LV Physical Science Skills Book 2019

LOWER V 2019
PHYSICAL SCIENCE SKILLS
BOOK
 LV Physical Science Skills Book 2019

Skill 1 Lab Safety

1A Identifying and Assigning Safety Symbols
Skill 2 Apparatus and Manipulating Apparatus
2A Recognizing, Labelling and Drawing Apparatus
2B Using the Bunsen Burner and Heating Apparatus
2C Folding Filter Paper
Skill 3 Measurement
3A Estimating another Degree of Precision
3B Measuring Liquid Volumes
3C Determining Solid Volumes
3D Using an Electronic Balance to Measure Mass
3E Measuring Temperature using a Liquid Thermometer
Skill 4 Investigative Skills
4A Writing Investigative Questions, Aims and Hypotheses
4B Identifying and Naming Independent, Dependent and Fixed
(Controlled) Variables
4C Writing Methods
4D Making Observations
4E Drawing up Results Tables
4F Plotting Data and Drawing Best Fit Lines
4G Reading Values off Graphs
4H Writing Trends, Mathematical Relationships and
Conclusions
4I Evaluating Methods
4J Identifying and Classifying Experimental Errors
 LV Physical Science Skills Book 2019

Skill 1A: Identifying and Assigning Safety Symbols

A chemical may harm your health if you do not use it properly.

The word ‘irritant’ means that the chemical may give you a rash
if you get it on you or make you choke if you breathe it in.
Harmful or Irritant

A chemical will damage your skin badly if you get it on you.

Corrosive

A chemical will catch fire easily.

Highly flammable

If used wrongly, the equipment may give you a dangerous

electric shock.
Risk of electric shock

A chemical is poisonous. Poisons can kill.

Toxic

Fumes will be given off so wear a mask

Mask

Wear safety glasses or goggles when working in a certain area

or using particular pieces of equipment or chemicals.

Eye protection must be

worn

The apparatus is hot, or the experiment involves heating that

can harm you.

Hot

Wash your hands after you have done an experiment or used a

particular chemical.
Wash your hands
 LV Physical Science Skills Book 2019

Skill 2A: Recognizing, Labelling and Drawing Apparatus

Usually in science we draw diagrams of apparatus rather than pictures. Diagrams
are easier to draw and make it easier to see how the apparatus is joined together.

Imagine that you could cut the apparatus in half. You draw what you would see when
you look at the edge – this is called a cross-section diagram.

Here are some diagrams of apparatus that you might use.

Apparatus Name Diagram What it is used for

Test tube Storing or mixing
solids and liquids

Boiling tube/large test Heating solids and

tube liquids

Beaker Holding liquids or

solids

Conical flask (i.e. cone- Holding and mixing

shaped) liquids

Measuring cylinder Measuring volumes of

liquid

Tripod Heating a beaker,

flask or crucible over a
Bunsen burner

Gauze Supporting a beaker

or flask and spreading
the heat from the
flame
Bunsen burner Heating things

Evaporating basin Evaporating the water

from a solution
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Filter funnel (with Separating an

paper) insoluble solid from a
liquid

Rubber stopper/bung Keeping things in a

tube or flask
Rubber stopper/bung The hole is so that a
with a hole tube or thermometer
can be put into the
liquid without any
gases escaping
Gas jar Collect and contain
gases (with a cover
slip)
 LV Physical Science Skills Book 2019

Some other apparatus that you may use but generally do not draw:

Spatulas
Retort stand

Boss head

Clamp

SKILL: How to fold filter paper:

Dropper Mini/Micro - Pipette

 LV Physical Science Skills Book 2019

Skill 2B: Using the Bunsen Burner and Heating Apparatus

Always let a Bunsen burner cool down before you put it away.

How to light a Bunsen burner

Every time you use a Bunsen burner you must place it on a heat mat and follow
these steps:

1 Check the hose for breaks and holes. DO NOT use the Bunsen burner if you
find any breaks or holes. Give it to your teacher.
2 Connect the hose to the gas tap but DO NOT turn it on yet.
3 CHECK THAT THE AIR-HOLE IN THE COLLAR OF THE BUNSEN BURNER
IS CLOSED.
4 LIGHT A MATCH AND HOLD IT A LITTLE DISTANCE (ABOUT 2 CM) ABOVE
THE TOP OF THE CHIMNEY OF THE BUNSEN BURNER.
5 TURN ON THE GAS AT THE GAS TAP.
6 The Bunsen burner will now light and give you a yellow flame.
7 ADJUST THE GAS SUPPLY AT THE GAS TAP AND THE AIR HOLE UNTIL
YOU HAVE THE SIZE OF FLAME NEEDED FOR YOUR EXPERIMENT.
8 IF YOUR BUNSEN BURNER GOES OUT, TURN OFF THE GAS AT THE GAS
TAP STRAIGHT AWAY.
 LV Physical Science Skills Book 2019

Bunsen burner flames

The Bunsen burner will give three different types of flame. We do this by adjusting
the size of the air hole, as oxygen is necessary for combustion.

Roaring flame:
• air hole open, so lots of oxygen from the air mixes with the
gas fuel
• noisy, blue flame
• very hot flame
• usually used for heating solids quickly

Medium flame:
• air hole half-open, so some oxygen mixes with the fuel
• light blue flame, which is quieter than the roaring flame
• flame is quite hot
• used for heating liquids, especially if you are using a
boiling tube

Safety flame:
• air hole closed, so hardly any oxygen mixes with the fuel
• quiet, bright yellow, dirty flame
• flame is not as hot as the medium flame
• not used for heating, because the flame leaves a layer of
soot on things

If you are not using your Bunsen burner, you should either turn it off,
or put it onto a safety flame so that people can see the flame.

Using Tongs

Tongs with glassware or porcelein:

Tongs can be used to move hot equipment out of the way so that it can cool down or
even to hold a tripod under water.
 LV Physical Science Skills Book 2019

Heating a boiling tube/ large test tube

Skill 2C: Folding Filter Paper

Wet the funnel with a little water, then put the filter paper in. It will help stick the filter
paper to the funnel.
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Skill 3A: Estimating another Degree of Precision

If your measuring instrument can measure to a particular mark, then you need to
estimate another place. You must then record all values measured with that
instrument to that same precision – even if that means writing a 0.

You need to determine the scale of the instrument you are reading first.

Determine the readings on these instruments

 LV Physical Science Skills Book 2019

Skill 3B: Measuring Liquid Volumes

Most of the time in the school laboratory you will use the following apparatus for
measuring volumes:

Beaker For approximate measurements or simply for holding

liquids
Measuring cylinder For exact measurements. Choose the smallest
measuring cylinder you can e.g. if you want to measure
7 ml, use a 10 ml measuring cylinder rather than a 50 ml
cylinder
Mini/Micro Pipette For measuring small amounts of liquid or adding liquids a
drop at a time

Beakers Measuring cylinders Mini Pipette

Reading the Volume of a Liquid

Meniscus
If you look carefully at the surface of a liquid in a
tube, it curves up or down depending on the
liquid. The curved shape it makes is called the
meniscus. An upwards curve is a concave
meniscus (A), a downwards curve is a convex (B)
meniscus.

Error of Parallax. Reading too

Your reading of the volume will only be correct if high
you bend down so that your eye is level with the
meniscus of the liquid in the measuring cylinder.

You should take your reading from the:

• Bottom of a concave meniscus.
• Top of a convex meniscus

Reading too
low
 LV Physical Science Skills Book 2019

Skill 3C: Determining Solid Volumes

Regular Solids – by measuring dimensions

The unit is cm3 or mm3 depending what your lengths were measured in.

Smaller Irregular solids – measuring cylinder - The unit is ml or cm3

Reading without Reading

object with object

Volume of object = reading with object – reading without object

Larger Irregular solids – Eureka can - The unit is ml or cm3

Volume of object = volume of water spilled into beaker (measure with

measuring cylinder)
 LV Physical Science Skills Book 2019

Skill 3D: Using an Electronic Balance to Measure Mass

For liquids and powders
1. Switch on the balance.
2. Place a container onto the balance pan.
3. TARE the balance – the reading will change to
0.00 g.
4. Add the liquid or powder that you are massing.
For large solids
1. Switch on the balance.
2. TARE the balance.
3. Place the solid object on the balance.

Skill 3E: Measuring Temperature and Using a Liquid

Thermometer

Safety rules
• Never put a thermometer down where someone can knock it off the bench.
• Make sure your thermometer has a safety ring or an elastic band fitted.
• If you break a thermometer, ALWAYS tell your teacher. Do not try to clear it up
yourself.

The thermometer is reading The thermometer will not Wait until the liquid in the
the temperature of the air. read the temperature of the thermometer has stopped
water straight away. moving, then take your first
reading.
 LV Physical Science Skills Book 2019

Skill 4A: Writing Investigative Questions, Aims and

Hypotheses
Before we start an investigation, it is important to know what we want to find out. We
need to have a question that we’re trying to answer so that we can design an
experiment to answer the right question.
Every investigation must have an aim, and often investigative question and a
hypothesis.

Investigative Question

The question you are trying to find the answer to – the aim written in question form.
What is the……………………?; Is there a ……………….? Does …….?

Examples:
What is the boiling point of water?
What is the relationship between water content and the pH of acid solutions?

Aim

The aim of your investigation is what you are trying to find out and should refer to the
dependent and independent variables where appropriate.
To determine ……………………………; To find ……………….; To draw ………..
It is not written as a question.

Examples:
To determine the boiling point of water.
To determine the relationship between water content and the pH of acid solutions.

Hypothesis

Definition – A testable idea which has not yet been proved to be correct.

It is a meaningful guess as to what the answer to the investigative question will be

and must refer to the independent, dependent and possibly some fixed (control)
variables in the investigation where appropriate.

The hypothesis must be written in the present tense as a statement - no reasons

must be given!!

The …………………………………………………………………………..…..

Examples:
The boiling point of water is 100 oC.
The pH of acid solutions containing more water are higher.

NOTE: HYPOTHESES MAY BE INCORRECT, BUT MUST ALWAYS BE

CORRECTLY WRITTEN!!
 LV Physical Science Skills Book 2019

Skill 4B: Identifying and Naming Independent, Dependent

and Fixed Variables

Independent variable:
Definition - The factor that you will specifically manipulate.

This variable is always mentioned in the method and you are told how to change it.

Dependent variable:
Definition - The factor that you will measure or observe to see how it responds to
the manipulated independent variable.

This variable is always mentioned in the method and you are instructed how to
observe/measure it.

In investigations, you need to carry out a fair test. A fair test is an investigative
procedure in which only the independent and dependent variables change. All other
variables must be fixed so that they do not affect the results of the investigation.

Fixed variables:
Definition - Factors that you must keep constant as they may affect the outcome of
the experiment.

These factors may or may not be mentioned in the method. You have to think to see
if changing them may affect the experiment.

In many investigations TWO variables will change – the independent and dependent
variables. They could both be measurable, but don’t have to be:
• The independent variable changes as you purposefully manipulate it.
• The dependent variable changes as it will respond to the manipulation.

Experiment Independent Dependent Fixed variable/s

variable variable
What is the boiling
point of water?
What is the
relationship between
the amount of water in
an acid solution and
the pH of the acid
solution?
 LV Physical Science Skills Book 2019

Skill 4C: Writing Methods

A method must be chosen and recorded in enough detail that it can be repeated to
obtain the same result. It must be a numbered or bulleted list of what has to
happen.

Methods should always include the following if appropriate:

• A picture of apparatus used ASSEMBLED. Never try to describe how to set

up the equipment, only what to do with it.
• A statement telling scientists to collect equipment (and assemble as in a
picture).
• A logical sequence of how to carry out the experiment, referring to specific
apparatus for specific tasks e.g. use the 50 ml measuring cylinder to measure
out 35 ml of water.
• For repeats, refer to the step numbers e.g. repeat steps 4 to 7 until you have
a total of 5 different sets of results.
• Consideration of safety – e.g. wear goggles, masks, wash hands.
• A statement telling the scientist to record their results – often in a table.

Skill 4D: Making Observations

When you conduct an experiment, it is very important that you record all of your
observations. You need to use all five senses to record your results.

Observations can also be things that you use instruments to “observe” for you, like a
thermometer allows you to observe a temperature change.

Examples of observations:
1. Bubbles of gas were seen.
2. The temperature rose.
3. The solid metal reacted away.
4. The car got faster.
 LV Physical Sciences Skills Booklet 2019

Skill 4E: Drawing up Results Tables

As you perform your investigation, you often need to record all your results in a table.

The rules below generally apply

• Independent Variable in the first column or first row
• Dependent Variable in the second column or second row
(There are occasions where the first column may simply list the
experiment number, or give a description)
The rules below always apply
• Your table outline should be in pencil
• Your table must have a suitable heading/title (above the table)
UNDERLINED
• You must include column headings, WITH UNITS
• You must not include units in the body of your table
• The independent variable must be written into the table in ASCENDING
ORDER.
• Record all values for the same variable to the same number of decimal
places as you would have used the same instrument (see Skill 3A) even if
the number is a 0 e.g. 1,45 1,67 1,30 1,42 0,00 (THE DECIMAL
SEPARATOR IS ALWAYS A COMMA)
• If tests are repeated (ie more than one trial or treatment is done) an
average must be calculated. Your table must provide for the RAW DATA
for each trial and the AVERAGE calculated
• Any conclusions or data manipulation must be done using the average
data.
• Calculating averages
o add up all the trial results, then divide by the number of trials.
o should be recorded to the same number of decimal places as the
original raw data was.
Title
Independent variable (units)

Dependent variable (units)

Title

Independent Dependent variable (unit)

variable (unit)
Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3 Average
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Example:

Consider the following investigative question:

What is the relationship between the amount of water in 100 cm3 of acid solution and
the pH of the acid solution?

1. Write a title for the table below.

2. What is incorrect in the way the volume of water data has been listed?

_________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________

3. Find and correct the error in the way the raw data has been written in the
table.
4. Calculate the averages and record them correctly.

Title: ____________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

Volume of water in pH
100 cm3 of acid solution
(ml) Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3 Average

12 3,12 3,22 3,21

48 3,52 3,61 3,49

35 3,35 3,37 3,33

67 3,96 3,98 3,9

 LV Physical Sciences Skills Booklet 2019

Skill 4F: Plotting Data and Drawing Best Fit Lines

If appropriate, your results should be presented in a graphical format. There are
many different types of graphs and charts that could be drawn – pie; line; bar; etc.

All graphs should be given a full heading/title and must include:

❖ The independent and dependent variables

❖ The context / conditions / fixed variables of the experiment

Line Graphs

We use line graphs when both the independent and dependent variables are
numerical.

Drawing a Good Graph

Plotting Points

• Write a proper title.

• UNLESS TOLD OTHERWISE, place the independent variable on the x-axis
with a correct title and unit.
• UNLESS TOLD OTHERWISE, place the dependent variable on the y-axis
with a correct title and unit.
• Choose scales for each axis.
❖ You must choose a scale for each axis that allows you to comfortably fit
all your points in. This means that the scale for each axis could be
different.
❖ Your scale for each axis must go up in equal intervals (i.e. it must be
linear and consistent) and be as large as possible.
❖ Always begin the scale for each axis at the origin UNLESS YOU ARE
TOLD NOT TO.
• Plot your points clearly using neat, visible crosses as markers:

Drawing a Best Fit Line

A best-fit line is meant to mimic the trend of the data. In many cases, the line may
not pass through very many of the plotted points. Instead, the idea is to get a line
that has equal numbers of points on either side.

Take a look at the data and ask yourself these questions:

• Does the data look like a straight line or a curve? Try to approximate the
general trend of the data with your mind.
• If you blur your eyes, can you see a thick line trending in one direction or
another? This is another way to visualize the trend of the data.
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Now that you have an idea of the general trend of the data:
• Check to see if there are any points that do not fit the trend. Points that do
not fit the trend are called outliers and must be indicated as such. Circle
them on the graph, label them “outlier”
• Ignoring the outliers, divide the data into two equal groups, approximating
the center of each group and constructing a line between the two centers.
• Evaluate your best fit line. Does your line look like you thought it should?
• Do you see that there are approximately the same number of data points
on each side of the line?
• You must extrapolate your lines and not begin and end them at the first
and last points respectively.
• Always consider if going through the origin is a logical point and include it
if it is.

Note that in some cases, best-fit lines do not pass through ANY of the points
plotted. It is not necessary to connect any dots when you are constructing a best-
fit line!

Example – Draw in the Best fit line for the following data

6
Food consumed (kg)

0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Number of people at the party
 LV Physical Sciences Skills Booklet 2019

Example – Draw in the Best fit line for the following data

Skill 4G: Reading Values off Graphs

Using a dotted line, draw straight from the given value as accurately as possible to
meet the graph. Then use a dotted line to draw straight from the graph to the other
axis. Read the value off precisely, do not round off or give nearest values.

Dotted line from best

fit line to y-axis

Read off Value is 7,0 ml

Dotted line from given

value on x-axis to best
fit line

Given Value is 3,5 g

 LV Physical Sciences Skills Booklet 2019

Skill 4H: Writing Trends, Mathematical Relationships and

Conclusions
Trends

Trends are simple descriptions of the data that you can get from a table of values or
a graph.

They can be written:

As the independent variable increases, so the dependent variable …………………..
in a linear/non-linear way.

Example 1: Consider the following best fit graphs and then write their trends:
Distance (m)

Distance (m)

Time (s) Time (s)

(a) (b)

(b) As the independent variable

(a) As the independent variable
increases, so the dependent variable
increases, so the dependent variable
………………….. in a …………………..
………………….. in a …………………..
way.
way.
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Mathematical Relationships

Some trends have particular names and can be described by a mathematical

expression.

Relationship 1 – Direct proportion

Positive/Increasing linear relationship through the origin.

You can spot direct proportion relationships FROM GRAPHED DATA as the graph
produced is a straight line through the origin.

Direct proportion relationships MUST be stated as follows:

Dependent variable is directly proportional to Independent variable.

For the example above:

Distance is directly proportional to time.

Other relationships will be inserted as we come across them.

Conclusions

You should begin your conclusion by stating whether your experiment proved or
disproved your hypothesis if you had one. It is then important to write the trend OR
relationship you found correctly.

Possible outlines for conclusions are like this:

• My results (support or refute) my hypothesis….. followed by

• Describe what you discovered briefly. ... OR
• State the trend following the rules for trends if there numerical data…
AND/OR
• State the mathematical relationship if there is one
 LV Physical Sciences Skills Booklet 2019

Skill 4I: Evaluating Methods

You should be able to identify any areas that you could have improved on in order to
obtain VALID results. The VALIDITY of your results are related to your method and if
your method is not good then your results will not be good either.

As an example, an investigation is INVALID if more than one variable is changed, or

if the method chosen does not address the question asked.

Remember for a good experiment you should always do three trials for each
independent value chosen and use averages to try to find relationships.

Skill 4J: Identifying and Classifying Experimental Errors

There are two types of experimental errors: systematic errors and random errors.

• Systematic errors are errors that affect the accuracy of a measurement.

Systematic errors are repeated every time you do the experiment. These are
often due to:
o faulty measuring instruments – e.g. a ruler that is not actually 10 cm
long.
o faulty reading of instruments by the user - e.g. consistently committing
the error of parallax.

• Random errors are errors that affect the precision of a measurement.

These errors do not occur consistently and so are easier to find. They usually
produce outlier values. These are often due to:
o Random human error – like writing 12 mm instead of 21 mm.
o Difficulty reading an instrument as the reading keeps fluctuating.

Repetition

Repetition can minimize the effect of random errors – but it does not eliminate
them.

Method 1 (if it is easy to manipulate the independent variable and easy to control
variables.)

• Do at least 3 trials for each test. Then calculate a mean value and use the
mean value to look for trends.

Method 2 (if it is difficult to manipulate the independent variable or difficult to control

variables.)

• Get many (i.e. LOTS) of readings to try to spot trends.