Meaning and Nature of International Relations

Introduction to IR
Till date, unfortunately, no universally accepted definition of international relations have been
coined because of its continuous changing nature.
However, Goldstein and Pevehouse in his book “International Relations” write, “The field of
international relations concerns the relationships among the world’s government. But these
relationships cannot be understood in isolation. They are closely connected with other actors
(such as intergovernmental org., multinational corporations, and individuals); with other social
structures (including economics, culture, and domestic politics); and with geographical and
historical influences. These elements together power the central trends in IR today-
globalization.”

Definitions of IR

“International relations is the branch of political science that studies relations between
countries of the world." (Encarta).

"It is not only the nations seek to regulate, varied types of groups-nations, states,
governments, people, region, alliances, confederations, international organizations, cultural
organizations, religious organizations must be dealt with in the study of international relations
if the treatment is to be made realistic." (Quincy Wright)

"International relations is concerned with the factors and activities, that affect the external
policies and the powers of the basic units into that the world is divided." (Hoffman).

"International relations is the discipline, that tries to explain political activities across state
boundaries (Trevor Tayor).

It embraces all kinds of relations traversing state boundaries, no matter whether they are of an
economic, legal, political or any other character, whether they be private or official, and all
human behavior originating on one side of a state boundary
International relations studies foreign relations, diplomacy. agreements and pacts,
international law, international organizations, inter-state interaction, war and peace,
international justice and alliances etc.

In the very beginning of the civilized world the states were mutually interlinked. In modern
times the world has greatly shrunk as a result of scientific and technological development. As a
result, events in one part of the world have an immediate impact on the rest of the world.,
Therefore the states maintain regular relations with other states of the world. As an alone
individual is nothing similarly, a state without other state is nothing and in the present
complex life, a state without relations with other cannot survive. Materialistic needs, religion,
economic requirements, industrialization, security matters and trade etc. brought the states
together. Inter-states wars yielded post-war treaties, economic and friendly agreements and
international organizations. All these things are studied by international relations.

International relations are an old subject and can be traced in the old tribes. It was utilized by
the Greeks and Romans in their relations. As a regular subject, international relations took
start in the World War-I era and specially because of the second World War, Cold War
between USA and USSR, disintegration of USSR, New World Order (NWO) of USA, global role
of North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) emergence of international organization and
diplomatic relations etc developed this subject to great extent.

Nature of IR:
There are many factors which affects nature of international relations such as evolution of new
nations, technological development, nuclear research, rise of multipolar world, emergence of
new order, non-state organizations, global problems, so and so forth.
Following important points explaining the nature of international relations.
NO SINGLE DEFINITION. International relations has no single definition. Unfortunately, till
date, no universally accepted definition of international relations have been coined because of
its continuous changing nature.
OPERATES IN ANARCHICAL SYSTEM. International relations operates in an anarchical system.
There is no single organization to regulate relations among states. Michael Nicholson writes
“international relation is study of aspects of anarchy, though an anarchy which is not
necessarily chaotic.
INTER-DISCIPLINARY SUBJECT.International relations is inter-disciplinary subject. In 1998,
UNESCO mentioned international relations as a sub-field of political science because scholars
of international relations analyse political relations, economic relations, social relations and
cultural relations, etc. politically .
CONCERNS WITH GLOBAL ISSUES. International relations deals with key issues which concerns
public global interest. Goldstein and Pevehouse in his book, “International Relations” write,
International relations revolves around one key problem: how to balance interest of
international states with the global interest?
For example – every country has an interest in stopping global warming, a goal that can be
achieved only by many countries acting together. Yet each country also has an individual
interest in burning fossil fuels to keep its economy going.

International Relations is the study and practice of political relationships among the world's
nations, especially their governments. International relations mean interactions between
nongovernmental groups, such as multinational corporations or international organizations
such as the OIC or the United Nations (UN).

International relations is a broad and complex topic both for countries engaged in
relationships with other nations, and for observers trying to understand those interactions.
These relationships are influenced by many variables. They are shaped by the primary
participants in international relations, including national leaders, oilier politicians, and
nongovernmental participants, such as private citinns, corporations, and nongovernmental
organizations. They are also affected by domestic political events and nonpolitical influences,
including economics, geography, and culture. Despite all of these other influences, the primary
focus of international relations is on the interactions between nations.

To understand these interactions, experts look at the world as a system of nations whose
actions are guided by a well-defined set of rules. They call this system the interstate system.
The interstate system has existed for less than 500 years and is based on a common
understanding of what a nation is and how it should treat other nations. But recent changes in
technology and international norms have caused some scholars to question whether this
system will continue in the future, or be replaced by some other system of relationships that is
not yet known.

From September 1814 to June 1815 representatives of the major European powers convened
in Vienna, Austria, to reorganize Europe following the defeat of French emperor Napoleon I.
The Congress of Vienna, as this conference became known, was a major event in the history of
international relations.

Until the 1970s the study of international, relations centered mainly on international security
studies i.e. questions of war and peace. Scholars believed a nation's military power was the
most important characteristic in determining how that nation would relate to others. As a
result, scholars focused on the relative military strength of one nation compared to others,
alliances and diplomacy between nations, and the strategies nations used to protect their
territories and further their own interests.

Since the 1970s the importance of economics in international relations has increased and the
study of international political ' economy has received increased attention. The primary force
driving the interaction between nations is economic, not military. There is trade and economic
relations among nations, especially the political cooperation between nations to create and
maintain international organizations such as the World Bank and the International Monetary
Fund.
In both security studies and international political economy, experts strive to explain patterns
of conflict and cooperation among nations. Conflicts among nations are expected since their
political and economic aims and interests often depart. Cooperation does not refer to the
absence of conflict but to the ability of nations to peacefully resolve their differences in a way
that is acceptable to all parties involved. When cooperation fails, conflicts often escalate into
coercion and ultimately war.

The term International" was used for the first time by Jermy Bentham in the later part of the
18th century with regard to the laws of nations. Consequently, the term "IR" was used to
define the official relations between sovereign states.

The economic, social. cultural. political and military relations amongst the state of the world
may also be included in the preview of the subject. Thus there are broadly two views regarding
the meaning of international relations.

Narrow view: According to this view 'IR' includes only "The official relations conducted by the
authorized leaders of the states." According to this view other relations do not fall in the
domain of IR'

Broad view: Some scholars have taken a broad view of international relations, and included
apart from the official relations between states, all intercourse among states and all
movements of people, goods and ideas acorss the national frontiers with in its preview.

Scope of International Relations

International relations topic cover diplomacy, treaties, question of war and peace, global
happenings, commercial, cultural, educational. social, religious international alliances and
international organizations etc. The scope of international relations can be discussed.

Establishment of League of Nations. 

In modern time the field. of the study was widened with the establishment of the League of
Nations in 1920, after the First World War due to the sincere efforts of Woodrow Wilson of
USA. The establishment of the League of Nations contributed to the study of international
relations. Therefore, the study of international organizations and international institutions was
also included in its preview.

Emergence of USA and USSR as a Super Powers.

 Emergence of USA and USSR as superpowers further widened the scope of international
relations. After the second World War the world transformed into bipolarity from multi-
polarity with USA and USSR flourishing in international affairs. Both the superpowers
conducted international relations according to their own interests.

Establishment of United Nations. 

After the end of World War II various international conferences were held. Roosevelt, Churchill
and Stalin met at Tehran and Yalta. They agreed in principle to form a worldwide international
organization for peace loving states. Therefore, an acceptable charter was signed on 26th June
1945. United Nations is a global organization of independent and sovereign states and its main
aim is "to maintain international peace and security." The establishment of the UN also
contributed to the study of international relations to great extent.

Emergence of USA as a Superpower (New World Order).

 the end of USSR as a superpower in Dec, 1990 changed the whole world and USA emerged as
a superpower that adopted international politics in such a way that majority of the nations of
the world visualized themselves as the subjected mission of the single power. The Gulf War of
1991 paved the way for USA to emerge as a superpower that resulted in the USA's N.W.O
under that USA became the master of the world politics. Emergence of USA as a superpower
also extended the scope of international relations.

Technological Development.
 Technology exercises profound influence on the power base of a state as well as the course of
international relations. Technology at least in three spheres, industrial, communication and
military, has greatly influenced the power of the state. Due to technological development the
world has become a global village. Technological development also extended the scope and
value of international relations.

Globalization. 

Due to certain reasons the scattered world is going towards integration. The world is now a
single village and states are incomplete with one another. This situation increased the scope of
international relations.

Scope:
The scope of international relations has become very vast. The world has virtually become a
"global village", as interdependence of states has increased manifold. Economic relations
between states, the role of international institutions like the World Bank, International
Monetary Fund and the World Trade Organization today influences economic activity all over
the world. The United Nations and its various agencies are engaged in numerous socio-
economic and political activities. Multinational Corporations (MNCs), also are giant companies
operating the world over, are important non-state actors of international relations.
International terrorism is a cause of serious concern for the human existence. Thus, the scope
of international relations has become vast, and, besides international politics, it embraces
various other inter - State activities as well. It is known by now that international relations
encompass a myriad of discipline. Attempts to structure and intellectualize it have often been
thematically and analytically confined to boundaries determined by data.
Core Concepts:
The core concepts of international relations are International Organization,International Law,
Foreign Policy, International Conflict, International Economic Relations and Military Thought
and Strategy. International/Regional Security, Strategic Studies, International Political
Economy, Conflict/War and Peace Studies, Globalization, International Regimes. Moreover it
covers, state sovereignty, ecological sustainability,nuclear proliferation, nationalism, economic
development, terrorism,organized crime, human security, foreign interventionism and human
rights. .

The discipline of international relations deals with the war, military alliance, diplomacy, trade,
cooperation & peace.
People always confuse themselves among the terms ‘International Relations’, ‘International
Politics’ and ‘Global Politics’. Sometimes, these term used interchangeably.
According to Hans Morgenthau – “the core of international relations is international politics”.
However, he says, International Relations is much wider in scope than International Politics.
Politics among nations is ‘struggle for power’ whereas international relations includes political,
economic and cultural relations among nations.
International relations and international politics also differ in their aim. The ultimate aim of
International Relations is the establishment of ‘International peace’ through cooperation &
agreement among different nations promoting mutual interests. In comparison to it,
International politics is ‘struggle for power’ through conflicts, wars, political maneuvers among
different nations.
Trevor Taylor (1979) defines International Relations as "a discipline, which tries to explain
political activities across state boundaries".
According to Ola, Joseph (1999), "International relations are the study of all forms of
interactions that exist between members of separate entities or nations within the
international system".
Seymon Brown (1988) thus defines international relations as "the investigating and study of
patterns of action and “reactions among sovereign states as represented by their governing
elites.”
Jeremy Bentham was the first person to use the word ‘international’, in later 18th century,
with regard to defining the relations between nation-states.
From broader view, IR may refer to all interactions between members of separate societies
whether government sponsored or not.
Study of IR includes analysis of foreign policies or political process between nations and also
focus on international trade and civil society interactions.
The way in which two or more nations interact with and regard each other, especially in the
context of political, economic and cultural relationships is called IR.
Some scholars see power as the key to International politics. Thus, they define International
relations as the subject that deals with those relations among nations, which involve power
status.
As Stanley Hoffman writes “the discipline of international relations is concerned with the
factors and the activities which affect the external policies and power of the basic units into
which the world is divided.”
Thus, international relations is concerned with all the exchange transactions, contacts, flow of
information and the resulting behavioral responses between and among separate organized
societies.
International relations could encompass many different activities social, economic, religious
and so forth in so far as they have implications for international political relations.

In the words of Karl Wolfgang Deutsch (1968), “An introduction to the study of international
relations in our time is an introduction to the art and science of the survival of mankind. If
civilization is killed in the nearest future, it will not be killed by famine or plague, but by
foreign policy and international relations.”
The point expressed here is that we can cope with hunger and pestilence, but we cannot deal
with the power of our own weapons and our own behavior as nation states.
It is important to note that since the end of World War 1, nation states have possessed
unprecedented instruments for national action in the form of ideologies and weapons, and
they have become even more dangerous vehicles of international conflict, carrying the
potential for its escalation to mutual destruction and ultimate annihilation.
It is thus decisively important for the student of international relations to understand that the
world of today is marked by two factors. One fact has to do with the nature of power in the
age of the atom; the other concerns the interdependence of mankind in an age of the
individual.

Nation State System:

Nation state system is as old as the human history. It will be more correct to say that the
history of nation state system starts with the political consciousness of man. In this modern
age, no one can satisfy its all needs alone and due to this lie has to make relations with other
states in order to satisfy his desires, interests and goals. In the field of international politics
these states are called sovereign states or nation state system. It plays a dominant role in
international relations. The people all over the world are divided into a number of groups that
lie in sovereign nation state. These states maintain relations with each other under the
pressure of sheer necessity. If people are not organized into states or nations, no international
relations would have been possible. Some scholars reduce the role of state in the nuclear and
space age. However, the role of nation-state cannot be reduced in the present age.

The terms "nation" and "state" are quite different yet they are often used interchangeably.
The nation is a concept denoting a common ethnic and cultural identity shared by single
people, while the state is a political unit define in term of territory, population, organized
government, exercising affective control over its territory and inhabitants. The nation
promotes emotional relationship among its members, while state provides political and legal
foundation for the identity of its citizens.

What is State
The term "State" can be defined as, "A territorial Society divided into government and subjects
claiming with in its allotted physical territory, supremacy over all other institutions." (Laski).
"State is the political organization of the ruling class that was its power for the purpose of
suppressing the resistance of its class enemies. The state arose as a result of the division of the
society into integrated class and therefore for the purpose of curbing the exploited majority in
the interest of exploiting minority. It shall exist so long as there is the need for class
domination and shall whether away." (Karl Marx).

What is Nation
The nation is a concept denoting a common ethnic and cultural identity shared by a single
people. The terms state, government and nation differ in meaning.

A government is the established for of political administration of a state.

A nation may be a body inhabitant in a country united under a single independent

government. And in this sense the world is virtually synonymous with state but a nation may
also be any aggregation of people having like institutions and customs and sense of social
homogeneity and mutual interest. Thus, we can say that several nations may be present in one
state or a nation may extend beyond the borders of a single state.

Nation State System

According to Palmer and Perkins, "The nation state system is the pattern of life in that the
people are separately organized that interact with one another in varying ways and various
degrees." In International law nation state means "Legitimacy, sovereignty and duty." The
state will have to recognize the legitimacy of other states. The state should be sovereign both
externally and internally and its people must observe their duties.

History, Background, Origin or Evaluation of Nation State System

To understand the origin of nation state system it is necessary to fall light on past history.
Before 17th century, nation states were existed but under the control of Roman Catholic
Church headed by pope and the nation state had no sovereign status.

Treaty of Westphalia The treaty of Westphalia is considered by occasion, on that the modern
state system took place. In 1648 treaty of Westphalia was signed due to that, the 30 years’ war
came into an end. The Treaty of Westphalia was concluded on two key principles:

The principle of internal sovereignty that is the pre-eminence of the rulers against the claims
of other centers of power within the state.
The associated principle of external sovereignty, in other words, independence from power
centers outside the states.

So, after the treaty few sovereign nation states i.e. England, France and Spain came into being
without Church control and the church supremacy was abolished. Machiavelli. Badin and
Grotious and some other prominent theorists had together provided defense and justification
for the independent secular states.

According to William Adult, "By the Year 1648, Treaty of Westphalia, the state system was fully
established in Europe."

Westphalia to Utrecht (1648-1713) The second stage of the development of the state-system
has between 1648-1713, during that conflict among UK. France, Holland and Spain were raised
on colonial supremacy. But France had to face heavy loss due to coalition of UK and Austria on
the question of Spanish succession. France suffered heavy loss by the treaty of Westphalia.

Utrecht to Vienna (1713- 1815) During this period conflict between Austria and France had
taken place. Fredrick the great of Persia enforced, France, Austria and Russia to form an
alliance ill order to maintain balance of power. UK made alliance with Prussia. Due to these
alliances and counter alliances seven years war took place from 1756-63. Later on, France
under Napoleon became dominant in European affairs. but soon defeated by the combined
effort of UK. Russia. Prussia, Austria and Sweden. The result was the Vienna meeting in 1915 in
that balance of power was again restored in Europe with certain check on France.

Vienna to Versailles (1815-1914) During this period i.e. from 1815 to 1914, various nation
states were emerged on the map of the.

This period in the history of the world is known as period of Pax*-Britannica, because during
this period Britain had full autonomy and had maintained Balance of power to greater extant
in Europe only two time her supremacy was threatened. In 1854-56, Russia threatened her
supremacy to dominate the region during the Crimean war. Secondly in 1870-71. Germany
displaced France and established her own supremacy in the continent during the Franco-
Prussian war. During this period, i.e. in 1913 the decline of Turkey (Caliphate) and Spanish
power led to the rise of several independent states on the map of the world. And also during
this period China emerged as a super power by defeating Japan. This period of world history
especially from 1882-1907 was the period of mutual fear and suspicion among states.

Versailles to the Present The treaty of Versailles in 1914 brought great changes in the map of
the world and also brought great disturbance because due to the harsh treatment with
Germany in this treaty caused Nazism in Germany and Fascism in Italy and also Russia
emerged as one of the disturbing factor in the world and due to all these the treaty of
Versailles brought a gift of 2nd world war for the humanity and due to this several UK colonies
i.e. in Africa and in Asia got independence.

Modern State System

This system similar to that of Westphalia. It is a pattern in that the independent community of
the world by organizing themselves into independent sovereign political entity and to act and
react with one another.

Nation State System in 20th Century

The 20th century is known as the century of Nation-State System. But during this modern
period the problem with Nation state system is that on one hand it is legally. sovereign but on
the other hand it has to give some concession and to accept some limitations. The Nation
State System in 20th Century can be discussed under the following points.

Challenges to Nation State System in 20th Century

MNCs
International Organizations
Regional Organizations
Terrorist groups
Military technology