Early Reactions to Frustration: Developmental Trends
in Anger, Individual Response Styles, and Caregiving
Risk Implications in Infancy
Joan A. Kearney, PhD(c), APRN, BC
PROBLEM. In an effort to examine early negative
emotional response patterns, infant responses to
frustration were studied with specific regard to
anger.
METHODS. Forty infants, 7-9 months (n = 20)
and 12-14 months (n = 20) old, were observed in
laboratory play situations. Infant affective
response as well as maternal behavior were
observed. Maternal interviews assessed maternal
impressions of infant behavior and affect.
FINDINGS. Findings revealed increased displays
of anger in older infants, evidence of cognitive-
affective linkages in response, and individual
differences in emotional response style and
maternal-infant processes.
CONCLUSIONS. Findings relate to the emergence
and interplay of negative emotional response,
maternal-infant patterns, and socioemotional
risk.
Search terms: High-risk maternal-infant
patterns, infant anger, socioemotional
development, socioemotional risk
journal of Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Nursing, Volume 17,
Number 3, pp. 105-112.
JCAPN Volume 17, Number 3, July-September, 2004
Joan A. Kearney, PhD(c), APRN, BC, is Director, Child and
Adolescent Psychiatric Services, The Hospital of St. Raphael,
New Haven, and Assistant Clinical Professor, Yale School of
Nursing, New Haven, CT.
V^ertain early temperament features and regulatory di-
mensions of negative affect have been linked with diffi-
culty in sodal compliance and general sodal competencies
in the preschool years (Houck, 1999; Stifter, Spinrad, &
Braungart-Rieker, 1999). Dysregulated negative emotion
and behavior also have been associated wdth atypical neu-
roendocrine reactivity in infants and young children (Gun-
nar. Tout, deHaan, Pierce, & Stansbuxy, 1997; Stansbury &
Gunnar, 1994). This risk extends to later psychopathology
as well (Batesdodge & Bayles, 1988; Bates, Bayles, Bennett,
Ridge, & Brown, 1991; Bates, Maslin, & Frankel, 1985),
when anger is seen as the predominant emotion in con-
duct-disordered children, and socially deviant children
tend to perceive the world through a hostile affective orga-
nization (Dodge, Murphy, & Buchsbaum, 1984).
Recent clinical studies provide support for the continu-
ity of aggression and affectively mediated externalizing
behavior difficulties beginning in early childhood
(Keenan, Shaw, Delliquadri, Giovanelli, & Walsh, 1998).
Additionally, many methodologies link early patterns of
anger, aggression, and difficult temperament, contributing
to those recent temperament formulations that address as-
sociations between negative affective-motivational-behav-
ioral systems to temperament and personality psychology
constructs in general (Rothbart, Ahadi, & Evans, 2000).
High-risk reactive styles such as type A behavior pat-
terns also may be related to early individual differences in
emotional response along the negative pole. Research on
type A behavior in young children is scant, however, with
only a few studies examining downward extensions to the
age of 31/2 years (Brown & Tanner, 1990). That research re-
veals similar behavioral and physiological reactivity pat-
terns between younger and older type A individuals. Pre-
sumably, the study of negative emotion patterns in infants
and toddlers might yield earlier information on risk status,
albeit with caution regarding the maintenance of construct
105
Early Reactions to Frustration: Developmental Trends in Anger, Individual Response Styles,
and Caregiving Risk Implications in Infancy
validity when examining qualitatively different develop-
mental periods and methodologies.
Research Problem and Hypotheses
The research presented here investigated the emergence
of anger as a normal affective response to frustration as
well as early characteristic tendencies toward intense, dys-
regulated anger in a challenging situation. Although previ-
ous studies (Kramer & Rosenblum, 1970) have examined
infant behavior in similar frustrating situations, systematic
delineation of discrete affective response has not been rig-
orously undertaken. Additionally, it has been noted that
the more general construct of early global distress does not
sufficiently discriminate among orthogonal affect phenom-
ena such as fear, anger, and sadness, prompting recent in-
vestigators to call for more sp)edfidty in the assessments of
emotional expression (Buss & Goldsmith, 1998).
The present study was concerned with clinical issues
such as dysregulated patterns and contextually based rela-
tional patterns, and was based on the developmental as-
sumption that cognitive and affective domains are inter-
dependent with certain cognitive achievements necessary
in order for the infant to experience anger as we know it.
These achievements include intentionality, goal orienta-
tion, an understanding of causality and means-ends rela-
tionships, and an ability to anticipate and expect events
(Piaget, 1981; Sroufe, 1979; Stenberg, Campos, & Emde,
1983). Consequently, the hypotheses for this study were:
• Older infants will display higher levels of clear, dis-
crete anger responses in contrast to the more imdiffer-
entiated distress reactions in younger infants.
• Qualitative analysis will differentiate infants and in-
fant-mother dyads based on individual characteristics.
Methods
Sample
The sample consisted of 40 healthy infants divided
evenly on gender There were 20 infants in each of two age
106
groups: 7 to 9 months (mean age 8V2 months) and 14 to 16
months (mean age I5V2 months). Since the cognitive prereq-
uisites mentioned earlier are consolidated during tiie last
quarter of the first year of Ufe, the age ranges directly preced-
ing and following fhis period were delineated in this study
Procedure
All infants were seen in an infant lab/university set-
ting. To provide some measure of control for state vari-
ables, mothers were asked to schedule their visits at the
time of day their infant was generally at his or her "best."
The procedure was analogous to a developmental testing
session in which there were a variety of developmentally
appropriate toys available for the infant to play with.
The session included two "frustration" episodes, pre-
ceded and separated by brief, nonfrustration play peri-
ods. The primary function of these intervening play pe-
riods initially was to provide baseline information on
affective state, and throughout the session to provide in-
tervals that contrasted in nature with the frustration
episodes. This promoted a naturalistic frustration expe-
rience as well as an avenue to assess modulation or reg-
ulation of negative affect. Mothers were asked to allow
their infants to attempt to solve the problems presented
to them before offering help, if and when they felt it was
necessary. The frustration episodes were of two types:
• T]/pe A: blocking access to a previously accessible and
desired toy, and
• Type B: blocking access coupled with a contradiction
of expectancy for the child.
Each episode was a problem-solving situation that
consisted of cognitive, emotional, and physical chal-
lenges. The duration of the frustration episodes was
variable, lasting up to 3 minutes, and could be inter-
rupted at any time by mother, baby, or examiner. To con-
trol for task effects, the order of the frustration episodes
was reversed for half the infants in each age group.
In addition to observation of maternal behavior through-
out the lab session, mothers took part in a semistructured
JCAPN Volume 17, Number 3, July-September, 2004
interview that assessed such issues as infants' laboratory
emotional responses in comparison with their emotional
behaviors in naturalistic settings, the mother's emotional re-
sponses to the infant's frustration, and the mother's general
working model of the infant's emotional style.
Measures
Three primary types of measures were used in this
study: (a) specific behavioral/affectivity rating scales de-
signed to assess a number of behavioral characteristics
presumed toreflectemotional responses, (b) a global as-
sessment of emofional response based on the holistic
judgments, and (c) clinical impressions of infant behav-
ior and maternal assessments of affective patterns. The
rating scale measure consisted of 15 subscales measuring
activity level; behavioral approach-withdrawal on the
visual, postural, and physical manipulation dimen-
sions; object and person orientation; facial affectivity;
vocal affectivity; clarity of emotional expression; and
aggression.
The global assessment of emotion was a record of the
infant's fadal expressions of discreet affects as measured
by holistic judgment of the rater. The holistic judgment
consisted of a macroanalytic fadal coding sysfem loosely
based on the AFFEX system of measuring infant facial
affect (Izard & Dougherty 1980).
Interraterreliabilityfell between .83 and .99 on the be-
havioral/affectivity rating scales, .84 and .99 on the
global assessment of emotion.
The dinical assessment consisted of qualitative exami-
nation of sodal, cognitive, and emotional characteristics
displayed by the infant as well as parental behavior, im-
pressions, and parent-child interactions displayed
fhroughout the session.
Findings
Quantitative Findings
Age-group differences on global facial displays of
anger were calculated using a measure of mean percent-
JCAPN Volume 17, Number 3, July-September, 2004
age time spent in anger, as well as intensity, latency, and
recovery scores for any given segment. In order to assess
group differences in percentage of time, anger was dis-
played throughout fhe total play session, and a two-way
ANOVA was conducted for sex and age. A significant
main effect for age was found, with the older group dis-
playing anger a greater percentage of the time (f = 6.03,
Results from the ANOVA conducted for all frustration
segments combined revealed a significant main effect for
age as well (F = 4.49, p<.05). This effect was due primar-
ily to the males, where analysis revealed a significant in-
teraction effect between age and sex (F = 7.83, p<.01).
Continued analysis revealed a significant main effect
for age in the first task (F = 10.11, p<.01), where com-
pared to younger infants, the older infants displayed
anger a greater percentage of the time. This may provide
support for the cognitive-affective linkage assumption in
that the older children were presumably displaying
achievements in expectancy with some measure of antic-
ipatory reaction earlier in the play session compared to
younger infants, who functioned primarily at the level of
concrete sensory-based experiences.
In addition, a significant main effect for age (F = 5.35,
p<.05) was found for the type A situation, with no signif-
icant findings for the type B situation. While no interac-
tion effects were found between sex and age in these sit-
uations, review of the mean percentage times revealed a
tendency for the older boys to display a consistently
higher percentage of anger "dme" during both tasks. In
short, the age difference revealing higher general anger
scores was dear for both boys and girls in the less com-
plex task, but only for boys in the contradiction of ex-
pectancy task. In light of this finding, further study
would be necessary to clarify the association between
cognitive complexity, intensity of stimuli, and sex-medi-
ated response differences in infants presumed to have
achieved an understanding of the task at hand.
Pearson product-moment correlations between sub-
scales of the behavioral affectivity rating scales and anger
revealed a small but significant correlation between
anger and postural approach (r = .35, p<.01). Additional
107
Early Reactions to Frustration: Developmental Trends in Anger, Individual Response Styles,
and Caregiving Risk Implications in Infancy
trends on older and younger group curves revealed a
pattern of decreased visual attention to the object, in-
creased visual attention to the mother, and increased
negative facial and vocal affect displays during frustra-
tion episodes. This type of multimodal facial/behavior
configuration has been observed elsewhere and concep-
tualized as a basic unit of infant experience in affective
constellations (Weinberg & Tronick, 1994).
Aggressive behavior was differentially displayed
across age groups. Younger infants, as part of a more
global distress picture, displayed diffuse, nonpurposeful
aggression more often than older infants, who tended to-
ward dear, purposeful, and goal-directed aggressive re-
sponses a much greater percentage of dme.
Age differences on all these variables revealed greater
variability or differentiation of response in the older
group. Among the clearest patterns were those related to
hedonic characteristics. The range of scores for each vari-
able was fairly wide, suggesting the im^portance of consid-
ering individual differences when interpreting the results.
Qualitative/Clinical Findings
Through the use of these clinical impressions as a sup-
plement to the information gained from the quantitative
ratings, three distinct groups or "types" of irifant emo-
tional response styles emerged along with general differ-
ences in mother-infant interaction styles. The infant re-
sponse styles differentiated along approach-withdrawal
and affective characteristics, while the associated mother-
infant interaction styles differentiated along the maternal
regulatory function. Descriptive findings are reported
here only for the older infants, in which dear variations
were more easily observable, although possible precur-
sors to these types were noted in the younger group,
providing questions for further study.
The first older subgroup consisted of 5 infants (3 boys,
2 girls) and was characterized by high levels of anger, ag-
gression, and postural "approach" behaviors in the frus-
tration episodes. These infants were generally described
by their mothers as "knowing what he/she wants and
getting it." While they showed negative affect in the frus-
108
tration episodes, virtually none of it could be described
as helpless distress. Rather, it was characterized by these
infants' angry, aggressive, and somewhat unrelenting ef-
forts at meeting their goals. Positive affect was often dis-
played during nonfrustration episodes. For the most
part, these were emotionally expressive infants. The re-
gressive characteristics of these infants tended to center
on aggressive reactions, with a recovery period of mod-
erate to long duration following negative affect displays.
Maternal behavior in this group was distinguishable
from the majority group in that these mothers did not
appear to be concerned about their infants' negative
emotional experiences during frustration, often telling
the investigator that this behavior was expected. In gen-
eral, these infants appeared quickly reactive to their envi-
ronment, with moderate latencies to recovery. They
maintained a more aggressive "approach stance" during
frustration that was characteristic of their general emo-
tional and temperamental style both in the lab setting
and at home. In only one case was a frustration sequence
terminated due to a mixed distress/anger response,
while purely angry responses were associated with
lower levels of distractibiUty and higher levels of deter-
mination toward completing the task.
The second and largest group consisted of 12 infants (6
boys, 6 girls). This group was characterized by more
moderate levels of reaction along the arousal, directional-
ity, and hedonic spheres than either of the other two
groups. They showed a wide variety of emotional re-
sponses including interest, joy, and distress, with lower
anger scores than the first group. These infants also dis-
played a greater mix of directional responses and greater
modulation of affect than the other groups. Half these in-
fants did not complete one or another of the frustration
segments due to mild or moderate distress or loss of in-
terest. Regressive characteristics of this group centered on
mild anger and/or moderate distress reactions coupled
with a movement toward the mother for help and physi-
cal comfort when frustrated. Latency to recovery was
shorter in these infants than in either of the other groups.
The mothers in this group tended to show reactions
ranging from "I wanted to help her understand how to
JCAPN Volume 17, Number 3, July-September, 2004
do it" to "I was getting a little tense when she got upset."
On the whole, they were characterized by an empathetic
stance toward their child, but were willing to let the in-
fants try to solve the problem by themselves. For the
most part, they were responsive to their infants' affect
and behavioral cues, and displayed a posttire of "nonin-
trusiveness readiness" to help regulate the situation if
necessary.
Findings support questions regarding the
assignment of "distress" as an adequately
discriminant label for negative affect
during infant stressor experience.
The third and smallest group of infants (1 boy, 2 girls)
was striking in the infants' consistently avoidant behav-
ior in the frustration episodes. This avoidance was often
accompanied by clear expressions of fear/wariness.
They showed lower levels of positive affect in general
than infants in the other groups and significantly less
anger. These infants often exhibited highly distressed,
helpless posttires toward the tasks. The regressive char-
acteristics of these infants tended to be more extreme
than those of the other two groups, and the infants dis-
played a high degree of "flight" behavior combined v^dth
an inability to be soothed by the mother's or examiner's
words. None of these infants was able to complete the
frustration episodes due to this avoidance and distress.
The mothers in this group tended to be quite direc-
tive, often intervening immediately to solve the problem
by giving the infant directions or motioning as to the cor-
rect course of action. It is of note that two of them dis-
played this behavior throughout the session, regardless
of segment or activity. On the whole, each of the mothers
openly expressed various amotmts of anxiety regarding
JCAPN Volume 17, Number 3, July-September, 2004
the situation. Compared to the other maternal groups,
they displayed a pattern of "intrusive readiness" to inter-
vene across segments.
General patterns in individual response revealed the
majority group displayed more moderate, regulated re-
actions with good recovery potentials. The Angry-
Approach and Distress-Avoidance groups tended to
show more extreme reactions and singularly defined
themselves on certain dimensions. This is congruent with
emotion theory models, which note the primacy of fear
and anger on the density dimension. Angry infants main-
tained consistently higher scores on posttiral and manip-
ulative approach, aggression, and clarity or intensity of
affect signal. Distress-Avoidance infants maintained con-
sistently higher scores on avoidance of the task, discreet
affect, and clarity of signal. Both groups scored higher on
visual and postural approach to modier during frustra-
tion, indicating the importance of caregiver protective,
helping, and regulatory ftinctions in infant distress.
Discussion
Findings from this study were in keeping with previ-
ous theoretical propositions regarding the appearance
and display of anger as a cognitively and temperamen-
tally mediated response to frusfration. They also support
questions regarding the assignment of "distress" as an
adequately discriminant label for negative affect during
infant stressor experience. Clearly, the high-negativity
groups in this investigation were differentiated along the
anger and fear dimensions, emphasizing the need for re-
fined assessments with reference to ptirported cognitive,
sodal, and biobehavioral dimensions of discreet affective
response. This specificity allows us to map orthogonal
emotional phenomena with implications for long-term
emotional/behavioral risk patterns. Additionally, it is
clear from the results regarding age differences presented
here that as infants mature, their socioemotional signal-
ing capacity becomes more differentiated and easier to
read by those arotmd them.
The sex differences found in this study are interesting
in their support of commonly fotmd tendencies for boys
109
Early Reactions to Frustration: Developmental Trends in Anger, Individual Response Styles,
and Caregiving Risk Implications in Infancy
to display aggression and anger more often during goal
impediments than females. This finding should be re-
garded with caution, however, given the small numbers
studied here and the fact that in the angriest subgroup of
infants, boys and girls were equally represented. The
regulatory aspects of these infants' emotional behaviors
is also of interest. In problem-solving situations, it has
been shown that those infants who are capable of effort-
ful control of negative emotion show greater ability for
task focus (Kochanska, Coy, Tjebkes, & Husarek, 1998).
Infants and children who do not regulate or modulate
their emotion well are at a disadvantage when fadng sit-
uations that require them to solve situational dilemmas
and maintain adequate, reasonably nonconflicted cogni-
tive functioning in order to successfully negotiate the
problem at hand. This includes using putative regulatory
strategies to decrease negative stimuli, such as discontin-
uing futile efforts or enlisting help after a reasonable pe-
riod of aftempdng to master the situation on their own.
In many cases, infants in the angry and avoidant
groups displayed signs of emotion dysregulation in their
coping and recovery characteristics. In addition, these in-
fants and their mothers operated differently within the
sodoemotional Held than did infants and mothers in the
majority group. The findings reveal that not only do in-
fants in these groups display what may be higher risk
emotional behaviors and characteristics, but their moth-
ers also present with behaviors that may prevent these
infants from "righting" themselves in emotionally
charged situations.
The mothers of the angriest infants did not make ac-
tive eftorts to "downregulate" their infants' behaviors by
intervening before or during the infants' peak escalation
period. In contrast, although the mothers of the dis-
tressed/avoidant infants tried to regulate the situation,
they were ineffective in doing so and in some cases dis-
played escalation behaviors through their anxious
overdirectiveness. This pattern bears similarity to the
parental sensitivity/insensitivity patterns observed in
studies on socioemotional risk. However, major differ-
ences exist in that all but one of the mothers in this study
did not present with clinical signs of affective or psy-
no
chosocial disorder, and their sociopsychiatric status was
not considered high risk. Further, their nonengaged or
intrusive behaviors could not be characterized as "pur-
poseful insensitivity," but rather as attempts to regulate
in those ways they were accustomed to or thought help-
ful to the infant. It is this corrective function in which
these mothers appear to differentiate themselves most
clearly compared to mothers in the majority group,
showing either a lack of intervention when appropriate
or displaying an intrusive pattern. This is significant in
view of the fact that infants in both higher negativity
groups displayed consistent approach signals to their
mothers, yet the maternal-infant interaction patterns
were quite different.
This finding regarding difterences in maternal correc-
tive functioning operations, in a normative context, is
significant in that our successful intervention in aU high-
risk caregiver-child relationships is based on our ability
to analyze paftems of interaction and strategically inter-
vene at nodal points of dysfunction. Interventions are
then centered on supporting empathetic, contingent, and
reciprocal paftems, which contribute to coping hardiness
and correcting those that render predisposed infants and
children vulnerable to sodoemotional difficulties. Addi-
tionally, it underscores our current understanding that
although temperament and reactive style may in large
part have biological substrates, regulation of reactivity
depends on caregiver behavior and socialization pro-
cesses, which allow the child to depend on the caregiver
to regulate stressful situations (Fox, 1998).
Clinical Implications
Specific clinical issues raised in this work center on af-
fect and reactivity characteristics in infants as well as
those adaptive and maladaptive processes that reside
within the relationship itself as caregiver and infant co-
construct their reality. The mother-infant "meaning-
making" aspects of these observations were revealed in
the clinical interviews with these mothers. Maternal style
appeared related to attributional processes and internal-
ized models of parenting. Clinical impressions reveal a
JCAPN Volume 17, Number 3, July-September, 2004
tendency for mothers to operate on infant pattern recog-
nition and attributions of infant temperament and
emotional style as well as their internalized models of a
"parenting self" determined by their own emotional re-
acdvity, current family situation, maternal experiences
v^th other children, and reladonal processes.
This meaning-making aspect differendated mothers in
the high-negativity groups, revealing a tendency for
mothers in the angry group to minimize the distress and
help-seeking behaviors of their infants, thus missing op-
portunities to redirect and regulate aggressive responses.
This is significant in light of recent findings that address
the cridcal mediadon of caregiver-shaping behavior on
early and subsequent aggression (Bates, Petdt, Dodge, &
Ridge, 1998; Belsky, Hsieh, & Crnic, 1998). Conversely,
mothers in the distress-avoidant group tended to over-
regulate by immediately intervening to prevent the in-
fant from tackling a task that the mothers felt was too
difficult for the child. These mother-infant pairs appear
to be engaged in early, mutually transmitted, and mater-
nally reinforced schemas of "challenge as threat" and in-
fant helplessness.
In addition to temperament features and mood-
related heritability factors operating in mother-infant
processes, specific elements of early parenting behavior
are seen here as cridcal to the architecture of infant/child
behavior. For example, early parenting pracdces may
strongly deter the development of adapdve, prosocial,
and self-affirming mastery strategies while shaping neg-
adve, contradictory, or socially compromising expect-
andes in the child. As supported in this research, andd-
padon and expectadon are important elements in emo-
donal outcomes. Thus, we can look to the early shaping
of expectandes as a cridcal funcdon in the development
of emodonaUy mediated behavior.
The problem-solving paradigm used in the research is
a useful vehicle to allow us to incorporate such modaU-
des as role modeling, cognidve behavioral techniques,
and reladonal intervendons to help parents and young
children balance specific perturbadons and move toward
normalized patterns. Clinical acumen in assessing so-
cioemodonal development, regulatory abilides, and in-
JCAPN Volume 17, Number 3, July-September, 2004
teracdonal characterisdcs, coupled with an understand-
ing of caregiver needs, resources, internal working mod-
els of the child, atdibudonal patterns, and reacdve style,
provide the nurse with the strategic tools necessary to
guide new "ways of being" for the primary members of
the caregiver-child system. Dysregulated patterns can
then be addressed direcdy through teaching, redirecting,
feedback, and role modeling, and indirectly through a
suppordve reladonal process. Previous clinical work (Os-
ofsky & Eberhart-Wright, 1988) has shown that this inter-
play between internal and external forces guides the
process and ultimately determines outcomes.
The prototypical nature of the early caregiver-infant
reladonship provides continuous informadon on pracd-
cal appUcadons in the clinical setting with children who
are experiencing dysregulated emodonal and behavioral
styles. In child psychiatric pracdce the majority of the
children and families we see have a number of distur-
bances in these areas. Characterisdcs that are first mani-
fested in the early months and years of life often con-
tinue into the child and adolescent years and are
perpetuated by interacdonal substrates such as those dis-
played in this research. Adapdve caregiving processes
including redprodty, contingency of response, and gen-
eral sensidvity to infant and child cues are central in this
regard, and their absence is evident in many of the diffi-
culdes we encounter in child psychiatric populadons.
AddidonaUy, we see in this type of research the develop-
mental foundadons of those intervendons we commonly
employ in clinical settings that form the bedrock of the
correcdve experience. For example, the use of emodons-
management protocols and sodal problem-solving skills
are based on the interplay of cognidve-affecdve opera-
dons and caregiver-fadlitadng behaviors that are cridcal
components of early socioemotional development,
which often are defident or dysfuncdonal in our clinical
populadons. Spedfic components of such intervendons
include cognidve clarificadon and reframing, emodon-
ally modulated exploradon of opdons, regulated external
aid and modeling, appropriate limit setting, support for
adaptive behaviors and extinction or management of
maladapdve reacdons, soofhing of physiological distress.
111
Early Reactions to Frustration: Developmental Trends in Anger, Individual Response Styles,
and Caregiving Risk Implications in Infancy
and the transmission of empathy, positive regard, and
caring support for the achievement of self-efficacy, es-
teem, and general mastery. As in the developmental pro-
totype, the relational context of these clinical interven-
tions is central to their success.
Finally, the detection of variations within nonclinical
populations allows us to achieve greater specificity in
our prediction of risk and assessment of disorder and
underscores the significance of normative studies for un-
derstanding atypical patterns. Moreover, the multiply
determined generation of early risk patterns in the care-
giver-child system provides us with opportunities to
prevent or guide in remodeling such patterns as they
undergird the genesis and progression of pathogenic
pathways. As we move forward in our understanding of
such pathways, developmentally based inquiry such as
this can significantly inform clinical models.
Author contact: JK3500@aol,com, with a copy to the Editor:
Poster@uta,edu
References
Bates, J,E,, & Bayles, K, (1988), Attachment and the development of be-
havior problems. In J, Belsky & T, Nezworski (Eds,), Clinical implica-
tions of attachment (pp, 253-299), Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum,
Bates, J,E,, Bayles, K,, Bennett, D,S,, Ridge, B,, & Brown, M,M, (1991),
Origins of externalizing behavior problems at eight years of age. In
D, Pepler & K,H, Rubin (Eds,), The development and treatment of child-
hood aggression (pp, 93-120), Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum,
Bates, J,E,, Maslin, C,A,, & Frankel, K,A, (1985), Attachment security,
mother-child interaction, and temperament as predictors of behav-
ior-problem ratings at age three years. In I, Bretherton & E, Waters
(Eds,), Growing points of attachment theory and research. Mono-
graphs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 50, 167-193,
(Serial 209),
Bates, J,E,, Pettit, G,S,, Dodge, K,A,, & Ridge, B, (1998), Interaction of
temperamental resistance to control and restrictive parenting in the
development of externalizing behavior. Developmental Psychology,
34,982-995,
Belsky, J,, Hsieh, K,H,, & Cmic, K, (1998), Mothering, fathering, and in-
fant negativity as antecedents of boys' externalizing problems and
inhibition at age 3 years: Differential susceptibility to rearing experi-
ence? Developmental Psychopathology, 10,301-319,
Brown, M,S,, & Tanner, C, (1990), Measurement of type A behavior in
preschoolers. Nursing Research, 39,207-211,
112
Buss, K,A,, & GoldsmitK H,H, (1998), Fear and anger regulation in in-
fancy: Effects on the temporal dynamics of affective expression.
Child Development, 69,359-374,
Dodge, K,A,, Murphy, R,R,, & Budisbaum, K, (1984), The assessment of
intention-cue detection skills in children: Implications for develop-
mental psychopathology. Child Development, 55,163-173,
Fox, N,A, (1998), Temperament and regulation of emotion in the first
years of life. Pediatrics, 102,1230-1235,
Gurmar, M,R,, Tout, K,, deHaan, M,, Pierce, S,, & Stansbury, K, (1997),
Temperament, social competence and adrenocortical activity in
preschoolers. Developmental Psychobiology, 32(1), 65-85,
Houck, G,M, (1999), The measurement of child characteristics from in-
fancy to toddlerhood: Temperament, developmental competence,
self concept, and social competence. Issues in Comprehensive Pediatric
Nursing, 22,101-127,
Izard, C , & Dougherty, L, (1980), A system for identifying affect expressions
by holistic judgements. Newark, DE: University of Delaware,
Keenan, K,, Shaw, D,, Delliquadri, E,, Giovanelli, J,, & Walsh, B, (1998),
Evidence for the continuity of early problem behaviors: Application
of a developmental model. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 26,
441^52,
Kochanska, D, (1998), Mother-child relationship, child fearfukiess, and
emerging attachment: A short term longitudinal study. Developmen-
tal Psychology, 34,480-490,
Kramer, Y, & Rosenblum, L,A, (1970), Responses to frustration in one
year old infants. Psychosomatic Medicine, 32,243-247,
Osofsky, J,D,, & Eberhart-Wright, A, (1988), Affective exchanges be-
tween high dsk mothers and infants. International Journal of Psycho-
analysis, 69,221-231,
Piaget, J, (1981), Intelligence and affectivity: Their relationship during child
development. Palo Alto, CA: Annual Reviews,
Rothbart, M,K,, Ahadi, S,A,, & Evans, D,E, (2000), Temperament and
personality: Origins and outcomes. Journal of Personality and Social
Psychology, 78,122-135,
Sroufe, A, (1979), Socioemotional development. In J, Osofsky (Ed,),
Handbook of infant development (pp, 783-915), New York: Wiley,
Stansbury, K,, & Gurmar, M,R, (1994), Adrenocortical activity in emo-
tion regulation. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Devel-
opment, 59,108-134,
Stenberg, C , Campos, J,, & Emde, R, (1983), The facial expression of
anger in seven month old infants. Child Development, 54,178-184,
Stifter, CA,, Spinrad, T,L,, & Braimgart-Rieker, J,M, (1999), Toward a
developmental model of chUd compliance: The role of emotion reg-
ulation in infancy. Child Development, 70,21—32,
Weinberg, M,K,, & Tronick, E,Z, (1994), Beyond the face: An empirical
study of infant affective configurations of fadal, vocal, gestural, and
regulatory behaviors. Child Development, 65,1503-1515,
JCAPN Volume 17, Number 3, July-September, 2004