• When materials fail in engineering applications, it can

cause economic loss or loss of life.

• The usual causes of materials failure are:

– Incorrect materials selection
– Incorrect processing
– Incorrect manufacturing procedures
– Inadequate design
– Incorrect use
• Simple fracture is the separation of a body into two or
more pieces in response to an imposed stress that is
constant.
1. Ductile Fracture

2. Brittle Fracture
• The material exhibits substantial plastic deformation with
high energy absorption before fracture
Cup-and-cone fracture
• The central interior region where the microvoids formed is
typically rough.
• The surface of the shear lip is typically smooth.
• The material exhibits little or no plastic deformation with low
energy absoprtion before fracture.

• The crack propagates through the material by a process called

cleavage.
• Some metals that are ductile at room temperature would
become brittle at low temperature.

• The temperature at which a material changes from ductile to

brittle fracture is the ductile-to-brittle transition temperature.
• Low-strength steels (BCC) have transition temperatures, while
low-strength (FCC and HCP) metals do not have transition
temperatures.
• Concerned with analyzing the failure of materials
containing cracks and flaws

• Involves the quantification of relationships between

material properties, stress level, the presence of crack-
producing flaws, and crack-propagation mechanisms
• Some materials contain flaws. These flaws could be small
pores or holes, inclusions or micro-cracks.

• When a load is applied, the stress is concentrated at either

side of the flaw or crack.
• Fracture toughness is a property of a material that measures
the ability of a material containing a flaw to withstand an
applied load.

Kc = fracture toughness [MPa(m)1/2]

Y = geometry factor
σ = applied stress (MPa)
a = flaw or crack size (m)
Y = 1.0 Y = 1.1
A large plate is fabricated from a steel alloy that has a fracture
toughness of 82.4 MPa(m)1/2. If, during service use, the plate
is exposed to a tensile stress of 345 MPa, determine the
minimum length of a surface crack that will lead to fracture.
Assume a value of 1.0 for Y.
• Lowering of strength or failure of a material due to repetitive
and fluctuating stresses which may be above or below the
yield strength.

• This type of failure normally occurs after a long period of

repeated stress cycling.

• Fatigue failure is estimated to comprise 90% of all metallic

failures.
1. Crack Initiation
Ø A small crack forms at or near
the surface

2. Crack Propagation
Ø The crack advances
incrementally with each stress
cycle

3. Fast Fracture
Ø Sudden fracture occurs when
the remaining cross-section of
the material is too small to
support the load
• Reducing stress concentrations in the design of
components
– Avoiding sharp corners and only using rounded corners
– Sanding and polishing surfaces to remove any notches or
defects
• Proper materials selection and processing
– Selecting materials with high fracture toughness
– Preventing or compensating processing flaws