors that affect the effectiveness of influence:
negatively related to employee’s satisfaction and 1.Sequencing of tactics
commitment. – Softer to harder tactics work best.
2.Skillful use of a tactic
DEPENDENCY: THE KEY TO POWER 3.Relative power of the tactic user
THE GENERAL DEPENDENCY POSTULATE – Some tactics work better when applied downward or
o The greater B’s dependency on A, the greater the power upward.
A has over B. 4.The type of request attaching to the tactic
o Possession/control of scarce organizational resources – Is the request legitimate?
that others need makes a manager powerful. 5.How the request is perceived
o Access to optional resources (e.g., multiple suppliers) – Is the request consistent with the target’s values?
reduces the resource holder’s power. 6.The culture of the organization
– Culture affects user’s choice of tactic.
WHAT CREATES DEPENDENCY? 7.Country-specific cultural factors
o Importance of the resource to the organization – Local values favor certain tactics over others.
o Scarcity of the resource; dependency relationship in the
power of occupational categories SEXUAL HARASSMENT
o Nonsubstitutability of the resource >> the fewer viable Any unwanted activity of a sexual nature that affects an
substitutes for a resource, the more power control over individual’s employment and creates a hostile work
that resource provides environment.
POWER TACTICS Some ways managers can protect themselves and their
Ways in which individuals translate power bases into employees from sexual harassment:
specific actions. a. Make sure an active policy defines what constitues
sexual harassment, in forms employees can be fired and
9 distinct influence tactics: establishes procedures for how complaints can be made
1) Legitimacy – relying on your authority position or saying b. Ensure employees that wont encounter retaliation if
a request accords with organizational policies or rules they issue a complaint
2) Rational persuasion – presenting logical arguments and c. Investigate every complaint and include the legal and
factual evidence to demonstrate a request is reasonable human resource departments
3) Inspirational appeals – developing emotional d. Make sure offenders are disciplined or terminated
commitment by appealing to a target’s values, needs, e. Set-up in house eminars to raise employees awareness
hopes, and aspirations of the issues surrounding sexual harassment
4) Consultation – increasing the target’s support by
involving him or her in deciding how you will accomplish POLITICS: POWER IN ACTION
your plan Political Behavior -- Activities that are not required as part
5) Exchange – rewarding the target with benefits or favors of one’s formal role in the organization, but that influence,
in exchange for following request or attempt to influence, the distribution of advantages or
6) Personal appeals – asking for compliance based on disadvantages within the organization
friendship or loyalty o Legitimate Political Behavior Normal everyday politics –
7) Ingratiation – using flattery, praise, or friendly behavior complaining to your supervisor, by-passing the COC, etc
prior to making a request o Illegitimate Political Behavior Extreme political behavior
8) Pressure – using warnings, repeated demands, and that violates the implied rules of the game – sabotage,
threats whistle-blowing, etc
9) Coalitions – enlisting the aid or support of others to
persuade the target to agree CAUSES & CONSEQUENCES OF POLITICAL BEHAVIOR
Defensive behaviours – reactive and protective behaviours
Preferred power tactics by influence direction: to avoid action, blame, or change.
IMPRESSION MANAGEMENT (IM) –
The process by which individuals attempt to control the
impression others form of them.
IM Techniques:
1.Conformity – agreeing with someone else’s opinion to
gain his/her approval is a form of ingratiation
2.Favors – doing something nice for someone to gain that
person’s approvaval is a form of ingratiation
3.Excuses – explanations of a predicament-creating event
aimed at minimizing the apparent severity of the
predicament is a defensive IM technique
4.Apologies – admitting responsibility for an undesirable
event and simultaneous seeking to get a pardon for the
action is a defensive IM technique
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5.Self-Promotion – highlighting one’s best qualiities, resolving conflicts productively so their disruptive
downplaying one’s deficits, and calling attention to one’s influence can be minimized
achievements is a self-focused IM technique.
6.Enhancement – claiming that something you did is more The Conflict Process
valuable than most other members of the organizations It has 5 stages:
would thinh is a self-focused IM technique
7.Flattery – complimenting others about their virtues in an Stage I : Potential Opposition or Incompatibility
effort to make oneslef appear perceptive and likeable is an The appearance of conditions that create oppotunities for
assertive IM technique. conflict to arise.
8.Examplification – doing more than you need to in an
effort to show how dedicated and hard working you are is Causes of Conflicts:
an assertive IM technique 1. COMMUNICATION
-Arise from semantic difficulties, misunderstandings, and
“noise” in the communication channels
CHAPTER 14 -The potential conflict increases when either too little or
too much communication take place
LEADERSHIP
A DEFINITION OF CONFLICT
Conflict
- A process that begins when one party perceives that
another party has negatively affected, or is about to
negatively affect, something that the first party cares
about.
- Encompasses a wide range of conflicts that people
experience in organizations : Incompatibility of goals,
differences over interpretations of facts, or disagreements
based on behavioral expectations.
TRANSITIONS IN CONFLICT THOUGHT
1. Traditional View of Conflict: The belief that all conflict is
harmful and must be avoided.
Causes of conflict :
- Poor communication 2. STRUCTURE, includes:
- Lack of openness -Size and specialization of jobs
- Failure to respond to employee needs -Jurisdictional clarity/ambiguity
-Member/goal incompatibility
2. Interactionist View of Conflict: The belief that conflict is -Leadership styles (close or participative)
not only a positive force in a group but that it is absolutely -Reward systems (win-lose)
necessary for a group to perform effectively. -Dependence/interdependence of groups
It doesnt propose that all conflicts are good.
- Functional Conflict - Conflict that supports the goals of
the group and improves its performance. 3. PERSONAL VARIABLES, includes:
- Dysfunctional Conflict - Conflict that hinders group Personality
performance Emotions
Values
Types of Conflicts:
a. Task conflicts > Conflicts over content and goals of the Stage II : Cognition and Personalization
work. -Perceived Conflict > Awareness by one or more parties of
b. Relationship conflicts > Conflict based on interpersonal the existence of conditions that create opportunities for
relationships – almost always dysfunctional because it conflict to arise.
increase personality clashes and decrease mutual - Felt Conflict > Emotional involvement in a conflict
understanding which hinders the completion of creating anxiety, tenseness, frustration, or hostility.
organizational tasks.
c. Process conflicts > Conflict over how work gets done. Conflict definition:
1. Negative emotions, allow us to oversimplify issues, lose
3. Managed Conflict View trust, and put negative interpretations on the other party’s
- Research have started to focus more on managing the behavior.
whole in which the conflicts occur, both before and after 2. Positive feelings, increase our tendency to see potential
the behavioural stage of conflict occurs. relationships among the elements of a problem, to take a
- Managed conflict perspective does recognize that conflict broader view of the situation, and to develop more
is probably inevitable, and it focuses more on productive innovative solutions
conflict resolution > the research has swung from
eliminating conflict, to encouraging limited levels of Stage III : Intentions
conflict, and now to finding constructive methods for Intensions are decisions to act in a given way.
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-Reward dissent and punish conflict avoiders

Effort to identify the primary conflict handling intentions
can be defined by using two dimensions: Dysfunctional Outcomes from Conflict
1. Cooperativeness (the degree to which one party -Development of discontent
attempts to satisfy the other’s party concern) -Reduced group effectiveness
2. Assertiveness (the degree to which one party attempts -Retarded communication
to satisfy his or her own concerns) -Reduced group cohesiveness
-Infighting among group members overcomes group goals
5 conflict-handling intentions:
1. Competing (assertive&uncooperative) Negotiation
A desire to satisfy one’s interests, regardless of the impact A process in which two or more parties exchange goods or
on the other party to the conflict. services and attempt to agree on the exchange rate for
2. Collaborating (assertive&cooperative) them.
A situation in which the parties to a conflict each desire to
satisfy fully the concerns of all parties. Bargaining Strategies
3. Avoiding (unassertive&uncooperative) : The desire to Two general approaches to negotiation:
withdraw from or suppress a conflict. 1. Distributive Bargaining
4. Accomodating (unassertive&cooperative) : The Negotiation that seeks to divide up a fixed amount of
willingness of one party in a conflict to place the resources; a win-lose situation.
opponent’s interests above his or her own.
5. Compromising (midrange on both) : A situation in which 2. Integrative Bargaining
each party to a conflict is willing to give up something. Negotiation that seeks one or more settlements that can
create a win-win solution
Stage IV : Behavior
The behavior stage includes: statements, actions, and
reactions made by conflicting parties, usually as overts
attempts to implement their own intensions.
Conflict intensity continuum:
-How to de-escalate the conflict continuum?
By CONFLICT MANAGEMENT : The use of resolution and
stimulation techniques to achieve the desired level of
conflict.
Conflict Management Techniques
Conflict-Resolution techniques:
-Problem solving
-Superordinate goals
-Expansion of resources
-Avoidance
-Smoothing
-Compromise
-Authoritative command
-Altering the human variable
-Altering the structural variables The Negotiation Process
1. Preparation and Planning
Conflict-Stimulation techniques: -Gather information about the conflict, about other party
-Communication and use it
-Bringing in outsiders to develop a strategy
-Restructuring the organization - As a part of your strategy, determine your and the other’s
-Appointing a devil’s advocate side
Best Alternative To a Negotiated Agreement (BATNA)
Stage V : Outcomes
The outcomes may be functional, if the conflict improves 2. Definition of Ground Rules
the group’s performance, or dysfunctional, if it hinders - Defining with the other party the ground rules and
performance procedures of
the negotiation itself
Functional Outcomes from Conflict e.g: who will do the negotiating? Where it will take place?
-Increased group performance What
-Improved quality of decisions time constraints? Etc..
-Stimulation of creativity and innovation
-Encouragement of interest and curiosity 3. Classification and Justification
-Provision of a medium for problem-solving - When you have exchanged initial positions, both of you
-Creation of an environment for self-evaluation and change will explain, amplify, clarify, and justify your original
demands
Creating Functional Conflict - Provide with any documentation that helps to support
your position
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- To find an integrative solution when both sets of

4. Barganing and Problem Solving concerns are too important to be compromised.
- This is where both parties will undoubtedly need to make - When your objective is to learn.
concessions. - To merge insights from people with different
perspectives.
5. Closure and Implementation - To gain commitment by incorporating concerns into a
- Formalizing the agreement that has been worked out and consensus.
developing any procedures necessary for implementation -To work through feelings that have interfered with a
and monitoring relationship.
Individual Differences in Negotiation Effectiveness Use AVOIDANCE
a. Personality traits - When an issue is trivial, or more important issues are
Traits do not appear to have a significantly direct effect on pressing.
the outcomes of either bargaining or negotiating processes - When you perceive no chance of satisfying your concerns.
(except extraversion, which is bad for negotiation - When potential disruption outweighs the benefits of
effectiveness) resolution.
- To let people cool down and regain perspective.
b. Moods/emotions -When gathering information supersedes immediate
In distributive negotiations, it appears that negotiators in a decision.
position of power or equal status who shows anger - When others can resolve the conflict effectively.
negotiate better outcomes because their anger induces -When issues seem tangential or symptomatic of other
concessions from their opponents. In integrative issues.
negotiations, postive moods and emotions appear to lead
more integrative agreements. Use ACCOMODATION
- When you find you’re wrong and to allow a better
c. Gender position to be heard.
-Women negotiate no differently from men, although men - To learn, and to show your reasonableness.
apparently negotiate slightly better outcomes. - When issues are more important to others than to
-Men and women with similar power bases use the same yourself and to satisfy others and maintain cooperation.
negotiating styles. - To build social credits for later issues.
-Women’s attitudes toward negotiation and their success - To minimize loss when outmatched and losing.
as negotiators are less favorable than men’s - When harmony and stability are especially important.
- To allow employees to develop by learning from
Third Party Negotiation mistakes..
4 basic third-party roles:
1. Mediator a neutral third party who facilitates a
negotiated solution by using reasoning and persuasion, CHAPTER 15
suggesting alternatives, and the like
their overall effectiveness is fairly impressive
FOUNDATIONS OF ORGANIATION STRUCTURE
2. Arbitrator a third party with authority to dictate an
agreement
Arbitration can be voluntary (requsted by the parties) or What is an Organizational Structure?
compulsory (forced on the parties by law or contract) Organizational structure defines how job tasks are formally
divided, grouped, and coordinated.
3. Conciliator a trusted third party who provides an
informal communication link between the negotiator and Six elements of an organization’s structure.:
the opponent 1. Work Specialization
Work specialization = the degree to which tasks in an
4. Consultant a skilled and impartial third party who organization are subdivided into separate jobs.
attempts to facilitate problem solving through
communication and analysis, aided by a knowldege of Division of labor:
conflict management -Makes efficient use of employee skills
-Increases employee skills through repetition
Implications -Less between-job downtime increases productivity
Use COMPETITION: -Specialized training is more efficient
- When quick, decisive action is vital (in emergencies); on -Allows use of specialized equipment
important issues.
-Where unpopular actions need implementing (in cost 2. Departmentalization
cutting, enforcing unpopular rules, discipline). Departmentalization = the basis by which jobs in
- On issues vital to the organization’s welfare. organization are grouped together.
- When you know you’re right.
- Against people who take advantage of noncompetitive Grouping activities by:
behavior. -By functions performed. E.g: engineering, accounting, etc
-By the type of product or service the organization
Use COLLABORATION produces.
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-On the basis of geography or territory, when an

organization’s customers are scattered over a large I. The Simple Structure
geographic area and have similar needs based on their A structure characterized by a low degree of
locations. departmentalization, wide spans of control, authority
-By the process. Customer or products probably went centralized in a single person, and little formalization.
through several departments before receiving the service Most widely practiced in small businesses in which the
(for customer) or become the final goods (for products). manager and the owner are one and the same.
-By the type of customers the organization seeks to reach.
Customers in each department have a common set of Advantages:
problems and needs best met by having specialist for each. -It’s fast, flexible and inexpensive to operate
- Accountability is clear
3. Chain of Command
Chain of command = the unbroken line of authority that Disadvantages:
extends from the top of the organization to the lowest -It’s difficult to maintain in anything other than small
echelon and clarifies who reports to whom. organizations
- Becomes increasingly inadequate as an organization
Authority itself is the rights inherent in a managerial grows because its low formalization and high centralization
position to give orders and to expect the orders to be -Decision making typically becomes slower
obeyed. -It’s risky because everything is depend on one person
The unity of command says a person should have one and II. The Bureaucracy
only one superior to whom he or she is directly - A structure of highly operating routine tasks achieved
responsible. through specialization, very formalized rules and
regulations, tasks that are grouped into functional
4. Span of Control departments, centralized authority, narrow spans of
Span of Control = the number of subordinates a manager control, and decision making that follows the chain of
can be efficiently and effectively direct >> The wider or command
larger the span, the more efficient the organization is. - Bureaucracy relies on standardized work processes for
coordination and control. It usually implemented by Bank,
Narrow span have three major drawbacks: Department Store and Government Offices.
1.It’s expensive because it adds levels of management.
2.It makes vertical communication in the organization Advantages:
more complex >> slow down decision making and tend to -Has ability to perform standardized activities in a highly
isolate upper management. efficient manner
3.It encourages overly tight supervision and discourage -Standardized and high formalization allow decision
employee autonomy making to be centralized
5. Centralization and Decentralization Disadvantages:
Centralization = the degree to which decision making is -Obsessive concern with the following rules
concentrated at a single point in an organization. -There is no room for modification
-It’s only efficient as long as employees confront familiar
-Centralized organizations: top managers’ makes all the problems programmed decision rules
decisions, and lower-level managers merely carry out their
directives. III. The Matrix Structure
-Decentralized: the degree to which decision making is A structure that creates dual lines of authority and
spread throughout the organization. combines functional and product departmentalization
A decentralized organization can act more quickly to solve Advantages:
problems, more people provide input into decisions, and - It has ability to facilitate coordination when the
employees are less likely to feel alienated from those who organization has a number of complex and interdependent
make decisions that affect their work lives. activities
-Direct and frequent contacts between different specialties
6. Formalization in the matrix can let information more quickly reach the
Formalization = the degree to which jobs within the people who need it
organization are standardized. -Achieves economics of scale and facilitates the allocation
of specialties by providing both the best resources and an
-High formalization : explicit job descriptions, lots of effective way of ensuring their efficient deployment
organizational rules, and clearly defined procedures
covering work processes in organizations Disadvantages:
-Low formalization : job behaviors are relatively -Without unity of command concept, ambiguity who
unprogrammed, and employees have great deal of reports to whom is significantly increased and often leads
freedom to exercise discretion in their work. to conflict
- Reporting to more than one boss introduces role conflict
Common Organizational Design and unclear expectations introduce role ambiguity.
There are the Simple Structure, the Bureaucracy, and the
Matrix Structure. New Design Options
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1. The Virtual Organization

-A small, core organization that outsources its major Why do Stuctures Differ?
business functions. 1. Mechanistic model
- Highly centralized with little or no departmentalization A structure characterized by extensive
- Minimizes bureucratic overhead because there is no departmentalization, high formalization, a limited
lasting organization to maintain. And it lessen long-term information network, and centralization.
risks and their costs because there is no long term—a team 2. Organic model
is assembled for a finite period and then disbanded. A structure that is flat, uses cross-hierarchical and cross-
functional teams, has low formalization, possesses a
Advantage : Provides maximum flexibility while comprehensive information network, and relies on
concentrating on what the organization does best. participative decision making
Disadvantages : Less adaptable and innovative than those
with well-established communication and collaboration The major causes of differentiation an organization’s
networks, reduced control over key parts of the business. structure:
i. Strategy
2. The Boundaryless Organization - Innovation strategy is a strategy that emphasizes the
This is an organization that seeks to eliminate the chain of introduction of major new products and services.
command, have limitless spans of control, and replace Innovative firms will use competitive pay and benefits to
departments with empowered teams. attract top candidates and motivate employees to take
risks.
This type has T-form Concepts : - Cost-minimization strategy is a strategy that emphasizes
-Eliminate vertical (hierarchial) and horizontal yight cost controls, avoidance of unnecessary innovation or
(departmental) internal boundaries marketing expenses, and price cutting.
-Break down external barriers to customers and suppliers - Imitation strategy is a strategy that seeks to move into
new products or new markets only after their viability has
>> The Leaner Organization : Organization Downsizing << already been proven.
The goal of the new organizational forms is to improve
agility by creating a lean, focused, and flexible ii. Organization Size
organization. Companies may need to cut divisions that How the size of an organization affects its structure. As an
aren’t adding value. Downsizing is a systematic effort to organization grows larger, it becomes more mechanistic.
make an organization learner by selling off business units,
closing locations, or reducing staff. Characteristics of large organizations:
More specialization
Impacts: More vertical levels
-It may cause loss of market share and changes in More rules and regulations
consumer demand. Some companies probably needed
downsizing just to be suvive, and others do to direct all iii. Technology
their efforts toward their core competencies. Technology describes the way an organization transfers
-Can reduce bureaucracy and speed decision making. inputs into outputs. The common theme that differentiates
-Reducing the size of the workforce has an immediately technologies is their degree of routines.
positive outcome in the huge reduction in wage costs
-Employee attitudes. They will feel worried about future Characteristics of routineness (standardized or customized)
layoffs and may be less committed to the organization. It in activities:
can also lead to more voluntary turnover so vital human 1. Routine technologies are associated with tall,
capital is lost. departmentalized structures and formalization in
organizations.
The following are some effective strategies for downsizing 2. Routine technologies lead to centralization when
and suggestions for implementing them. formalization is low.
1. Investment 3. Nonroutine technologies are associated with delegated
Companies that downsize to focus on core competencies decision authority.
are more effective when they invest in high-involvement
work practices afterward iv. Environment
Environment includes outside institutions or forces outside
2. Communication an organization that potentially affect the organization’s
Employees are less worried about outcomes and feel the performance, such as suppliers, customer, government,
company is taking their perspective into account while etc. An organization’s structure can be affected by
they are involving in discussion. environmental uncertainty.
3. Participation Organization’s environment has three dimensions:
Employees worry less if they can participate in the process a. Capacity refers to the degree to which the environment
in some way. can support growth.
b. Volatility describes the degree of instability in the
4. Assistance environment.
Providing severance, extended health care benefits, and c. Complexity is the degree of heterogeneity and
job search assistance demonstrates a company does really concentration among environmental elements.
care about its employees and honors their contributions.
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Simple environments are homogeneus and concentrated, 2. Attention to detail – the degree to which employees are
and heterogeneity one are complex and diverse, with expected to exhibit precision, analysis, and attention to
numerous competitors. detail
3. Outcome orientation – the degree to which
Some general conclusions: management focuses on results or outcomes rather than
The more scarce, dynamic, and complex the environment, on the techniques and processes used to achieve them
the more organic a structure should be. The more 4. People orientation – the degree to which management
abundant, stable, and simple the environment, the more decisions take into consideration the effect of outcomes on
the mechanistic structure will be preferred. people within organization
5. Team orientation – the degree to which work activities
Organizational Designs and Employee Behavior are organized around teams rather than individuals
Research Findings: 6. Aggressiveness – the degree to which people are
Work specialization contributes to higher employee aggressive and competitive rather than easygoing
productivity, but it reduces job satisfaction. 7. Stability – the degree to which organizational activities
The benefits of specialization have decreased rapidly as emphasize maintaining the status quo in contrast to
employees seek more intrinsically rewarding jobs. growth
The effect of span of control on employee performance is
contingent upon individual differences and abilities, task Do Organizations Have Uniform Cultures?
structures, and other organizational factors.
Participative decision making in decentralized 1. Dominant Culture
organizations is positively related to job satisfaction. Expresses the core values that are shared by a majority of
the organization’s members.
Summary and Implications for Manager Core Values : The primary or dominant values that are
accepted throughout the organization.
2. Subcultures
Minicultures within an organization, typically defined by
department designations and geographical separation
>> Strong vs Weak Culture<<
- If most employees have the same opinions about the
organization’s mission and values, the culture is strong; if
opinions vary widely, the culture is weak
- Strong Culture : A culture in which the core values are
intensely held and widely shared.
- A strong culture should reduce employee turnover,
because it demonstrayes high agreement about what the
organization represents
>>Culture vs Formalization<<
This diagram summarizes the discussion of this chapter. A strong culture increases behavioral consistency and can
Strategy, size, technology, and environment determine the act as a substitute for formalization.
type of structure an organization will have. To simplify, we
classify the structural designs to mechanistic and organic. WHAT DO CULTURES DO?
The specific effect of structural designs on performance Cultures Functions:
and satisfaction is moderated by employee’s individual 1. Creates distinction between one organization and
preferences and cultural norms. Finally, technology is others.
reshaping work such that organizational structures may be 2. Conveys a sense of identity for its members.
increasingly amorphous. This allows a manager the 3. Facilitates the generation of commitment to something
flexibility of taking into account things like employee larger than individual self-interest.
preferences, experience, and culture to design work 4. Enhances the stability of the social system.
systems that truly motivate their employees 5. Serves as a sense-making and control mechanism for
fitting employees in the organization.
CHAPTER 16 Organizational climate : the shared perceptions
organizational members have about their organizations
ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE and work environment. A positive overall workplace
climate has been linked to higher customer satisfaction
and financial performance as well.
WHAT IS ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE?
Organizational Culture is a system of shared meaning held Culture as a Liability
by members that distinguishes the organization from other Institutionalization : When an organization takes on a life
organizations. of its own, apart from any of its members, becomes valued
for itself, and acquires immortality.
7 characteristics:
1. Innovation and risk taking – the degree to which 1. Barrier to change
employees are encouraged to be innovative and take risks
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Consistency of behavior, an asset in stable environment,

may then burden the organization and make it difficult to How Employees Learn Culture
respond to changes – the strong culture is no longer Culture is transmitted in a number of forms, such as:
effective now. - Stories, typically contain a narrative of events about the
2. Barrier to diversity organization;s founders, rule breaking, rags-to-riches
Because diverse behaviors and unique strengths are likely successes, reduction in the workforce, relocation of
to diminish as people attempt to assimilate, strong employees, reacrions to past mistakes and organizational
cultures can become liabilities when they effectively coping.
eliminate these advantages. Strong cultures can also be - Rituals, are repetitive sequences of activities that express
liablities when they support institutional bias or become and reinforce the key values of the organization, which
insensitive to people who are different goals are most important, which people are important, and
3. Barrier to acquisitions and mergers which people are expandable
- Material Symbols
Creating and Sustaining Culture What conveys to employees who is important, the degree
How a Culture Begins.. of egalitarianism top management desires, and the kinds of
Culture creation occurs in three ways: behavior that are appropriate
1. Founders hire and keep only employees who think and - Language
feel the same way they do.
2. Founders indoctrinate and socialize these employees to Creating an Ethical Organizational Culture
their way of thinking and feeling.
3. The founders’ own behavior acts as a role model that Characteristics of Organizations that Develop High Ethical
encourages employees to identify with them and thereby Standards
internalize their beliefs, values, and assumptions. o High tolerance for risk
o Low to moderate in aggressiveness
Keeping a Culture Alive o Focus on means as well as outcomes
1. Selection
o Concern with how well the candidates will fit into the Managerial Practices Promoting an Ethical Culture
organization. o Being a visible role model
o Provides information to candidates about the o Communicating ethical expectations
organization. o Providing ethical training
2. Top Management o Rewarding ethical acts and punishing unethical ones
o Senior executives help establish behavioral norms that o Providing protective mechanisms
are adopted by the organization.
3. Socialization Creating a Positive Organizational Culture
o The process that helps new employees adapt to the Positive organizational culture emphasizes building on
organization’s culture. employee strength, rewards more than it punishes, and
o Socialization process has an impact on the new emphasizes individual vitality and growth.
employee’s work productivity, commitment to
organization’s objectives, and eventual decision to stay Spirituality and Organizational Culture
with the organization Workplace Spirituality The recognition that people have an
inner life that nourishes and is nourished by meaningful
o 3 stages: work that takes place in the context of the community.
1. Pre-arrival stage
The period of learning in the socialization process that Characteristics:
occurs before a new employee joins the organization - Strong sense of purpose – people wnat to be inspired by a
2. Encounter stage purpose they believe it is important and wothwhile
The stage in the socialization process in which a new - Trust and respect – mutual trust, honesty, and openness
employee sees what the organization is really like and - Humanistic work practices – flexible work schedules,
confronts the possibility that expectations and reality may group and organization based rewards, narrowing of pay
diverge and status differentials, guarantees of individual worker
3. Metamorphosis stage (Exhibit 16-3) rights, employee empowerment, and job security
The stage in the socialization process in which a new - Toleration of employee expression – allow people to be
employee changes and adjusts to the work, work group, themselves, to express their moods and feelings without
and organization guilt or fear of reprimand
How Organizational Cultures Have an Impact on
Performance and Satisfaction
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-Are better for assessing applied mental skills,

conscientiousness, interpersonal skills, and person-
organization fit of the applicant.
Contingent Selection - if application pass the substantive
selection methods, they are ready to be hired, contingent
on a final check.
One common contingent method is: a drug test.
TRAINING & DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMS
Types of Training
Four general skill categories:
1. Basic literacy – organizations have to teach employees
basic reading and math skills.
CHAPTER 17 Including writing and readinf charts, graphs, and bulletin
boards, increased abilities to use fractions and decimals,
HR POLICIES AND PRACTICES better overall communication, and a significant increase in
confidence.
2. Technical skills – for two reasons: new technology and
SELECTION PRACTICES new structural designs inthe organization.
The objective of effective selection is to figure out who is 3. Interpersonal skills – employees’ work performance
the right people, by matching individual characteristics depends on their ability to effectively interact with their
with the requirement of the job. co-workers and boss, so they require training to improve
listening, communicating, and team-building skills.
SELECTION PROCESS 4. Problem-solving skills – include activities to sharpen
Initial Selection – the first information applicants summit employees’ logic, reasoning, and problem defining skills as
and are used for preliminary rough cuts to decide whether well as their abilities to assess causation, develop, and
the applicant meets the basic qualifications for a job analyze alternatives, and select solutions.
Device: What about Ethics Training?

1. Application forms Argument against ethics training: Personal values and
2. Background checks value systems are fixed at an early age
Substantive Selection - these are the heart of the selection Arguments for ethics training:
process, and include written tests, performance tests, and o Values can be learned and changed after early childhood.
interviews o Training helps employees recognize ethical dilemmas and
become aware of ethical issues related to their actions.
Written Tests o Training reaffirms the organization’s expectation that
Applicants tend to view this less valid and fair than members will act ethically.
interviews or performance tests.
Include : Training Method
1. Intelligence or cognitive ability tests 1. Formal Training = planned in advance and having a
2. Personality tests structured format.
3. Integrity tests 2. Informal Training = unstructure, unplanned, and easily
4. Interest inventories adapted to situations and individual.
Tests must show a valid connection to job-related 3. On-the-Job Training = include job rotation,
performance requirements. apprenticeships, understudy assignments, and formal
mentoring programs.
Performance-simulation Tests 4. Off-the-Job Training = by using classrom lectures,
Based on job-related performance requirements. Yield videotapes, public seminars, self-study programs, internet
validities (correlation with job performance) superior to courses, and group activities that use role-plays and case-
written aptitude and personality tests. studies.
2 best known: 5. E-training = online courses covering everything from
1.) Work sample tests - Creating a miniature replica of a products to policies
job to evaluate the performance abilities of job candidates.
2.) Assessment centers - A set of performance-simulation Individualizing Formal Training to Fit the Employee’s
tests designed to evaluate a candidate’s managerial Learning Style
potential - Readings
- Lectures
Interviews -Participation and Experiential Exercises
-Are the most frequently used selection tool. - Visual Aids
-Carry a great deal of weight in the selection process.
-Can be biased toward those who “interview well.” Performance Evaluation
-Should be structured to ensure against distortion due to 3 major types of behavior that constitute performance at
interviewers’ biases. work:
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1. Task Performance – performing the duties and How to evaluate an employee performance?
responsibilities that contribute to the production of a good 1. Written Essay
or service or to administrative tasks A narrative describing an employee’s strengths,
2. Citizenship – actions that contribute to the psychological weaknesses, past performances, potential, and suggestions
environment of the organization, such as helping others for improvement
when not required 2. Critical Incidents
3. Counterproductivity – actions that actively damage the Evaluating the behaviors that are key in making the
organization, including stealing, behaving, aggresively difference between executing a job effectively and
toward co-workers, or being late or absent executing it ineffectively
3. Graphic Rating Scales
Purposes of Performance Evaluation: An evaluation method in which the evaluator rates
1. Making general human resource decisions. performance factors on an incremental scale.
Promotions, transfers, and terminations
2. Identifying training and development needs.
Employee skills and competencies
3. Validating selection and development programs.
Employee performance compared to selection evaluation
and anticipated performance results of participation in
training
4. Providing feedback to employees.
The organization’s view of their current performance
5. Supplying the basis for rewards allocation decisions.
Merit pay increases and other rewards
What Do We Evaluate?
a) Individual task outcomes, such as quantity produces, Behaviorally Anchored Rating Scales (BARS)
scrap generated, and cost per unit of production for a plant Scales that combine major elements from the critical
manager or on overall sales volume in the territory, dollar incident and graphic rating scale approaches: The appraiser
increase sales, etc rates the employees based on items along a continuum,
b) Behaviors – we may readily evaluate the group’s but the points are examples of actual behavior on a given
performance, but it is hard to identify the contribution of job rather than general descriptions or traits.
each group member
c) Traits – the weekest criteria. Having a good attitude, Forced Comparisons
showing confidence, being dependable, looking busy, etc Evaluating one individual’s performance relative to the
may or may not be highly correlated with postive task performance of another individual or others.
outcomes
-Group Order Ranking
What should do the Evaluating? An evaluation method that places employees into a
- Managers particular classification, such as quartiles.
- Peers and subordinates - Individual Ranking
- 360-degree evaluation An evaluation method that rank-orders employees from
best to worse.
Suggestions for Improving Performance Evaluations
1. Use multiple evaluators to overcome rater biases.
2. Evaluate selectively based on evaluator competence.
3. Train evaluators to improve rater accuracy.
4. Provide employees with due process.
Providing Performance Feedback
Why Managers Are Reluctant to Give Feedback
– Uncomfortable discussing performance weaknesses
directly with employees.
– Employees tend to become defensive when their
weaknesses are discussed.
– Employees tend to have an inflated assessment of their
own performance.
Solutions to Improving Feedback
– Train managers in giving effective feedback.
– Use performance review as counseling activity than as a
judgment process.
Managing Work-Life Conflicts
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Planned Change
Change -- Making things different
Planned Change -- Activities that are intentional and goal
oriented
The goals of Planned Change:

1. Improve the ability of organization to adapt
Managing Diversity in Organizations 2. It seeks to change employee behavior
Diversity Training -- Participants learn to value individual
differences, increase cross-cultural understanding, and Change agents – people in organization who is responsible
confront stereotypes. for managing change activities.They see the future of
organization that others havent identified, and they are
able to motivate,intent, and implement this vision.
CHAPTER 18
Resistance to Change
Forms of Resistance to Change
ORGANIZATIONAL CHANGE & STRESS MANAGEMENT o Overt and immediate - Voicing complaints, engaging in
job actions
FORCES FOR CHANGE o Implicit and deferred - Loss of employee loyalty and
No company today is in a particularly stable environment. motivation, increased errors or
Even those with dominant market share must mistakes, increased absenteeism
change, sometimes radically. Source of Resistance to Change
Six specific forces stimulating change: o Individual sources
1. Habit Security
2. Economic factors
3. Fear of the unknown
4. Selective information processing
o Organizational sources
1. Structural inertia
2. Limited focus of change
3. Group inertia
4. Threat to expertise
5. Threat to established power relationship
Overcoming Resistance to Change
o Education and communication
Communicating the logic of change can reduce employee
resistance:
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1. It fights the effect of misinformation and clear up a. Establish a sense of urgency by creating a compelling
misundrstandings reason for why change is needed.
2. It can help “sell” the need for change by packaging it b. Form a coalition with enough power to lead the change.
properly c. Create a new vision to direct the change and strategies
for achieving the vision.
o Participation d. Communicate the vision throughout the organization.
Expertise can help to make a meaningful contribution, e. Empower others to act on the vision by removing
their involvement can reduce resistance, obtain barriers to change and encouraging risk taking and creative
commitment, and increase quality of the change decision problem solving.
f. Plan for, create, and reward short-term “wins” that move
o Building support and commitment the organization toward the new vision.
Counseling and therapy, new-skills training or a short-paid g. Consolidate improvements, reassess changes, and make
leave of absence may facilitate adjustment necessary adjustments in the new programs.
h. Reinforce the changes by demonstrating the relationship
o Develop positive relationships between new behaviors and organizational success.
People are more willing to accept changes if they trust the
managers implementing them III. ACTION RESEARCH
A change process based on systematic collection of data
o Implementing changes fairly and then selection of a change action based on what the
Its crucial that employees see the reason for the change analyzed data indicates.
and perceive its
implementation as consistent and fair Process Steps:
1. Diagnosis
o Manipulation and cooptation 2. Analysis
Manipulation refers to convert influence attempts. 3. Feedback
Twisting facts to make them more attractive, withholding 4. Action
information, and creating false rumors to get employees to 5. Evaluation
accept change are all examples of manipulation.
Cooptation combines manipulation and participation. Action research benefits:
-Problem-focused rather than solution-centered.
o Selecting people who accept change -Heavy employee involvement reduces resistance to
change.
o Coercion
Coercion is the application of direct threats or force on IV. ORGANIZATIONAL DEVELOPMENT
resisters A collection of planned interventions, built on humanistic-
democratic values, that seeks to improve organizational
The Politics of Change effectiveness and employee well-being.
o Impetus for change is likely to come from outside change OD methods value human and organizational growth,
agents. collaborative and participative processes, and a spirit of
o Internal change agents are most threatened by their loss inquiry
of status in the organization.
o Long-time power holders tend to implement only OD values:
incremental change. o Respect for people
o The outcomes of power struggles in the organization will o Trust and support
determine the speed and o Power equalization
quality of change. o Confrontation
o Participation
Approaches to Managing Organizational Change OD techniques:
I. LEWIN’S THREE-STEP MODEL 1. Sensitivity training
Successful change in organizations should follow three -Training groups (T-groups) that seek to change behavior
steps: through unstructured group interaction.
1. Unfreezing the status quo - Provides increased awareness of others and self.
Change efforts to overcome the pressures of both - Increases empathy with others, improves listening skills,
individual resistance and group conformity greater openness, and increased tolerance for others.
2. Movement to a desired end state
3. Refreezing the new change to make it permanent 2. Survey feedback
Stabilizing a change intervention by balancing driving and The use of questionnaires to identify discrepancies among
restraining forces. member perceptions; discussion follows and remedies are
Driving forces = forces that direct behavior away from the suggested
status quo
Restraining forces = forces that hinder movement from the 3.Process Consultant (PC)
existing equilibrium A consultant gives a client insights into what is going on
around the client, within the client, and between the client
II. KOTTER’S EIGHT-STEP PLAN and other people; identifies processes that need
improvement.
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4. Team Building 2. Double-Loop Learning

High interaction among team members to increase trust Errors are corrected by modifying the organization’s
and openness. objectives, policies, and
Activities: standard routines.
o Goal and priority setting.
o Developing interpersonal relations. o Fundamental Problems in Traditional Organizations:
o Role analysis to each member’s role and responsibilities. 1. Fragmentation based on specialization.
o Team process analysis 2. Overemphasis on competition.
3. Reactiveness that misdirects attention to problem-
5. Intergroup Development solving rather than creation.
-OD efforts to change the attitudes, stereotypes, and
perceptions that groups have of each other. o Managing Learning
- Intergroup Problem Solving: 1. Establish a Strategy
o Groups independently develop lists of perceptions. 2. Redesign the Organization’s Structure
o Share and discuss lists. 3. Reshape the organization’s culture
o Look for causes of misperceptions.
o Work to develop integrative solutions. Work Stress and Its Management
Stress
6. Appreciative Inquiry A dynamic condition in which an individual is confronted
Seeks to identify the unique qualities and special strengths with an opportunity, constraint, or demand related to
of an organization, which can then be built on to improve what he or she desires and for which the outcome is
performance. perceived to be both uncertain and important.
o Discovery: recalling the strengths of the organization.
o Dreaming: speculation on the future of the organization. Types:
o Design: finding a common vision. 1.) Challenge stressors – stressors associated with
o Destiny: deciding how to fulfill the dream. workload, pressure to complete tasks, and time urgency
2.) Hindrance stressors – stressors that keep you from
Creating a Culture for Change reaching your goals
Stimulating a culture of Innovation
Innovation – a new idea applied to initiating or improving a More typically, stress is associated with DEMANDS –
product, process, or service. responsibilities, pressures, obligations, and uncertainties
individuals face in the workplace and RESOURCES – things
Sources of Innovation: within an individual’s control that he or she can use to
Structural variables selolve demands.
Organic structures; positively influence innovation
because they’re lower in vertical differentiation, Potential sources of Stress
formalization and centralization, it facilitate flexibility, Environmental Factors
adaptation, and cross-fertilization that make the adoption – Economic uncertainties of the business cycle
of innovations easier. – Political uncertainties of political systems
Long-tenured management – Technological uncertainties of technical innovations
Slack resources – Terrorism in threats to physical safety and security
Interunit communication; high in innovative organizations Organizational Factors
– are high users of committees, task forces, cross – Task demands related to the job
functional teams, etc – Role demands of functioning in an organization
Organization’s culture – Interpersonal demands created by other employees
Human resources Individual Factors
Idea Champions -- Individuals who take an innovation and – Family and personal relationships
actively and enthusiastically promote the idea, build – Economic problems from exceeding earning capacity
support, overcome resistance, and ensure that the idea is – Personality problems arising from basic disposition
implemented. Individual Differences
– Perceptual variations of how reality will affect the
Creating a Learning Organization individual’s future
o Learning Organization -- An organization that has – Greater job experience moderates stress effects
developed the continuous capacity to adapt and change. – Social support buffers job stress
– Internal locus of control lowers perceived job stress
o Characteristics: – Strong feelings of self-efficacy reduce reactions to job
1. Holds a shared vision. stress
2. Discards old ways of thinking.
3. Views organization as system of relationships. Consequences of Stress
4. Communicates openly. 1. Physiological symptoms
5. Works together to achieve shared vision. Stress could create changes in metabolism, increase heart
and breathing rates and blood pressure, bring on
o The ways they engage: headaches, and induce heart attacks
1. Single-Loop Learning
Errors are corrected using past routines and present 2. Psychological symptoms
policies.
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It states in tension, anxiety, irritability, boredom, and PT. XYZ did not have an R&D division at that time; R&D
procrastination was a subdivision under Sales and Marketing Division.
Duran Antonio was a fresh graduate from one of the best
3. Behavioral symptoms universities in Indonesia and had an excellent leadership
Include changes in productivity, absence, and turnover, as potential, attractive personality, and great organizational
well as changes in eating habits,increased smoking or experience.
consumption of alcohol, rapid speech, fidgeting, and sleep Furthermore, he also had an outstanding academic
disorders. achievement.
After one year, the performance appraisal showed that
Managing Stress Duran was a good employee who always achieved the
Individual Approaches targets and brought positive influence to his colleagues
– Implementing time management within and outside his division. Due to tighter
– Increasing physical exercise competition that required faster innovation, PT. XYZ
– Relaxation training decided to form R&D division
– Expanding social support network and hired two more employees. With this change, Robert
Sitompul was promoted to the manager of R&D division
Organizational Approaches with three subordinates (Duran Antonio and two new
– Improved personnel selection and job placement hires).
– Training This change resulted to lower performance of Duran
– Use of realistic goal setting Antonio. Robert Sitompul felt that Duran Antonio
– Redesigning of jobs changed a lot: often not in his room, missed the targets
– Increased employee involvement several times, and became introvert.
– Improved organizational communication Robert then found out that Duran accidentally heard the
– Offering employee sabbaticals conversation between his two new colleagues and got
– Establishment of corporate wellness programs information that they were paid higher with significant
difference with his salary. Duran felt disappointed and he
UTS SEMESTER GASAL 2012/2013 PERILAKU became de-motivated at work. He felt not being correctly
KEORGANISASIAN recognized and being unfairly treated. Duran also found
out the new hires had lower qualifications compared to
his when he firstly applied for the position. Duran is now
150 menit (Closed Book) thinking to leave PT.XYZ and apply for a new job at one of
the competitors.
Questions:
Question 1 a. Please analyze and explain why Duran was
a. What is emotional labor? What is positive or negative disappointed and left PT XYZ, by using
effect of emotional labor both to organization and motivation theory discussed in class.
employees? Please explain! b. With motivation theory you use to explain the
b. The understanding of emotion and moods can help us condition in the previous question, what can Robert, as a
explain and predict certain aspects such as selection, manager, and the HR Division do to improve the
decision making, negotiation, and deviant workplace situation?
behavior. Please explain the association of emotion and
moods to those 4 factors! Question 5
a. Organization Behavior can help a manager in
Question 2 understanding employees behavior in
a. What is job Characteristic Model and its 5 dimensions? organization. OB is a multi-discipline subjects. What is the
Please explain how this model could motivate employees. meaning of “multi-disciplines”
b. Please mention and explain 3 alternatives of work in OB and what are the consequences for managers in
arrangement. Give your opinion about advantages and understanding employees behavior?
disadvantages of those 3 alternatives if they are b. What is dependent variable Please mention and
implemented in Indonesia. explain dependent variables in OB.
Question 6
Question 3 a. Please mention and explain the stages of group
a. In identifying one’s personality, two frameworks can be development
used to help decision making in organization, which are b. What are the differences between group and team?
MBTI and The Big Five Model. Please briefly explain MBTI How can you differentiate team with
and the five dimensions in The Big Five Model, and how group? Are the differences can be seen clearly?
these dimensions relate to manager’s performance. Question 7
b. In decision making, biases and errors could happen due a. Ability directly affects employees performance. Please
to false use of experience, intention, instinct, etc. please mention and explain three things that
explain at least five types of biases and errors that could a manager can do to improve employees ability
occur in decision making. b. What are the outcomes of job satisfaction? What are
the implications of the outcomes to
Question 4 management?
PT XYZ hired Duran Antonio for the position of Research
and Development (R&D) staff which, for the pas one year, Jawab
had only been staffed by one employee, Robert Sitompul.
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1a. Emotional labor adalah situasi dimana seorang -Flextime : yaitu jam kerja yang fleksibel. DI
karyawan mengekspresikan emosi-emosi yang diinginkan jakarta,flextime diterapkan untuk wilayah macet ,dimana
secara organisasional selama transaksi antar personal di beberapa pekerja masuk lebih siang. Flextime tepat untuk
tempat kerja.Yang tampak pada kita pada umumnya digunakan di lingkungan perkotaan karena tingkat dinamis
bukannya karakter sebenarnya dari karyawan tersebut. kaum urban yang memiliki stres yang tinggi,flextime
Efek negatifnya adalah penarikan diri,job burn out,sikap mengurangi stres akibat kemacetan. Namun,flextime
yang buruk dan depresi. Efek positifnya adalah kurang tepat diterapkan di kota kecil yang tidak macet
profesionalisme pekerja dan membaurnya bekerja karena akan menimbulkan lay-off pada jam kerja.
kedalam organisasi
3a. MBTI adalah indikator yang mengklasifikaikan manusia
b. Emotional intellgience (EI)merupakan bentuk menjadi 16 jenis watak yaitu :
pengaplikasian emotion and moods dalam praktek 1. Extroverted : sociable ,assertive
lingkungan kerja,yaitu kemampuan mendeteksi dan 2. Introverted : quiet, shy
mengelola emosi dan informasin,salah satu bentuk 3. Sensing : practical ,prefer routine
keahlian dan kemampuan serta kompetensi non-kognitif 4. Intuitive : utilize,unconscious
yang mempengaruhi kesuksesan seseorang beradaptasi 5. Thinking : reasonable, logical
dalam tuntutan dan tekanan lingkungan sekitarnya 6. Feeling : rely on values,rely on emotions
Selection : EI dapat diterapkan pada saat melakukan 7. Judgers : order, structure
seleksi pencari kerja 8. Perceiving L flexible,spontaneous
Decision making : orang yang memiliki moods yang baik
akan lebih menggunakan atuan heuristik untuk membuat Big five model adalah lima dimensi dasar yang
keputusan secara cepat,orang yang putus asa lamban menunjukkan variasi yang paling signifikan dari watak
memproses informasi manusia :
Deviant workplace behaviors : orang yang mampu 1. Extraversion : good social skikk
mengatasi emosi negatif lebih cenderung untuk bisa 2.Agreeableness : respective and leading
beradaptasi dan terlibat dalam lingkungan deviant di 3.Conscientiousness : relaible
tempat kerjanya 4.Emotional stability : withstand on stress
5. Openness to experience : creative
2a. Job characteristic model adalah model yang
menunjukkan esensi sebuah pekerjaan yang bisa dijeaskan Klasifikasi watak ,baik menggunakan MBTI atau big five
berdasar 5 inti dimensinya ,yaitu : model dapat menejelaskan sikap seseorang di dalam
-Skill variety : tingkat dimana sebuah pekerjaan organisasi . Kombinasi dari beberapa watak di atas
membutuhkan variasi aktivitas berbeda menetukan keberhasilan seorang manajer dalam
-Task identity : tingkat dimana sebuah pekerjaan pekerjaannya,misalnya bagi seorang HRD memahami
membutuhkan penyelesaiannya secara utuh watak-watak di atas bisa membuatnya menangani SDM
-Task significance : tingkat dimana sebuah pekerjaan secara lebih baik , di saat seleksi maupun rutinitas sehari.-
memiliki dampak terhadap orang lain hari. Bagi seorang manajer operasional, watak-watak
-Autonomy : tingkat dimana sebuah pekerjaan seperti extraversion, dan agreeableness membantunya
memberikan kebebasan substantif terhadap diskresi konsisten untuk memipin dengan sistematis, bagi seorang
seseorang dalam mengatur kerja dan prosedurnya untuk manajer pemasaran,watak seperti openness to experience
mengerjakannya bisa membuatnya mampu menelurkan ide dan inovasi
Feed back : tingkat dimana melakukan aktivitas langsung untuk memasarkan produk dengan sukses
memberikan informasi tentang kinerja personal
b. Bias-bias yang umum terjadi saat pengambilan
Kelima karakter pekerjaan ini bisa diterapkan untuk keputusan :
meningkatkan motivasi pekerja ,karena ini bisa dipakai 1. Overconfidence bias = mempercayai kemampuan diri
untuk menentukan job design di sebuah organisasi secara berlebih, misalnya seseorang menjamin
Kombinasi atas lima elemen ini bisa menghasilkan kemungkinan sesuatu hal 100%
beberapa hasil personal seperti motivasi kerja,performa 2. Anchoring bias : membuat keputusan berdasarkan
kerja, kepuasan kerja,dan tingkat absenteeism dan informasi yang diterima sebelumnya bukan pada informasi
turnover yang rendah yang lebih anyar, misalnya seseorang menganggap harga
sebuah gadget lebih murah dibanding saat peluncurannya
b. Ada tiga jebis job arrangement : ,emskipun harganya sebenarnya masih terlalu tinggi
-Job Sharing : aturan yang membolehkan dua individu dibanding penilaian orang kebanyakan
membagi jam kerjanya. Diindonesia ini bisa diterapkan 3. Confirmation bias : memilih fakta yang mendukung
untuk pekerjaan repetitif,untuk pekerjaan yang keputusan dan mengabaikan fakta yang membatasi
membutuhkan skill tinggi, job sharing akan membuat keberhasilan sebuah solusi.
pekerjaan jadi tidak runtut karena adanya perbedaan 4. Availability bias L menekankan pada informasi yang
presepsi dalam melakukan high-skill work paling intens didapat.misalnya orang lebih takut naik
-Telecommuting : bekerja dari rumah minimal 2 kali pewasat dibanding mobil meskipun kecelakaan pesawat
seminggu melalui komputer yang terhubung ke kantor. lebih tidak frekuen dibanding lecelakaan mobil,karena
Telecommuting kurang tepat dilakukan untuk pekerjaan media lebih concern menyiarkan berita kecelakaan
yang membutuhkan direct interface seperti PR,atau pesawat maka informasi itu lebih terserap
marketing. Namun tepat diterpakan untuk pekerjaan yang 5. Escalation of commitment : meningkatkan komitmen
memiliki task completion yang bia dikerjakan secara pada keputusan yang sebenarnya sudah salah, misalnya
personal seperti arsitek atau programer
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saat harga saham jatuh seorang ivnestor tetap membeli keputusan untuk membantu tiap anggota dalam grup
lebih banyak lagi berkinerja sesuai bidang dan tanggungjawabnya
-Workteam (tim kerja) adalah beberapa individu yang
4a. Dalam kasus diatas Duran yang tadinya berkinerja bersinergi melalui usaha dan kinerjanya, dimana hasil kerja
cemerlang ,menjadi sebaliknya setelah dua staff lain individu menghasilkan kinerja yang lebih besar dari
seperti dirinya direkrut namun menerima kompensasi yang gabungan kerja individu yang tidak dalam satu tim kerja
lebih tinggi dari dirinya meskipun kapabilitas mereka lebih Perbedaan keduanya terlihat dari attraction (cohesiveness
rendah. Menurut teori motivasi,salah satunya adalah antar anggota didalamnya). Di dalam wokgrup tiap anggota
hierarki kebutuhan individu menurut Abraham masliw , bertanggungjawab atas anggota yg lain untuk sukses dalam
Duran terdemotivasi karena beberapa faktor : melakukan tugasnya,sedangkan workteam adalah individu
1. faktor eksternal : Duran merasa tidak diakuii yang bertanggungjawab atas dirinya masing-masing namun
kapabilitasnya dan pencapaiannyadengan pemberian bekerja dengan sinergis
kompensasi yang lebi rendah tersebut
2. faktor fisiologis : duran merasa kebutuhan materi relatif 7a. Tiga hal yang bisa dilakukan manajer untuk
tidak seimbang dipenuhi sesuai dengan kemampuannya meningkatkan ability pekerjanya : -selection ,promotion ,-
transfer
b. Sebagai manager dari divisi R&D , robert bisa melakukan
konsultasi dengan duran jika ada alasan logis mengapa b. Outcome dari job satisfaction dan implikasinya bagi
kedua staf lain memliki kompensasi lebih tinggi (misalnya manajer:
karena minimnya pelamar,jadi untuk menarik maka -Job satisfaction bisa meningkatkan kinerja seorang
dinaikkan gajinya) ,robert harus bereaksi atas ini dengan pegawai
memberi kompensasi duran setara atau lebih dibanding -pekerja yang puas pada perkejaannya lebih mungkin
dua pegawainya. Prestasi dan pencapain duran seharusnya untuk telibat dalam 0rganizational citizenship behaviour
diakui karena motivasi kerja bisa muncul karena adanya -pegawai yang puas pada pekerjaannya bisa meningkatkan
job involvement dan job satisfaction dimana seorang kepuasan dan loyalitas konsumen karena ditangani dengan
pekerja merasa pekerjaaanya diakui hasilnya dan ia merasa baik
puas atas kinerjanya
5. a. OB merupakan wadah dari berbagai ilmu maka dari itu
disebut ilmu multidisiplin . Beberapa disiplin ilmu yang
menyumbang konsepsi dalam OB adalah : UTS SEMESTER GASAL 2015/2016 PERILAKU
1. Psikologi : Learning, motivation, training and job KEORGANISASIAN
satisfaction, individual decision making, employee
selection, work design,work stress]
2. Psikologi sosial :behaviuoral change, communication, 150 menit (Closed Book)
group processes, group decision making
3. Sosiologi : group dunamics, work teams,
power,conflict,organizational culture4. Antropologi :
organizaiton environment, co mparative values,cross SOAL 1
cultural analysis a. sebutkan dan jelaskan (beserta contoh ) tiga tantangan
Dengan memahami OB seorang manajer bisa memiliki dan peluang yang dihadapi manajer dalam mengaplikasi
interpersonal skill karena memahami intelijensi atas watak konsep perilaku keorganisasian
pribadinya dan watak orang lain, skill ini dibutuhkan dalam b. menurut anda ,apakah keberagaman akan
kepemimpinan dan komunikasi. mendatangkan keuntungan atau kerugian bagi organisasi
? Berikan alasan yang mendasari pendapat anda.
b. Variabel dependen merupakan variabel yang ditentukan
berdasarkan variabel independen, dalam OB ,variabel
dependen adalah variabel yang ingin dipengaruhi manajer SOAL 2
terhadap pegawainya. Beberapa variabel itu di antaranya : a. jelaskan dengan menggunakan contoh pada kehidupan
Attitudes, job satisfaction ,emotions,moods, diversity, sehari-hari,bagaimana disonansi koginitif (cognitive
personality,values,perception,etc dissonance) dapat terjadi ?
b. Apakah perbedaan antara emotions dan mood ,serta
6a. Tahap-tahap pembentukan tim sebutkan dan jelaskan sumber-sumber emotions dan
1. Stage I (forming) : Tahap pembentukan dimana setiap moods.
nanggota menentukan peran-perannya
2. Stage II (storming) : tahap penentuan sikap dan SOAL 3
peraturan grup,didalamnya mulai terjadi konflik . a. Jelaskan apa yang anda ketahui tentang Big Five
3 Stage III (norming ) : tahap dimana kohesifitas dan Personality Model dan kaitkan hal tersebut dengan
hubungan dekat antar anggota didalam grup telah terjadi konsep Person to Job fit
4. Stage IV (performing) : kondisi puncak dimana grup b. Pengambilan keputusan dapat dilakukan dengan
berfungsi sebagaimana fungsinya pendekatan ratinal model of decision making, bounded
5. Stage V (adjourning) : tahap dimana grup menyelesaikan rartionality, dan intuition. Jelaskan ketiga jenis
tugasnya dan melakukan pembubarab pendekatan tersebut dan berikan contohnya !
b. Perbedaan grup dan tim SOAL 4

-Workgroup (kelompok kerja ) adalah sebuah kelompok a. Jelaskan teori motivasi kontemporer berikut ini, serta
yang berinteraksi untuk membagi informasi dan membuat sebutkan masing-masing contoh penerapannya dalam
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konteks perilaku keorganisasi untuk Self-determinatio berdasarkan keragaman tersebut dan tentunya eksekusi
theory ,equity theory, expectancy theory ! yang tepat akan menguntungkan bago organisasi karena
b. Jelaskan secara ringkas strategi PT KAI dalam menerapkan Right person in the right place.
memotivasi karyawannya untuk meningkatkan kinerja
dan melakukan proses transformasi organisasi! 2.) a. Cognitive dissonance adalah ketidaksesuaian antara
dua atau lebih sikap atau ketidaksesuaian perilaku dan
SOAL 5 sikap. Dalam ilmu psikologi dijelaskan lebih lanjut,bahwa
a. Jelaskan bagaimana punctuated equilibrium model cognitive dissonance dialami oleh seorang individu yang
dapat menjelaskan kinerja tugas kelompok mahasiswa memiliki dua atau lebih ide ,kepercayaan,atau nilai yang
b. Jelaskan bagaimana komposisi anggota dapat saling berkontradiksi di waktu yang sama. Contoh
menentukan efektivitas kinerja tim (gunakan setidaknya cognitive dissonance, adalah seorang karyawan memiliki
4 dari 7 aspek komposisi yang ada di dalam buku) sifat yang sangat loyal kepada atasannya sebagai bentuk
profesionalisme dan tanggung jawab perusahaan, namun
JAWABAN pada suatu waktu atasannya memerintahkan ia untuk
1) a. Tantangan dan peluang yang dihadapi manajer dalam melakukan fraud atas keuangan perusahaan, padahal ia
penerapan OB : memiliki nilai profesionalisme yang ia pegang teguh yaitu
-- Selama masa ekonomi sulit, kebutuhan akan manajer mengedepankan transparansi dan akuntabilitas dalam
yang efektif sangat krusial;. Setiap orang bisa mengelola pengelolaan keuangan perusahaan
saat masa baik, namun akan lebih sulit untuk mengelola
saat perjuangan ekonomi terjadi. Seringkali saat ada b. Emosi adalah perasaan yang intens yang diarahkanna
tekanan ekonomi, manajer dipaksa untuk membuat kepada seseorang atau sesuatu, yang bisa diamati lewat
keputusan berdasarkan batasan sumber daya. Situasi ini ekspresi wajah atau orientasi tindakan. Moods adalah
bisa termasuk mem-PHK karyawan, memotivasi karyawan persaan yang cenderung kurang intens dibandng emosi,
saat sumber daya terbatas,dan menyemangati mereka saat karena kurangnya stimulan kontekstual, lebih kepada
khawatir tentang masa depan perusahaan sesuatu yang kognitif yang menyebabkan perilaku dan pola
-- Meningkatnya penugasan luar negeri, manajer harus pikian. Emosi dapat berubah menjadi mood jika kehilangan
mampu mengelola pekerja yang berbeda dengan apa yang fokus.
biasa ia tangani,dan memiliki kebutuhan, aspirasi dan sikap
yang beda dalam lingkungan kerja Sumber-sumber emotions dan moods
-- Bekerja dengan orang-orang dari budaya berbeda, setiap 1.Personalitas , mempengaruhi intensitas (perbedaan
individu yang datang bekerja di tempat asal sang manajer individu dalam kekuatan dimana individu mengalami
,datang dari budaya yang beragam,manajer harus moods mereka)
menemukan cara mengakomodasi kebutuhan mereka dan 2. Hari didalam pekan dan waktu dalam satu hari , mood
embantu mereka berasimilasi terhadap budaya di tempat negatif paling tinggi terjadi hari minggu dan senin, mood
mereka baru bekerja tersebut positif paling tinggi terjadi di akhir pekan,atau bisa juga
- Dalam melihat perpindahan pekerjaan dari negara moods positif terjadi di pagi hari dan moods negatif terjadi
berupah murah, manajer menghadapi tugas yang sulit di sore hari (morning people atau evening people)
untuk menyeimbangkan kepentingan organisasi mereka 3. Cuaca , merupakan korelasi ilustif (kecendrungan
dengan tanggung jawan terhadap komunitas di mana individu untuk mengasosiasikan dua kejadian saat dala
mereka beroperasi relaitas tidak ada hubungannya), individu cenderung
- Mengelola diversitas tenaga kerja, orang-orang di berpikir bahwa cuaca yang baik meningkatkan mood
organisasi menjadi lebih heterogen secara domografk. mereka dan sebaliknya
Manajer harus menerima keragaman, menemukan cara 4. Stres, meningkatnya stres dan tekanan bisa
mengelolanya secara efektif,dan mengubah folosofi memperburuk mood dan mengalami emosi yang negatif
manajemen dalam cara itu akan mengakui dan 5. Aktivitas sosial, untuk sebagian besar orang,aktivitas
mengutilsasi perbedaan untuk menciptakan soial meningkatkan mood positif dan memiliki pengaruh
produktivitas,profitbilitas,dan menerima budaya-budaya kecil pada mood negatif
- Mengelola emosi dan mood di lingkungan kerja, manajer 6.. Tidur, kulaitas tidur menpengaruhi mood, pola tidur
harus mampu menciptakan iklim kerja yang baik dengan yang buruk mempengaruhi rasionalitas dalam pengambilan
cara mempertahankan profseionalitas pekerja namun keputusan,dan membuat kita sulit untuk mengendalikan
tetap menjaga motivasi internalnya pada tingkatan yang emosi kita
baik. 7. Latihan , latihandan olahraga akan meningkatkan mood
positif seroang individu.
b. Keragaman dibagi atas dua yaitu : Surface-level diversity 8. Umur, mood negatif cenderung terjadi sebagaimana
dan deep-level diversity . Keragaman akan berguna atau orang mengalami penuaan
tidaknya tergantung persepsi dari orang yang 9. Gender, wanita memiliki ekspresi emosional yang lebih
mendefenisikan keragaman itu sendiri. Jika seorang intens dibanding pria
individu melihat keragaman pekerja berdasarkan gender,
ras, etnis,umur, disabilitas dan stereotype kelompok 3.) a. Big five personality models adalah konsep yang
individu maka keragaman ini akan bersifat subjektif dan membagi personalitas seseorang berdasarkan lima dimensi
utilisasi akan bersifat judgmental dan tidak berhubungan dasar,yaitu :
dengan profesionalitas pekerjaan. Jika individu - Extraversion , tingkat kenyamanan terhadap relasional
memandang pekerjanya dari sudut pandang deep-level - Agreeableness , kecenderungan seorang individu untuk
diversity, yaitu perbedaan nilai, persolaitas, preferensi menghormati orang lain
kerja ,dan kapabilitas maka pendefenisian keragaman akan - Conscientiousness , ukuran rebilitas seseorang
berguna bagi manajer untuk menorganisasikan pekerjanya
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- Emotional stability , kemampuan seseorang untuk pekerjaannya dengan oranglain kemudian meresponnya
menghadapi tekanan untuk mengurangi ketidaksetaraan yang ada
-Openness to experience, mencakup minat dan Contoh, seorang pegawai IT yang merasa dirinya diberi
ketertarikan terhadap hal-hal yang baru. kompensasi lebih rendah dibanding pegawai divisi
pemasaran akan mengurangi dedikasinya terhadap
Person-Job fit theory adalah kepuasan dan propesitas pekerjaannya,ia akan membuat sistem informasi
untuk meninggalkan posisisinya dalam pekerjaan perusahaan pada tingkat moderate,meskipun ia mampu
tergantung kepada bagaiaman seorang individu membuat sistem yang lebih sophisticated
mencocokkan personalitas dan kepribadian mereka
terhadap pekerjaanya. Expectancy theory, merupakan teori yang menatakan
Jika seorang individu ingin melamar pekerjaan tentu ia bahwa kekuatan sebuah tendensi bertindak dengan cara
akan menyesuaikan apakah pribadinya cocok dengan tertentu terganung kekuatan ekspektasi bahwa tindakan
pekerjaan tersebut,jika tidak ia akan menghindari itu akan memberikan outcome tertentu dan ketertarikan
pekerjaan tersebut,sebagai contoh ,seorang yang introvert outcome itu terhadap individu.
akan cenderung menghindari pekerjaan lapangan. Contoh, seorang pegawai R&D beranggapan bahwa riset
Begitupun jika seorang individu sudah pada posisi tertentu produk yang dilakukannya akan mencapai kesuksesan
di sebuah pekerjaan, selang beberapa waktu ia akan meskipun orang lain pesimis dengan outcomenya, teori
mengevaluasi apakah pekerjaan itu cocok dengan dirinya ekspektasi menunjukkan bahwa pegawai R&D itu akan
atau tidak, jika tidak maka ia akan meninggalkan pekerjaan tetap optimis karena didiorong oleh motivasi intrinsik
tersebut. Misalnya seorang individu yang konservatif, tidak
suka pada pekerjaan yang terlalu mengedepankan b. PT KAI dalam memotivasi karyawannya untuk
kreatifitas yang tinggi dan memiliki tantangan beresiko meningkatkan kinerjanya melakukan beberapa strategi
tinggi yang terintegrasi dalam sebuah manajamen perubahan
(Change management) yaitu dijabarkan sebagai berikut :
b. Rational decision making adalah model pengambilan 1.) Perubahan identitas perusahaan
keputusan yang mengasumsikan keutuhan informasi, New symbols,new spirit
seluruh opsi diketahuidan memiliki payoff maksimal. Change corporatw identity,focus to shareholder
Contohnya seorang manajer ingin melakukan produksi Logo,uniform,main values
varians produk terbaru, seluruh informasi sudah diketahui 2.) Leading by examples
dari riset pasar, biaya bahan baku,biaya pemasaran, Service,Disiplin,Etos kerja,Control,dan Awareness
kesanggupan produksi,dan ketersediaan peralatan untuk 3.)Restrukturisasi organisasi
produksinya 2009 : direktorat komersial dan restruktur unit IT
2010-2011 : direktorat keselamatan
Bounded reality adalah model pengambilan keputusan 2012 : pembentukan 9 direktorat
yang mencari kepuasaan dan solusi yang dianggap cukup 2013-2014 : pengembangan bisnis dan aset perusahaan
dari data dan alternatif yang terbatas. Misalnya seorang 4.)Sistem remunerasi baru
manajer ingin melakukan ekspansi pabrik,karena 5.)Recruitment pro hire
kebutuhan untuk menyaingi kompetitor, namun 6.)Law enforcement
perusahaan mengalami keterbatasan sumber daya Sistem reward and punishment
finansial dan sumber daya manusia,namun informasi akan 7.)HR Development
kebutuhan ekspensi sudah diketahui,Perusahaan tidak -Pelatihan internal
punya alternatif lain,karena jika ia tidak melakukan diklat fungsional,balai pelatihan
ekspansi makan ia akan kalah dengan kompetitornya -Pelatihan luar negeri
-Benchmarking (china dan prancis)
Intuition adalah model pengambilan keputusan yang
didasarkan pengalaman dan prior knowledge individu SOAL 5
untuk membuat keputusan yang cepat. Conothnya, a. Jelaskan bagaimana punctuated equilibrium model
seorang manajer keuangan merasa harus melakukan dapat menjelaskan kinerja tugas kelompok mahasiswa
perbaikan dalam rasio keuangan perusahaan karena b. Jelaskan bagaimana komposisi anggota dapat
berakibat turunnya investment grade perusahaan,manajer menentukan efektivitas kinerja tim (gunakan setidaknya
itu mengambil keputusan untuk melakukan cosmetic 4 dari 7 aspek komposisi yang ada di dalam buku)
accounting berdasarkan intuisinya agar rasio keuangan
perusahaan terlihat baik di mata investor 5.) a. Punctuated equilibrium model merupakan model
influensial dalam perubahan organisasi yang bisa
4.)a. Self-determination theory merupakan teori yang mengembangkan teori dan mengarahkan tindakan
peduli dengan efek benefit dari motivasi intrinsik dan efek manajerial. Modelini menyataan bahwa sebagian besar
negatif dari motivasi ekstrinsik. sistem yang ada sudah dalam periode yang panjang dalam
Contohnya,seorang manajer memberikan extrinsic rewards bentuk stagnan ,yang kemudian ada perubahan tiba-tiba
kepada pegawainya yang sebelumnya sudah mendapatkan dan mendadak yang menyebakan adanya perubahan
intrinsic effect makan tingkat motivasi secara keseluruhan sistem secara radikal. Model ini dapat menjelaskan
malah akan menurun karena etrinsci reward terlihat bagaimana fenomena tugas kelompok mahasiswa berjalan,
sebagai kontrol konsistensi kinerja yang sudah dimotivasi pada awalnya mahasiswa melakukan tugas masih dalam
oleh intrinsic reward. tahap memahami materi dan mencari materinya,sampai
tiba pada satu titik satu atau beberapa individu memiliki
Equity theory merupakan teori yang menyatakan bahwa ide atau kontribusi besar terhadap kemajuan tugas
seorang individu membandingkan input dan outcome
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kelompokm sehingga progress tugas berjalan cepat 2. Explain the impact of mechanistic and organic
dibanding stagnansi yang terjadi sebelumnya organizational design into productivity and job
satisfaction!
b. Komposisi anggota merupakan faktor krusial dalam
penentuan keefektifan kinerja sebuah tim. Ada beberapa
komponen dalam kelompok yang bisa dijadikan dasar Problem 5:
dalam menentukan komposisi anggota dalam sebuah 1. Explain what 360 degrees performance appraisal is and
tim,diantaranya adalah keahlian teknis, kemampuan what is the difference between 360 degrees performance
menyelesaikan masalah, keahlian interpersonal dan and conventional performance appraisal? Is 360 degrees
kemampuan mengambil keputusan. Sebuah kelompok performance appraisal impacting to the increasing of
dibentuk dengan melihat tugas atau tujuan yang ingin individual performance?
dicapai, jika tugas atau tujuan itu bersifat multidimensi 2. Explain what factors can cause noise in
maka ukuran kelompok lebih ditinjau dari aspek kuantitatif communication?
yang mengedepankan keahlian teknis tiap anggotanya,
interpersonal skill dapat dijadikan dasar peran seseorang
didalam kelompok,apakah sebagai pemimpin JAWAB
,eksekutor,atau komunikator . Komposisi Kelompok bisa
juga dibuat berdasarkan keampuan anggota kelompok Problem 1.1
tersebut memecahkan masalah ,jika memiliki kemampuan Kepemimpinan transaksional adalah kepemimpinan yang
tinggi atas itu maka ia bisa berperan sebagai thinker mengedepankan basis pengarahan tujuan yang telah
(pemikir).Terakhir ,kemampuan mengambil keputusan ditetapkan untuk mengarahkan atau memotivasi
dapat dijadikan dasar untuk menentukan tanggung jawab pengikutnya dengan melakukan penjelasan peran dan
tiap anggota dalam kelompok. Anggota yang teknis bisa tugas yang ia berikan
diberi tanggung jawab untuk melakukan pengambilan
keputusan teknis,dan anggota yang lebih bersifat Kepemimpinan transformasional adalah kepemimpinan
manajerial akan diberi tanggungjawab yang bersifat yang mengedepankan insipirasi agar pengikutnya lebih
strategis mementingkan kepentingan organisasi dibanding
kepenitngan pribadinya . Kepemimpinan ini juga
mengedepankan kapabilitas dan ekspertisi tertentu yang
memberikan efek luar biasa terhadap pengikutnya.
UAS SEMESTER GASAL 2012/2013 Pemimpin yang transformasional mampu meningkatkan
kapabilitas pengikutnya dan memberikan optimisme dan
PERILAKU KEORGANISASIAN semangat pada kelompoknya
Problem 1.2
150 menit (Closed Book) Perusahaan dapat menciptakan kepemimpinan yang
efektif dengan melakukan lima hal berikut :
a. Menciptakan visi strategis, yang menginspirasi setiap
orang diorganisasi tersebutvisi yang baik mampu
Problem 1: menginspirasi setiap orang di perusahaan, dari manajemen
1. Explain the differences between transactional puncak sampai staf di garis depan, dan membuat seluruh
leadership and transformational leadership! anggota tim bekerja untuk mencapai tujuan bersama
2. Effective leaders are not emerging by themselves. tersebut
Explain what a company can do to get an effective leader! b. Menciptakan iklim komunikasi yang kondusif,
kepemimpinan yang efektif adalah kepemimpinan yang
Problem 2: mengedepankan komunikasi yang baik.
1. Source of power could be formal power or personal c. Menciptakan sistem yang membuat manajemen puncak
power. Explain both of them and give example for each memebri contoh yang bagus bagi bawahannya
source of power! d. Mendasarkan segala operasional pengambilan
keputusan perusahaan berdasarkan orientasinya kepada
2. Explain minimum 5 power tactics to influence konsumen, bahkan ada anggapan bahwa seorang CEO yang
subordinate (downward influence)! baik tidak akan membiarkan ada empat lapisan
manajemen antara dirinya dengan konsumen.
Kepemimpinan yang baik harus selalu keep in touch
Problem 3: terhadap kebutuhan konsumen untuk kesuksesan
1. There are 5 ways to solve the conflict. Explain those 5 organisasi
ways linked with cooperativeness and assertiveness level 5. Fokus terhadap pegawai, organisasi yang menciptakan
of every party involved in conflict! sistem kepemimpinan yang fokus pada pegawainya akan
2. What is organizational culture and what is the membuat para pegawai mempercayai pemimpinnya dan
difference with organizational climate? berusaha untuk menunjukkan dedikasi dan komitmen
mereka sehingga organisasi akan tertata secara efektif
Problem 4:
1. Explain the differences between mechanistic and Problem 2.1
organic organizational design! Kekuasaan formal adalah kekuasaan yang berasal dari
posisi seorang individu di dalam sebuah organisasi, dan
PE1
didapat dari kemampuannya unuk memaksa atau memberi perilaku mereka. Meskipun demikian, budaya organisasi
imbalan,atau dari otoritas formal tertentu dan iklim organisasi keduanya adalah aspek penting dalam
Contoh : Seorang CEO mendapat kekuasaan untuk konteks lingkungan dan situasi kerja secara keseluruhan
mengatur perusahaan karena ia diberi jabatan ang
memberinya power di perusahaan tersebut Problem 4.1
Organisasi berstruktur Organisasi berstruktur
Kekuasan personal, adalah kekuasaan yang ddidapat mekanik organik
karena karakteristik unik dari seorang individu, ada dua Pembagian pekerjaan Tugas dan peran kurang
basis karakterstik ini yaitu keahlian (expertisi) dan respek berdasarkan spesialiasi rigid didefinisikan
dari orang lain atas kapabilitas yang dimilikinya. fungsional
Contoh : Beberapa staff pemasaran dibentuk untuk Memiliki hierarki otoritas Keputusan lebih
melaksanakan sebuah project, dari mereka dipilih seorang yang terdefenisi secara tersentralisasi
staff pemasaran karena keahlian dan kapabilitasnya jelas
dianggap mampu untuk mengarahkan anggota lain dalam Memiliki sistem dimana Atmosfir kerja terasa
melaksanakan project tersebut. aturan mencakup tugas kolektif (kolegial)
dan hak setiap pekerja
Problem 2.2 Memiliki sistem prosedur Batas antardepartemen
Macam-macam taktik kekuasaan : untuk menangani berbagai cenderung fleksibel
1.) Legiitmasi – bergantung terhadap otoritas posisi atau situasi kerja
melakukan request sesuai dengan kebijakan dan peraturan Hubungan antara pekerja Pekerja memiliki
organisasi bersifat non-personal hubungan personal satu
2.) Persuasi rasional – Menunjukkan argumen logis dan sama lain
bukti yang faktual untuk menunjukkan bahwa sebuah Seleksi dan promosi Seleksi dan promosi
request itu beralasan personel anggota personel berdasarkan
3.) Daya tarik inspirasional – membentuk komitmen berdasarkan kompetensi preferensi dan
emosional dengan mengedepankan nilai,kebutuhan, teknis dan keahlian pengalaman
harapan,dan aspirasi atas target yang ditetapkan
4.) Konsultasi – meningkatkan dukungan target dengan Problem 4.2
melibatkannya dalam menentukan bagaimana kita Struktur mekanik memiliki karakter departemen yang
merealisasikan sebuah rencana ekstensif, memiliki formalisasi yang tinggi, onformasi
5.) Pertukaran – memberikan imbalan kepada targer jaringan kerja yang terbatas dan tersentralisasi.
berupa benefit atau hadiah sebagai kompensasi atas Struktur organik memiliki struktur datar,menggunakan tim
request yang diperintahkan yang hirarki dan timnya bersifat cross-sectional, memiliki
jaringan kerja uang komprehensif,dan bergantung pada
Problem 3.1 pengambilan keputusan yang partisipatif.
Ada lima cara penanganan konflik ditinjau dari sikap
kooperatif dan asertif pihak-pihak yang terlibat didalamnya
:
1. Kompetisi (asertif – tidak kooperatif)
Tindakan untuk memuaskan kepentingan salah satu
pihak,tidak terkecuali dampaknya kepada pihak lain atas
konflik tersebut
2. Kolaborasi (asertif dan kooperatif)
Situasi dimana pihak-pihak yang berkonflik saling Diagram diatas menunjukkap dari penyebab diferensiasi
memenuhi dan peduli akan kepentingan tiap pihak yang atas struktur organisasi ( strategi ,ukuran,teknologi,dan
terlibat lingkungan kerja) terhadap kinerja dan kepuasan kerja.
3. Menghindar (tidak asertif dan tidak kooperatif) Efek spesifik desain struktur organisasi pada kinerja dan
Tindakan untuk menarik diri dari tekanan sebua konflik kepuasan dimoderasi oleh preferensi dan budaya kultural.
4. Akomodatif (tidak asertif dan kooperatif Penelitain menunjukkan dampak keempat fakotr itu pada
Kemauan satu pihak di dalam konflik untuk meletakkan kinerja dan keupasan sebagai berikut :
kepentingan pihak lawan diatas kepentingan pribadinya -Spesialisasi kerja berkontribusi terhadap produktivitas
5. Kompromi ( kooperatif dan asertif,keduanya pada pekerja yang lebih tinggi, anmun mengurangi kepuasan
tingkat moderat) kerja
Situasi dimana tiap pihak didalam konflik bersedia -manfaat dari spesialisasi menurun dengan cepat saat
menyerahkan sesuatu pekerja lebih mencari pekerjaan yang membeli intrinsic
reward
Problem 3.2 -efek dari rentang kendali (span of control) pada kinerja
Budaya organisasi adalah sistem untuk berbagi makna pekerja adalah kontinjensional pada perbedaan
diantara anggotanya yang membedakan sebuah organisasi kemampuan individu, struktur tugas, dan faktor
dengan organisasi lainnya. Iklim organisasi adalah proses organisasional lain
kuantifikasi budaya organisasi yang muncul sebelum - pengambilan keputusan dalam orgnisasi yang
munculnya budaya organisasi. Iklim organisasi berbeda terdesentralisasi secara positif terkiat dengan kepuasan
dengan budaya organisasi, karena merupakan serangkaian kerja
properti lingkungan kerha, yang dipersepsikan secara
langusng atau tidak langsung oleh tiap pegawai, yang Problem 5:
diasumsikan menjadi dorongan kuat untuk mempengaruhi
PE1

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Disusun oleh : Muhammad Firman (Akuntansi FE UI 2012)

Sources of Emotions & moods Emotional Intelligence includes:

o Person Organization Fit : The employee personality must

o Hofstede’s Framework : Values differ across cultures

Perception and Individual Decision Making

Improving Creativity in Decision Making o Internal factors: self-respect, autonomy, and

Alternative Work Arrangements

Employee Involvement: A participative process that uses

Participative Management insurance, disability insurance, and expanded health

Differences between Groups and Teams

– Make team skills one of the interpersonal skills in the

1. Communication that flows to higher level in the group or

3 common small groups :

b. Emphasizing description rather than interpretation or

Leadership >> The ability to influence a group toward the

C. A Cultural Guide 3 approaches:

Transformational leaders are able to increase follower

legitimate power seem to be unrelated to these outcomes,

-Reward dissent and punish conflict avoiders

- To find an integrative solution when both sets of

-On the basis of geography or territory, when an

1. The Virtual Organization

Consistency of behavior, an asset in stable environment,

-Are better for assessing applied mental skills,

Device: What about Ethics Training?

The goals of Planned Change:

4. Team Building 2. Double-Loop Learning

b. Perbedaan grup dan tim SOAL 4

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