10

Structural vibration

Structures which are subjected to dynamic loading, particularly aircraft, vibrate or

oscillate in a frequently complex manner. An aircraft, for example, possesses an infi-
nite number of natural or normal modes of vibration. Simplifying assumptions, such as
breaking down the structure into a number of concentrated masses connected by weight-
less beams (lumped mass concept), are made but whatever method is employed the natu-
ral modes and frequencies of vibration of a structure must be known before flutter speeds
and frequencies can be found. We shall discuss flutter and other dynamic aeroelastic
phenomena in Chapter 28 but for the moment we shall concentrate on the calculation of
the normal modes and frequencies of vibration of a variety of beam and mass systems.

10.1 Oscillation of mass/spring systems

Let us suppose that the simple mass/spring system shown in Fig. 10.1 is displaced by
a small amount x0 and suddenly released. The equation of the resulting motion in the
absence of damping forces is
mẍ + kx = 0 (10.1)
where k is the spring stiffness. We see from Eq. (10.1) that the mass, m, oscillates with
simple harmonic motion given by
x = x0 sin(ωt + ε) (10.2)

Fig. 10.1 Oscillation of a mass/spring system.

328 Structural vibration

Fig. 10.2 Oscillation of an n mass/spring system.

in which ω2 = k/m and ε is a phase angle. The frequency of the oscillation is ω/2π
cycles per second and its amplitude x0 . Further, the periodic time of the motion, that is
the time taken by one complete oscillation, is 2π/ω. Both the frequency and periodic
time are seen to depend upon the basic physical characteristics of the system, namely
the spring stiffness and the magnitude of the mass. Therefore, although the amplitude
of the oscillation may be changed by altering the size of the initial disturbance, its
frequency is fixed. This frequency is the normal or natural frequency of the system and
the vertical simple harmonic motion of the mass is its normal mode of vibration.
Consider now the system of n masses connected by (n − 1) springs, as shown in
Fig. 10.2. If we specify that motion may only take place in the direction of the spring
axes then the system has n degrees of freedom. It is therefore possible to set the system
oscillating with simple harmonic motion in n different ways. In each of these n modes
of vibration the masses oscillate in phase so that they all attain maximum amplitude at
the same time and pass through their zero displacement positions at the same time. The
set of amplitudes and the corresponding frequency take up different values in each of
the n modes. Again these modes are termed normal or natural modes of vibration and
the corresponding frequencies are called normal or natural frequencies.
The determination of normal modes and frequencies for a general spring/mass sys-
tem involves the solution of a set of n simultaneous second-order differential equations
of a type similar to Eq. (10.1). Associated with each solution are two arbitrary con-
stants which determine the phase and amplitude of each mode of vibration. We can
therefore relate the vibration of a system to a given set of initial conditions by assigning
appropriate values to these constants.
A useful property of the normal modes of a system is their orthogonality, which is
demonstrated by the provable fact that the product of the inertia forces in one mode
and the displacements in another results in zero work done. In other words displace-
ments in one mode cannot be produced by inertia forces in another. It follows that the
normal modes are independent of one another so that the response of each mode to an
externally applied force may be found without reference to the other modes. Therefore
by considering the response of each mode in turn and adding the resulting motions we
can find the response of the complete system to the applied loading. Another useful
characteristic of normal modes is their ‘stationary property’. It can be shown that if
an elastic system is forced to vibrate in a mode that is slightly different from a true
normal mode the frequency is only very slightly different to the corresponding natural
frequency of the system. Reasonably accurate estimates of natural frequencies may
therefore be made from ‘guessed’ modes of displacement.
We shall proceed to illustrate the general method of solution by determining nor-
mal modes and frequencies of some simple beam/mass systems. Two approaches are
 10.1 Oscillation of mass/spring systems 329

possible: a stiffness or displacement method in which spring or elastic forces are

expressed in terms of stiffness parameters such as k in Eq. (10.1); and a flexibility
or force method in which elastic forces are expressed in terms of the flexibility δ of the
elastic system. In the latter approach δ is defined as the deflection due to unit force; the
equation of motion of the spring/mass system of Fig. 10.1 then becomes
x
mẍ + =0 (10.3)
δ
Again the solution takes the form x = x0 sin(ωt + ε) but in this case ω2 = 1/mδ. Clearly
by our definitions of k and δ the product kδ = 1. In problems involving rotational oscil-
lations m becomes the moment of inertia of the mass and δ the rotation or displacement
produced by unit moment.
Let us consider a spring/mass system having a finite number, n, degrees of
freedom. The term spring is used here in a general sense in that the n masses
m1 , m2 , . . . , mi , . . . , mn may be connected by any form of elastic weightless member.
Thus, if mi is the mass at a point i where the displacement is xi and δij is the displacement
at the point i due to a unit load at a point j (note from the reciprocal theorem δij = δji ),
the n equations of motion for the system are
⎫
m1 ẍ1 δ11 + m2 ẍ2 δ12 + · · · + mi ẍi δ1i + · · · + mn ẍn δ1n + x1 = 0 ⎪
⎪
m1 ẍ1 δ21 + m2 ẍ2 δ22 + · · · + mi ẍi δ2i + · · · + mn ẍn δ2n + x2 = 0 ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎬
........................................................
(10.4)
m1 ẍ1 δi1 + m2 ẍ2 δi2 + · · · + mi ẍi δii + · · · + mn ẍn δin + xi = 0 ⎪
⎪
........................................................ ⎪ ⎪
⎪
⎭
m1 ẍ1 δn1 + m2 ẍ2 δn2 + · · · + mi ẍi δni + · · · + mn ẍn δnn + xn = 0
or

n
mj ẍj δij + xi = 0 (i = 1, 2, . . . , n) (10.5)
j=1

Since each normal mode of the system oscillates with simple harmonic motion,
then the solution for the ith mode takes the form x = xi0 sin(ωt + ε) so that
ẍi = −ω2 xi0 sin(ωt + ε) = −ω2 xi . Equation (10.5) may therefore be written as

n
−ω2 mj δij xj + xi = 0 (i = 1, 2, . . . , n) (10.6)
j=1

For a non-trivial solution, that is xi
= 0, the determinant of Eq. (10.6) must be zero.
Hence
 
(ω2 m1 δ11 − 1) ω 2m δ . . . ω 2m δ . . . ω 2m δ 
 2 12 i 1i n 1n 
 ω2 m1 δ21 (ω m2 δ22 − 1) . . .
2 2
ω mi δ2i ... ω mn δ2n 
2

 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
 =0
 ω2 m1 δi1 ω2 m2 δi2 . . . (ω2 mi δii − 1) . . . ω2 mn δin 

 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
 
 ω2 m1 δn1 ω2 m2 δn2 ... ω2 mi δni . . . (ω2 mn δnn − 1)
(10.7)
330 Structural vibration

The solution of Eq. (10.7) gives the normal frequencies of vibration of the system. The
corresponding modes may then be deduced as we shall see in the following examples.

Example 10.1
Determine the normal modes and frequencies of vibration of a weightless cantilever
supporting masses m/3 and m at points 1 and 2 as shown in Fig. 10.3. The flexural
rigidity of the cantilever is EI.
The equations of motion of the system are

(m/3)v̈1 δ11 + mv̈2 δ12 + v1 = 0 (ii)

(m/3)v̈1 δ21 + mv̈2 δ22 + v2 = 0 (iii)

where v1 and v2 are the vertical displacements of the masses at any instant of time.
In this example, displacements are assumed to be caused by bending strains only; the
flexibility coefficients δ11 , δ22 and δ12 (= δ21 ) may therefore be found by the unit load
method described in Section 5.8. Then

Mi Mj
δij = dz (iii)
L EI

where Mi is the bending moment at any section z due to a unit load at the point i and Mj
is the bending moment at any section z produced by a unit load at the point j. Therefore,
from Fig. 10.3
M1 = 1(l − z) 0≤z≤l
M2 = 1(l/2 − z) 0 ≤ z ≤ l/2
M2 = 0 l/2 ≤ z ≤ l
Hence
 l  l
1 1
δ11 = M12 dz = (l − z)2 dz (iv)
EI 0 EI 0

1
 l 1
 l/2  l 2
δ22 = M22 dz = −z dz (v)
EI 0 EI 0 2
 l  l/2 
1 1 l
δ12 = δ21 = M1 M2 dz = (l − z) − z dz (vi)
EI 0 EI 0 2

Fig. 10.3 Mass/beam system for Example 10.1.

 10.1 Oscillation of mass/spring systems 331

Integrating Eqs (iv), (v) and (vi) and substituting limits, we obtain

l3 l3 5l3
δ11 = δ22 = δ12 = δ21 =
3EI 24EI 48EI
Each mass describes simple harmonic motion in the normal modes of oscillation so
that v1 = v01 sin (ωt + ε) and v2 = v02 sin (ωt + ε). Hence v̈1 = −ω2 v1 and v̈2 = −ω2 v2 .
Substituting for v̈1 , v̈2 , δ11 , δ22 and δ12 (= δ21 ) in Eqs (i) and (ii) and writing
λ = ml3 /(3 × 48EI), we obtain

(1 − 16λω2 )v1 − 15λω2 v2 = 0 (vii)

5λω v1 − (1 − 6λω )v2 = 0
2 2
(viii)

For a non-trivial solution

 
(1 − 16λω2 ) −15λω 2 
 =0
 5λω2 −(1 − 6λω2 )

Expanding this determinant we have

−(1 − 16λω2 )(1 − 6λω2 ) + 75(λω2 )2 = 0

or
21(λω2 )2 − 22λω2 + 1 = 0 (ix)
Inspection of Eq. (ix) shows that

λω2 = 1/21 or 1

Hence
3 × 48EI 3 × 48EI
ω2 = 3
or
21ml ml3
The normal or natural frequencies of vibration are therefore

ω1 2 3EI
f1 = =
2π π 7 ml3

ω2 6 EI
f2 = =
2π π ml3
The system is therefore capable of vibrating at two distinct frequencies. To determine
the normal mode corresponding to each frequency we first take the lower frequency f1
and substitute it in either Eq. (vii) or Eq. (viii). From Eq. (vii)

v1 15λω2 15 × (1/21)
= =
v2 1 − 16λω2 1 − 16 × (1/21)
which is a positive quantity. Therefore, at the lowest natural frequency the cantilever
oscillates in such a way that the displacement of both masses has the same sign at
332 Structural vibration

Fig. 10.4 The first natural mode of the mass/beam system of Fig. 10.3.

Fig. 10.5 The second natural mode of the mass/beam system of Fig. 10.3.

the same instant of time. Such an oscillation would take the form shown in Fig. 10.4.
Substituting the second natural frequency in Eq. (vii) we have

v1 15λω2 15
= =
v2 1 − 16λω 2 1 − 16

which is negative so that the masses have displacements of opposite sign at any instant
of time as shown in Fig. 10.5.

Example 10.2
Find the lowest natural frequency of the weightless beam/mass system shown in
Fig. 10.6. For the beam GJ = (2/3)EI.
The equations of motion are

mv̈1 δ11 + 4mv̈2 δ12 + v1 = 0 (i)

mv̈1 δ21 + 4mv̈2 δ22 + v2 = 0 (ii)

In this problem displacements are caused by bending and torsion so that

 
Mi Mj Ti Tj
δij = ds + ds (iii)
L EI L GJ
 10.1 Oscillation of mass/spring systems 333

Fig. 10.6 Mass/beam system for Example 10.2.

From Fig. 10.6 we see that

M1 = 1x 0≤x≤l
M1 = 1(2l − z) 0 ≤ z ≤ 2l
M2 = 1(l − z) 0≤z≤l
M2 = 0 l ≤ z ≤ 2l 0≤x≤l
T1 = 1l 0 ≤ z ≤ 2l
T1 = 0 0≤x≤l
T2 = 0 0 ≤ z ≤ 2l 0≤x≤l

Hence
  
l x2 2l (2l − z)2 2l l2
δ11 = dx + dz + dz (iv)
0 EI 0 EI 0 GJ
 l (l − z)2
δ22 = dz (v)
0 EI
 l
(2l − z)(l − z)
δ12 = δ21 = dz (vi)
0 EI

from which we obtain

6l3 l3 5l3
δ11 = δ22 = δ12 = δ21 =
EI 3EI 6EI
Writing λ = ml 3 /6EI and solving Eqs (i) and (ii) in an identical manner to the solution
of Eqs (i) and (ii) in Example 10.1 results in a quadratic in λω2 , namely
188(λω2 )2 − 44λω2 + 1 = 0 (vii)
Solving Eq. (vii) we obtain
√
44 ± 442 − 4 × 188 × 1
λω = 2
376
334 Structural vibration

which gives
λω2 = 0.21 or 0.027
The lowest natural frequency therefore corresponds to λω2 = 0.027 and is

1 0.162EI
2π ml 3

Example 10.3
Determine the natural frequencies of the system shown in Fig. 10.7 and sketch the
normal modes. The flexural rigidity EI of the weightless beam is 1.44 × 106 N m2 ,
l = 0.76 m, the radius of gyration r of the mass m is 0.152 m and its weight is 1435 N.
In this problem the mass possesses an inertia about its own centre of gravity (its radius
of gyration is not zero) which means that in addition to translational displacements it
will experience rotation. The equations of motion are therefore
mv̈δ11 + mr 2 θ̈δ12 + v = 0 (i)
mv̈δ21 + mr 2 θ̈δ22 + θ = 0 (ii)
where v is the vertical displacement of the mass at any instant of time and θ is the
rotation of the mass from its stationary position. Although the beam supports just one
mass it is subjected to two moment systems; M1 at any section z due to the weight of the
mass and a constant moment M2 caused by the inertia couple of the mass as it rotates.
Then
M1 = 1z 0 ≤ z ≤ l
M1 = 1l 0 ≤ y ≤ l
M2 = 1 0 ≤ z ≤ l
M2 = 1 0 ≤ y ≤ l
Hence
 l  l
z2 l2
δ11 = dz + dy (iii)
0 EI 0 EI

Fig. 10.7 Mass/beam system for Example 10.3.

 10.1 Oscillation of mass/spring systems 335
 l  l
dz dy
δ22 = + (iv)
0 EI 0 EI
 l  l
z dz l
δ12 = δ21 = + dy (v)
0 EI 0 EI
from which
4l3 2l 3l2
δ11 = δ22 = δ12 = δ21 =
3EI EI 2EI
Each mode will oscillate with simple harmonic motion so that

v = v0 sin (ωt + ε) θ = θ0 sin (ωt + ε)

and
v̈ = −ω2 v θ̈ = −ω2 θ
Substituting in Eqs (i) and (ii) gives
 3
2 4l 3l2
1−ω m v − ω2 mr 2 θ=0 (vi)
3EI 2EI
2 
2 3l 2 2l
−ω m v + 1 − ω mr
2
θ=0 (vii)
2EI EI
Inserting the values of m, r, l and EI we have

1435 × 4 × 0.763 1435 × 0.1522 × 3 × 0.762 2
1− ω 2
v − ω θ = 0 (viii)
9.81 × 3 × 1.44 × 106 9.81 × 2 × 1.44 × 106

1435 × 3 × 0.762 1435 × 0.1522 × 2 × 0.76 2
− ω v+ 1−
2
ω θ = 0 (ix)
9.81 × 2 × 1.44 × 106 9.81 × 1.44 × 106
or

(1 − 6 × 10−5 ω2 )v − 0.203 × 10−5 ω2 θ = 0 (x)

−8.8 × 10−5 ω2 v + (1 − 0.36 × 10−5 ω2 )θ = 0 (xi)

Solving Eqs (x) and (xi) as before gives

ω = 122 or 1300

from which the natural frequencies are

61 650
f1 = f2 =
π π
From Eq. (x)
v 0.203 × 10−5 ω2
=
θ 1 − 6 × 10−5 ω2
336 Structural vibration

Fig. 10.8 The first two natural modes of vibration of the beam/mass system of Fig. 10.7.

which is positive at the lowest natural frequency, corresponding to ω = 122, and negative
for ω = 1300. The modes of vibration are therefore as shown in Fig. 10.8.

10.2 Oscillation of beams

So far we have restricted our discussion to weightless beams supporting concentrated,
or otherwise, masses. We shall now investigate methods of determining normal modes
and frequencies of vibration of beams possessing weight and therefore inertia. The
equations of motion of such beams are derived on the assumption that vibration occurs
in one of the principal planes of the beam and that the effects of rotary inertia and shear
displacements may be neglected.
Figure 10.9(a) shows a uniform beam of cross-sectional area A vibrating in a prin-
cipal plane about some axis Oz. The displacement of an element δz of the beam at any
instant of time t is v and the moments and forces acting on the element are shown in
Fig. 10.9(b). Taking moments about the vertical centre line of the element gives
 
δz ∂Sy δz ∂Mx
Sy + Mx + Sy + δz − Mx + δz = 0
2 ∂z 2 ∂z

Fig. 10.9 Vibration of a beam possessing mass.

 10.2 Oscillation of beams 337

from which, neglecting second-order terms, we obtain

∂Mx
Sy = (10.8)
∂z
Considering the vertical equilibrium of the element

∂Sy ∂2 v
Sy + δz − Sy − ρAδz 2 = 0
∂z ∂t
so that
∂Sy ∂2 v
= ρA 2 (10.9)
∂z ∂t
From basic bending theory (Chapter 16)
∂2 v
Mx = −EI (10.10)
∂z2
It follows from Eqs (10.8), (10.9) and (10.10) that

∂2 ∂2 v ∂2 v
2
−EI 2
= ρA 2 (10.11)
∂z ∂z ∂t
Equation (10.11) is applicable to both uniform and non-uniform beams. In the latter
case the flexural rigidity, EI, and the mass per unit length, ρA, are functions of z. For a
beam of uniform section, Eq. (10.11) reduces to

∂4 v ∂2 v
EI + ρA =0 (10.12)
∂z4 ∂t 2

In the normal modes of vibration each element of the beam describes simple harmonic
motion; thus
v(z, t) = V (z) sin (ωt + ε) (10.13)

where V (z) is the amplitude of the vibration at any section z. Substituting for v from
Eq. (10.13) in Eq. (10.12) yields

d4 V ρAω2
− V =0 (10.14)
dz4 EI

Equation (10.14) is a fourth-order differential equation of standard form having the

general solution

V = B sin λz + C cos λz + D sinh λz + F cosh λz (10.15)

where
ρAω2
λ4 =
EI
338 Structural vibration

and B, C, D and F are unknown constants which are determined from the boundary
conditions of the beam. The ends of the beam may be:
(1) simply supported or pinned, in which case the displacement and bending moment
are zero, and therefore in terms of the function V (z) we have V = 0 and d2 V /dz2 = 0;
(2) fixed, giving zero displacement and slope, that is V = 0 and dV /dz = 0;
(3) free, for which the bending moment and shear force are zero, hence d2 V /dz2 = 0
and, from Eq. (10.8), d3 V /dz3 = 0.

Example 10.4
Determine the first three normal modes of vibration and the corresponding natural
frequencies of the uniform, simply supported beam shown in Fig. 10.10.
Since both ends of the beam are simply supported, V = 0 and d2 V /dz2 = 0 at z = 0
and z = L. From the first of these conditions and Eq. (10.15) we have

0=C+F (i)

and from the second

0 = −λ2 C + λ2 F (ii)
Hence C = F = 0. Applying the above boundary conditions at z = L gives

0 = B sin λL + D sinh λL (iii)

and
0 = −λ2 B sin λL + λ2 D sinh λL (iv)
The only non-trivial solution (λL
= 0) of Eqs (iii) and (iv) is D = 0 and sin λL = 0. It
follows that
λL = nπ n = 1, 2, 3, . . .
Therefore
 nπ 4 EI
ωn2 = n = 1, 2, 3, . . . (v)
L ρA
and the normal modes of vibration are given by
nπz
v(z, t) = Bn sin sin (ωn t + εn ) (vi)
L

Fig. 10.10 Beam of Example 10.4.

 10.2 Oscillation of beams 339

Fig. 10.11 First three normal modes of vibration of the beam of Example 10.4.

with natural frequencies

ωn 1  nπ 2 EI
fn = = (vii)
2π 2π L ρA

The first three normal modes of vibration are shown in Fig. 10.11.

Example 10.5
Find the first three normal modes and corresponding natural frequencies of the uniform
cantilever beam shown in Fig. 10.12.

Fig. 10.12 Cantilever beam of Example 10.5.

340 Structural vibration

The boundary conditions in this problem are V = 0, dV /dz = 0 at z = 0 and

d2 V /dz2 = 0, d3 V /dz3 = 0 at z = L. Substituting these in turn in Eq. (10.15) we obtain

0=C+F (i)
0 = λB + λD (ii)
0 = −λ2 B sin λL − λ2 C cos λL + λ2 D sinh λL + λ2 F cosh λL (iii)
0 = −λ B cos λL + λ C sin λL + λ D cosh λL + λ F sinh λL
3 3 3 3
(iv)

From Eqs (i) and (ii), C = −F and B = −D. Thus, replacing F and D in Eqs (iii) and
(iv) we obtain

B(− sin λL − sinh λL) + C(−cosλL − cosh λL) = 0 (v)

and
B(−cosλL − cosh λL) + C(sin λL − sinh λL) = 0 (vi)
Eliminating B and C from Eqs (v) and (vi) gives

(−sinλL − sinh λL)(sinh λL − sin λL) + (cos λL − cosh λL)2 = 0

Expanding this equation, and noting that sin2 λL + cos2 λL = 1 and cosh2 λL −
sinh2 λL = 1, yields the frequency equation

cos λL cosh λL + 1 = 0 (vii)

Equation (vii) may be solved graphically or by Newton’s method. The first three roots
λ1 , λ2 and λ3 are given by

λ1 L = 1.875 λ2 L = 4.694 λ3 L = 7.855

from which are found the natural frequencies corresponding to the first three normal
modes of vibration. The natural frequency of the rth mode (r ≥ 4) is obtained from the
approximate relationship
λr L ≈ (r − 21 )π
and its shape in terms of a single arbitrary constant Kr is

Vr (z) = Kr [ cosh λr z − cos λr z − kr (sinh λr z − sin λr z)]

where
cos λr L + cosh λr L
kr = r = 1, 2, 3, . . .
sin λr L + sinh λr L
Figure 10.13 shows the first three normal mode shapes of the cantilever and their
associated natural frequencies.
 10.3 Approximate methods for determining natural frequencies 341

Fig. 10.13 The first three normal modes of vibration of the cantilever beam of Example 10.5.

10.3 Approximate methods for determining

natural frequencies
The determination of natural frequencies and normal mode shapes for beams of non-
uniform section involves the solution of Eq. (10.11) and fulfilment of the appropriate
boundary conditions. However, with the exception of a few special cases, such solutions
do not exist and the natural frequencies are obtained by approximate methods such as
the Rayleigh and Rayleigh–Ritz methods which are presented here. Rayleigh’s method
is discussed first.
A beam vibrating in a normal or combination of normal modes possesses kinetic
energy by virtue of its motion and strain energy as a result of its displacement from an
initial unstrained condition. From the principle of conservation of energy the sum of
the kinetic and strain energies is constant with time. In computing the strain energy U
of the beam we assume that displacements are due to bending strains only so that

M2
U= dz (see Chapter 5) (10.16)
L 2EI
where
∂2 v
M = −EI (see Eq. (10.10))
∂z2
Substituting for v from Eq. (10.13) gives
d2 V
M = −EI sin (ωt + ε)
dz2
342 Structural vibration

so that from Eq. (10.16)

  2
1 d2 V
U = sin2 (ωt + ε) EI dz (10.17)
2 L dz2
For a non-uniform beam, having a distributed mass ρA(z) per unit length and carrying
concentrated masses, m1 , m2 , m3 , . . . , mn at distances z1 , z2 , z3 , . . . , zn from the origin,
the kinetic energy KE may be written as
  2  2
1
n
1 ∂v ∂v
KE = ρA(z) dz + mr
2 L ∂t 2 ∂t z=zr
r=1

Substituting for v(z) from Eq. (10.17) we have

 
1 2 
n
KE = ω cos (ωt + ε)
2
ρA(z)V dz +
2
mr {V (zr )}2
(10.18)
2 L r=1

Since KE + U = constant, say C, then

  2 2
1 2 d V 1
sin (ωt + ε) EI 2
dz + ω2 cos2 (ωt + ε)
2 L dz 2
 
n
× ρA(z)V 2 dz + mr {V (zr )}2 = C (10.19)
L r=1

Inspection of Eq. (10.19) shows that when (ωt + ε) = 0, π, 2π, . . .

 
1 2 n
ω ρA(z)V dz +
2
mr {V (zr )} = C
2
(10.20)
2 L r=1

and when
(ωt + ε) = π/2, 3π/2, 5π/2, . . .
then
  2
1 d2 V
EI dz = C (10.21)
2 L dz2
In other words the kinetic energy in the mean position is equal to the strain energy in
the position of maximum displacement. From Eqs (10.20) and (10.21)
 2 /dz2 )2 dz
L EI(d V
ω =
2
n (10.22)
L ρA(z)V dz + r=1 mr {V (zr )}
2 2

Equation (10.22) gives the exact value of natural frequency for a particular mode if V (z)
is known. In the situation where a mode has to be ‘guessed’, Rayleigh’s principle states
that if a mode is assumed which satisfies at least the slope and displacement conditions
 10.3 Approximate methods for determining natural frequencies 343

at the ends of the beam then a good approximation to the true natural frequency will
be obtained. We have noted previously that if the assumed normal mode differs only
slightly from the actual mode then the stationary property of the normal modes ensures
that the approximate natural frequency is only very slightly different to the true value.
Furthermore, the approximate frequency will be higher than the actual one since the
assumption of an approximate mode implies the presence of some constraints which
force the beam to vibrate in a particular fashion; this has the effect of increasing the
frequency.
The Rayleigh–Ritz method extends and improves the accuracy of the Rayleigh
method by assuming a finite series for V (z), namely


n
V (z) = Bs Vs (z) (10.23)
s=1

where each assumed function Vs (z) satisfies the slope and displacement conditions
at the ends of the beam and the parameters Bs are arbitrary. Substitution of V (z) in
Eq. (10.22) then gives approximate values for the natural frequencies. The parameters
Bs are chosen to make these frequencies a minimum, thereby reducing the effects of the
implied constraints. Having chosen suitable series, the method of solution is to form a
set of equations

∂ω2
= 0, s = 1, 2, 3, . . . , n (10.24)
∂Bs

Eliminating the parameter Bs leads to an nth-order determinant in ω2 whose roots give

approximate values for the first n natural frequencies of the beam.

Example 10.6
Determine the first natural frequency of a cantilever beam of length, L, flexural rigidity
EI and constant mass per unit length ρA. The cantilever carries a mass 2m at the tip,
where m = ρAL.
An exact solution to this problem may be found by solving Eq. (10.14) with the
appropriate end conditions. Such a solution gives

EI
ω1 = 1.1582
mL 3

and will serve as a comparison for our approximate answer. As an assumed mode shape
we shall take the static deflection curve for a cantilever supporting a tip load since, in
this particular problem, the tip load 2m is greater than the mass ρAL of the cantilever.
If the reverse were true we would assume the static deflection curve for a cantilever
carrying a uniformly distributed load. Thus

V (z) = a(3Lz2 − z3 ) (i)

344 Structural vibration

where the origin for z is taken at the built-in end and a is a constant term which includes
the tip load and the flexural rigidity of the beam. From Eq. (i)

d2 V
V (L) = 2aL 3 and = 6a(L − z)
dz2
Substituting these values in Eq. (10.22) we obtain
L
36EIa2 0 (L − z)2 dz
ω1 =
2
L (ii)
ρAa2 0 (3L − z)2 z4 dz + 2m(2aL 3 )2
Evaluating Eq. (ii) and expressing ρA in terms of m we obtain

EI
ω1 = 1.1584 (iii)
mL 3
which value is only 0.02 per cent higher than the true value given above. The estimation
of higher natural frequencies requires the assumption of further, more complex, shapes
for V (z).
It is clear from the previous elementary examples of normal mode and natural fre-
quency calculation that the estimation of such modes and frequencies for a complete
aircraft is a complex process. However, the aircraft designer is not restricted to calcu-
lation for the solution of such problems, although the advent of the digital computer
has widened the scope and accuracy of this approach. Other possible methods are to
obtain the natural frequencies and modes by direct measurement from the results of a
resonance test on the actual aircraft or to carry out a similar test on a simplified scale
model. Details of resonance tests are discussed in Section 28.4. Usually a resonance test
is impracticable since the designer requires the information before the aircraft is built,
although this type of test is carried out on the completed aircraft as a design check. The
alternative of building a scale model has found favour for many years. Such models are
usually designed to be as light as possible and to represent the stiffness characteristics
of the full-scale aircraft. The inertia properties are simulated by a suitable distribution
of added masses.

Problems
P.10.1 Figure P.10.1 shows a massless beam ABCD of length 3l and uniform bend-
ing stiffness EI which carries concentrated masses 2m and m at the points B and D,
respectively. The beam is built-in at end A and simply supported at C. In addition, there
is a hinge at B which allows only shear forces to be transmitted between sections AB
and BCD.
Calculate the natural frequencies of free, undamped oscillations of the system and
determine the corresponding modes of vibration, illustrating your results by suitably
dimensioned sketches.

1 3EI 1 3EI
Ans.
2π 4ml 3 2π ml3
 Problems 345

Fig. P.10.1

P.10.2 Three massless beams 12, 23 and 24 each of length l are rigidly joined
together in one plane at the point 2, 12 and 23 being in the same straight line with 24
at right angles to them (see Fig. P.10.2). The bending stiffness of 12 is 3EI while that
of 23 and 24 is EI. The beams carry masses m and 2m concentrated at the points 4
and 2, respectively. If the system is simply supported at 1 and 3 determine the natural
frequencies of vibration in the plane of the figure.

1 2.13EI 1 5.08EI
Ans.
2π ml 3 2π ml 3

Fig. P.10.2

P.10.3 Two uniform circular tubes AB and BC are rigidly jointed at right angles at
B and built-in at A (Fig. P.10.3). The tubes themselves are massless but carry a mass
of 20 kg at C which has a polar radius of gyration of 0.25a about an axis through its
own centre of gravity parallel to AB. Determine the natural frequencies and modes of
vibration for small oscillations normal to the plane containing AB and BC. The tube has
a mean diameter of 25 mm and wall thickness 1.25 mm. Assume that for the material
of the tube E = 70 000 N/mm2 , G = 28 000 N/mm2 and a = 250 mm.
Ans. 0.09 Hz, 0.62 Hz.
P.10.4 A uniform thin-walled cantilever tube, length L, circular cross-section of
radius a and thickness t, carries at its tip two equal masses m. One mass is attached to
the tube axis while the other is mounted at the end of a light rigid bar at a distance of
2a from the axis (see Fig. P.10.4). Neglecting the mass of the tube and assuming the
stresses in the tube are given by basic bending theory and the Bredt–Batho theory of
torsion, show that the frequencies ω of the coupled torsion flexure oscillations which
346 Structural vibration

Fig. P.10.3

occur are given by

1 mL 3 1
2
= 3
[1 + 2λ ± (1 + 2λ + 2λ2 ) 2 ]
ω 3Eπa t
where
3E a2
λ=
G L2

Fig. P.10.4

P.10.5 Figure P.10.5 shows the idealized cross-section of a single cell tube with
axis of symmetry xx and length 1525 mm in which the direct stresses due to bending
are carried only in the four booms of the cross-section. The walls are assumed to carry
only shear stresses. The tube is built-in at the root and carries a weight of 4450 N at
its tip; the centre of gravity of the weight coincides with the shear centre of the tube
cross-section. Assuming that the direct and shear stresses in the tube are given by basic
bending theory, calculate the natural frequency of flexural vibrations of the weight in a
vertical direction. The effect of the weight of the tube is to be neglected and it should be
 Problems 347

noted that it is not necessary to know the position of the shear centre of the cross-section.
The effect on the deflections of the shear strains in the tube walls must be included.
E = 70 000 N/mm2 G = 26 500 N/mm2 boom areas 970 mm2
Ans. 12.1 Hz.

Fig. P.10.5

P.10.6 A straight beam of length l is rigidly built-in at its ends. For one quarter of
its length from each end the bending stiffness is 4EI and the mass/unit length is 2m:
for the central half the stiffness is EI and the mass m per unit length. In addition, the
beam carries three mass concentrations, 21 ml at 41 l from each end and 41 ml at the centre,
as shown in Fig. P.10.6.
Use an energy method or other approximation to estimate the lowest frequency of
natural flexural vibration. A first approximation solution will suffice if it is accompanied
by a brief explanation of a method of obtaining improved accuracy.

Fig. P.10.6

EI
Ans. 3.7
ml 4