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CHAPTER 7
FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT DESIGN
By : Nor Aziah Fatma Binti Abdul Ayah @ Abdul Aziz
 COURSE LEARNING OUTCOMES (CLO)
At the end of this course, students should be able to:
CLO1 : Apply the fundamentals concepts and principles of highway and traffic engineering and related
act in Malaysia. (C3, PLO1)
CLO2 : Design solutions and planning of transportation for well-defined highway and traffic, problems
with appropriate consideration for public safety, society and
environment.(C5, PLO4)

2 Content

7.1 Know the

basic design of
flexible
pavement

7.0 FLEXIBLE
PAVEMENT
DESIGN 7.2 Understand
the design of
flexible
pavement
 7.1 Know the basic design of
3
flexible pavement
7.1.1 State the factors that are considered in
designing the thickness of flexible pavement.
a) Failure criteria
b) Traffic loading
c) Traffic decaying power /Traffic Damaging
Factor
d) Environmental effect
 Introduction
4
5
 Thickness of layers
6
 Design method
7

*This course however, only cover the JKR method.

 Design factor
8
 1. Failure criteria
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“Permanent deformation in
the near side wheel tracks of
a flexible pavement of
20mm, when measured from
a 1.8m straight rule, was
normally accepted as the
point at which reconstruction
was considered necessary.”
(D. Croney, 1972)
20 mm
 Major flexible
pavement failures
are fatigue cracking,
rutting, and thermal
cracking.
 The failure criterion
relates allowable number
of load repetitions to
tensile strain.
 1. Failure criteria (Empirical Design*)
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 Based on results of experiment / experience.

 Either physical properties or strength of soil
subgrade.
 Ex : soil strength test ( California bearing ratio )

*experience rather than theory or pure logic.

 1. Failure criteria (Mechanistic-
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Empirical Design)
 Based on mechanics of materials relates wheel
load, output or pavement response.
 Response are the stresses, strains and deflections
within a pavement structure.
 Physical causes are loads & material properties of
the pavement structure.
 Describe using mathematical models.
 Calculated stresses, strains & deflections result in
pavement failure.
 2. Traffic loading
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Traffic
loading

Traffic
loading
13
14
15
 d. Traffic distribution

Loads on 1 direction different from the other.

Carry a different portion of the loading

Lane often carries heavy vehicles –greatest deformation

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 vehicle speed measuring from video
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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=49BQVszT5mI
 3. Traffic Damaging Factor
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(Equivalent Single Axle Load, ESAL)
 Traffic consist of various types, load and number of axles.
 The standard axle load, 𝐿𝑆 used is 80kN or 8200kg or 8.16ton
(based on AASTHO road experiment)
 One axle load unit cause one unit damage and effect of equivalent
load is calculated.
 The concept of equivalent load is, one applied load imposed, is
equal to the destruction of pavement with F times the
standard 80kN load imposition.
𝐿 4
 F is determined by: 𝐹 =
𝐿𝑆
*where:
 𝐿 = life load
 𝐿𝑆 = standard axle load (80kN or 8200kg or 8.16ton )
 3. Traffic Damaging Factor
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(Equivalent Single Axle Load, ESAL)
 Using ESA method, all loads are converted to an
equivalent number of 80 kN single axle loads.
 A load equivalent factor,e represents the equivalent
number of ESA for the given weight-axle
combination.
 Pavement damage ( axle load) .
 The value of n lies in range of 3.2 to 5.6 .
 In practice the value of n = 4 is often used .
 Load equivalency for a particular vehicle ,
 Using the ESAL method, damage
from all loads (including multi-axle
loads) are converted to damage
from an equivalent number of
18,000 lb.

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 3. Traffic Damaging Factor
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(Equivalent Single Axle Load, ESAL)
Example;
If 𝐿 = 100kN
𝐿 4
𝐹 =
𝐿𝑆
100 4
 = Lorry 100kN
80
 = 2.44
This means 2.44 standard load impose on a pavement
have a some damaging effect as one 100kN applied
load
 Traffic Damaging Factor
(Equivalent Single Axle Load, ESAL)

4 4
 15  Car 15kN Lorry 90kN  90 
   
 80   80 
 0.00124  1.60

4
4  260 
 180   
   80 
 80 
 111.57
 25.63 Bus 180kN Trailer 260kN
 Traffic Damaging Factor
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(Equivalent Single Axle Load, ESAL)
 Example:
 The total load of a truck is 260 kN and it’s distributed through 3 axles. The
arrangement of the axle is shown on the figure below:
 Based on the figure, , the equivalent factor, F:
𝐿 4 𝐿 4 𝐿 4
 𝐹= + 𝐿 + 𝐿
𝐿𝑆 𝑆 𝑆
100 4 90 4 70 4
= + 80 + 80
80
= 2.44 + 1.60 + 0.59
= 4.63 100kN 90kN 70kN
 If all load are borne by single axle, the equivalent factor, F:
𝐿 4
 𝐹= 𝐿𝑆
100 4
= 80
= 111.57

260kN
 4. Environmental Effect
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 Environmental factors affect the performance of the

pavement materials and cause various damages.

 Two types of environmental factors are:

 TEMPERATURE; affects the resilient modulus of asphalt
layers
 PRECIPITATION; affects the quantity of surface water
infiltrating the subgrade and depth of ground water
table.
 4. Environmental Effect
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Environmental factors affect the performance of the pavement materials

and cause various damages.

Two types of environmental factors are:

TEMPERATURE; affects the resilient modulus of asphalt layers

PRECIPITATION; affects the quantity of surface water infiltrating the
subgrade and depth of ground water table.
Environmental Effect
a) Percipitation
////////////////////////////////
////////////////////////////
Resipan
dari tanah
///////////////////////////
Takungan air
tinggi

Resipan melalui bahu Resipan melalui turapan

Peningkatan peratus lembapan dalam subgred

Kekuatan & kestabilan subgred berkurang
Turapan akan gagal bila subgred terlalu lemah
Environmental Effect
b) Temperature
 When the temperature increases, the strength of
asphalt decreases and resulting in more burden being
channeled to the bottom layer
 If the asphalt content in the mixture is excessive, the
high temperature can trigger swelling problems
 The load of the tire forces the aggregate to enter and
immerse it in, the binder layer causes the loss of
microtexture and macrotexture

Microtexture

macrotexture
Exercise

A vehicle weighing 70kN is above The whole weight of a lorry is

the pavement surface, calculate
the equivalent factor of the
vehicle.
220kN and is distribute through
three axles, the weight of each axle
as shown in the figure. calculate the
equivalent factor of the vehicle.
Compare the answer with the single
axle load
4
 9 
   0.00016
 80 

70 kN
90 kN 80 kN 50 kN
 7.2 Understand the design of
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flexible pavement
7.2.1 Describe the design factors of thickness of
pavement
a) Traffic load
b) Design life
c) Sub-grade condition
d) Drainage

7.2.2 Explain traffic loads and axle weight

7.2.3 Adopt the Public Work Department flexible
design pavement method.
 Pavement thickness design factor
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 Traffic load
 Design life
 Sub-grade condition
 Drainage
 Design life
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Design life or design  Design period ≠ pavement

period refers to; life
 Pavement life can be
“The span of time between
extended by strengthening
the initial passing of user
overlays.
traffic until the fatigue
limit of the pavement
whereby a strengthening
overlay is required.”
 Sub grade condition
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 Subgrade’s performance generally depends on

three of its basic characteristics:
 Load bearing capacity
 Moisture content

 Shrinkage and swelling

 The characteristics will influence structural design,

long-term performance and cost.
 Drainage
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 Proper drainage is important to ensure a high

quality long lived pavement.
 Moisture accumulation in any pavement structural
layer can cause problems.
 Moisture in the subgrade and aggregate base
layer can weaken these materials.
Malaysia Design Methods
Arahan Teknik Jalan 5/85(5)
• Manual introduced in 1985

Based on AASHO Road Test Results

• Design method developed using multi-layered elastic
theory through Chevron N-layer computer program
Suitable for design major roads –
medium @ heavy traffic
• Thickness design based on subgrade CBR & total
number of 8160 kg standard axle application for
specific design period
 Cross –section of a Flexible
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Pavement :
 Road classification and its construction
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material
CLASS TYPES OF CONSTRUCTION
A1 Concrete Surfacing
A2 Hard Bituminous Metalled
B Hard Water bound Metalled
C Hard Bituminous Sealed
D Gravelled Waterbound
E Soil Surfacing
 Road category and its Width
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CATEGORY WIDTH (m) RESAVE (cm)

01 4.5 20.0
Rural 02 5.0 30.0
03 6.0 30.0
04 7.0 40.0
Urban 05 7.5 40.0
06 3.5 per lane 40.0 or more
 Road hierarchy (rural)
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Max design Minimum

Standard speed limit lane width Access control Application
(km/h) (m)
Expressways under the administration
JKR R6 120 3.5 Full of Malaysian Highway
Authority (MHA)
Primary roads and partial access
JKR R5 100 3.5 Partial
highways for the Federal JKR
JKR R4 90 3.25 Partial Main / secondary roads

JKR R3 70 3.0 Partial Secondary roads

Minor roads

JKR R2 60 2.75 None Note: JKR R2 is the minimum

geometrical standard for 2-lane
roads
Single-lane minor roads (country
JKR R1 40 (5.0)* None
lane)
Single-lane roads (roads to restricted
JKR R1a 40 (4.5)* None
areas such as quarries)
 Road hierarchy (urban)
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Max design Minimum

Standard speed limit lane width Access control Application
(km/h) (m)
Expressways under the administration
JKR U6 100 3.5 Full of Malaysian Highway
Authority (MHA)
Arterial roads and partial access
JKR U5 80 3.5 Partial
municipal highways
JKR U4 70 3.25 Partial Arterial / collector roads

JKR U3 60 3.0 Partial Collector roads / Local streets

Local streets

JKR U2 50 2.75 None Note: JKR U2 is the minimum

geometrical standard for 2-lane
roads
JKR U1 40 (5.0)* None Single-lane street (in towns)
Single-lane street (as in low-cost
JKR U1a 40 (4.5)* None
housing areas)
JKR design method based ATJ 5/85

DATA Design period , n (JKR suggestion 10 years )

REQUIRED
IN THE Class of road (e.g. R5 , R4 )
DESIGN
ARE … Initial average daily traffic , ADT.
Percentage of commercial vehicles , Pc
Average annual traffic growth , r
Subgrade CBR
Terrain condition
 Work Example
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Determine the required thickness for a JKR 05 road

based on these data :
 Carriageway width = 7.5 m
Related to table 3.3
 Shoulder width= 2.0 m

 ADT , both ways = 6,600 ( 2 ways )

 Percentage of commercial vehicles = 15% (Pc)

 Traffic growth rate = 7% ( r )

 Subgrade CBR= 5%

 Terrain = rolling
 Solution
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1.Initial annual commercial traffic for one way :

Jumlah kenderaan perdagangan permulaan searah:
𝑃𝑐
𝑉𝑜 = 𝐴𝐷𝑇 × 365 × 𝐷𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑡
100

15 1
= 6,600 × 365 ×
100 2

= 181,000 Bundarkan
kpd ribu
43

2. Cumulative commercial traffic for the design period :

Jumlah bertokok kenderaan perdagangan searah sepanjang hayat reka bentuk :

𝑉𝑂 1 + 𝑟 𝑛 −1
𝑉𝐶 =
𝑟
181,000 1 + 0.07 10 −1
= r = 7/100
0.07
= 2.5 × 106
where
 VC = total numbe rof commercial vehicles for x years
 VO = initial yearly commercial traffic
 r = rate of annual traffi cgrowth
44

3. Cumulative equivalent
standard axles for the
design life :
Jumlah bertokok gandar
piawai

𝐸𝑆𝐴 = 𝑉𝐶 × 𝑒
= 2.5 × 106 × 2.0
= 5.0 × 106
Trunk
45

4. Estimated daily traffic per direction per lane after

10years is :
Anggaran lalulintas harian untuk muatan searah pada
Hujung Hayat Rekabentuk

𝑥
𝑉𝑋 = 𝑉𝑖 1 + 𝑟

6,600 10
= 1 + 0.07
2

= 6,492
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5. Maximum 1 way From table 3.2

hourly flow:
Muatan Maksimum Sejam
searah
𝑐 =𝐼×𝑅×𝑇

2000
 𝐼=
2
 = 1000
47

From table 3.3 From table 3.4

100
𝑅 = 1.00 𝑇=
100 + 2𝑃𝐶
100
=
100+2 15
100
= = 0.77
130
48

6. Maximum daily capacity per lane per direction is

(muatan lalulintas 24 jam sehala ):
𝐶 = 10 × 𝑐
= 10 × 770 = 7700 𝑣𝑒ℎ/𝑑𝑎𝑦/𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒.
Since 6492 < 7700, hence
𝑉𝑋 < 𝐶 -accepted capacity have not been
reached after 10 years .
Menyemak samada jumlah isipadu lalulintas pada
penghujung hayat rekabentuk turapan (Vx), melebihi
@ tidak melebihi muatan maksimum turapan (C).
 Obtain the equivalent thickness , TA’ From the
Nomograph,
With 𝐸𝑆𝐴 = 5 × 106 & CBR = 5% ( from
question ) , the required TA’ is: TA’ = 26 cm .

CBR 3 % standard
CBR value
 Calculate the thickness for each layer :
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TA’ = SN = a1D1 + a2D2 + ….. + anDn

Where :
 a1 , a2, …. an are structural coefficients as shown in
table 3.5 .
 D1, D2….Dn the thickness of each layer as shown in
table 3.6 .
 Jika SN > TA’ ubah D sahaja.

 Nilai SN mesti lebih kurang sama dengan TA’

 Let’ do the first trial ..

 Layer coefficients & min.thickness (from
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table 3.5 ) :
Layer Material Coefficient Min. thickness (cm)
Asphaltic Concrete 1.00 9
a1
Mechanically stabilized cruched 0.32 10
a2 aggregate
sand 0.23 10
a3
 1sttrial :
SN= 1.00 ( 12.5 ) + 0.32 ( 18 ) + 0.23 ( 20 )
= 22.86 < TA’ Terlalu kurang dari nilai TA’

 2nd trial :
SN = 1.00 ( 15) + 0.32 ( 20 ) + 0.23 ( 20 )
= 26 = TA’ OK!!
 Sketch the designed thickness
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Taking into consideration the minimum thickness

requirements, the pavement structure then consists of
the following thickness :
 Wearing course = 5 cm
15 cm
 Binder Course = 10 cm From
 Road base = 20 cm 2nd trial
 Sub-base = 20 cm
53
 Question:
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A road with hierarchy of 05 has a surface width of

7.0 m .It has an initial average dailt traffic of 7000
cv/day in both direction .The rate of traffic growth is
7% . Percentage of commercial vehicle is 25% .
Design life of flexible pavement is 10 years .The CBR
for subgrade of the road is 5% .
Calculate :
I. Annual commercial traffic for one way , V0.
II. Cumulative commercial traffic for the design
period , Vc.