Steps in Germination Process:

 Period of rapid metabolic activity :Characterized by rapid cell division and elongation accompanied faster synthesis of materials.
 Root elongation: The first sign of germination showing the root breaking into.
 Shoot emergence: in the field this is the first sign.
 Period of independent growth: seedling starts to manufacture its own food, leading to.
 Imbition: phase 1 physical process involving the absorption of water by starch
Phase 2 physiological process involving the absorption of water by the embryo.
Types of dormancy
 Primary dormancy(natural dormancy): acquired as seed develops or mature.
 Secondary dormancy (induced dormancy): Resulted when a non dormant seed/propagule is subjected to unfavorable condition.
Mechanism of dormancy
 Physical: involves the impermeability of the thick seed coat to imbibe water and oxygen hence even if the embryo is viable.
 Physiological: can be accounted to immaturity of the embryo. Substance inhibitory to the germination of seed weeds.
Dormancy of seed weed.
 Dormancy: is the inability of seed/propagule to germinate even if condition are favorable.
Germination
 Is the resumption of growth of the seed embryo and this marks thestart of survival for weed.
Ways to overcome weed dormancy
 After ripining process
 Treatment with germination promoters
 Exposure to light to inactivate the inhibitors
 Stratification or low temperature treatment
 Use of suitable germination medium for germination that can absorbed the inhibitors
 Microbial action
 Treatment with acid
 Passage through alimentary of animals
 Dehulling or scarification
 Exposure to alternate wet and dry condition
Factors affecting weed germination
 Environment: light, moisture, temperature, oxygen and carbon dioxide.
 Cultural practices: water management, cultivation.
Weed production and survival
 Sexual production: annual weeds mainly reproduce by sexual means.
 Asexual or vegetative reproduction: the mot common method of reproduction is perennial.
Factors affecting seedling growth and development
 Soil factors: Ph, Nutrient level, salinity
 Light: shading- reduces photosynthetic activity
 Adaptation to growing condition: tropical, temperature condition.
 Competitive power of the weed: most important power of a weed in a battle for survival.
Agent of survival
 Seeds that possesses hard seed coat when eaten by animals can pass through the alimentary tract of the animals and are disposed
through the dung.
 Explosive mechanism: exhibited by legume and some non-leguminous species.
Weed interference
 Interference: is a general term which comprises both concepts of allelopathy and competition.
 Competition: only occurs between or among organism when there is limited supply of resources.
 Allelopathy: harmful effects of one plant an another plant due to the chemicals that it releases to the environment.
Type of competition
 Intraspecific: competition between organism belonging to the same group of species.
 Interspecific: competition between organism belonging to dif. Species.
Agent of dispersal
 Man and his activities
Weed crop allelopathy
 2 greek words
allelo (mutual)
pathos (harm)
Meaning mutual harm
Source of allelopathic substances
 Roots of living plants
 Leachates/ extract of plant organs
 Or weeds.
 Or form fecomposistion of dead plants parts.
Principle involve in crop weed competition
 Critical threshold level (CTL) refers to the particular density of the weed.
Types of mouth
  Chewing.
 Piercing sucking: pierce the epidimis of plants or the skin of animal. (MOSQUITO)
 Rasping sucking: coned shaped beak form from the clypcus. (THRIPS)
 Siphoning: modified for the uptake of lower nectar. (BUTTERFLY,MOTH)
 Sponging: mandible and maxillac are nonfunctional, (HOUSEFLY)
 Cutting sponging: have well developed mandibles (BITING FLIES)
 Chewing-lapping: mandibles and abrum are similar to the chewing type and are used in molding wax. (BEES,WASP)
Antennae
 Found in the head of the insects, below or between the eyes.
Parts of antennae
 Scape
 Pedicel
 Flagellum
Types of antennae
 Setaceous( DRAGON FLY)
 Filiform (GRASSHOPPER)
 Moniliform (TERMITES)
 Serrate (PULSE BETTLE)
 Pectinate (CARDINAL BETTLE)
 Bipectinate (SILKWORM MOTH)
 Plumose (MALE MOSQUITO)
 Pilose (FEMALE MOSQUITO)
 Clavate (BUTTERFLY)
 Capitate (RED FLOUR BETTLE)
 Lamellate (DONG RULLER)
 Flabellate (MALE STYLOPID)
 Geniculate (HONEY BEE)
 Aristate (HOUSE FLY)
 Stylate (ROBBER FLY)
 Ensiform (GREEN GRASSHOPPER)
Types of wings
 Scale winged
 Membranous wing
 Halters or balancers
 Elytra
 Hemelytra
 Tegmina
 Fringe wing
 Hamuli
 Frenulum
 Jugum
Types of legs
 Ambulatorial or gressorial (STICK INSECT)
 Cursorial (COCKROACH)
 Saltatorial (GRASSHOPPER)
 Raptorial legs (PRAYING MANTIS)
 Natatorial (DIVING BEETLE)
 Fossorial leg (MOLE, CRCKET,CICADA, SCARAB BEETLE)
 Clasping leg (DIVING BEETLE)
 CLingeng leg (HEAD LICE)
 Pollen gathering leg (HONEY BEES) HIND LEGS
 Grooming leg (HONEYBEES FORELEGS)
Insect Order
 Collembolan (SPRINGTAIL)
 Thysanura (SILVER FISH) (FIREBAT)
 Ephemeroptera (MAY FLY) MAY FLY LARVAE)
 Odonatan (COMMON SKIMMER) (DRAGON FLY) DAMSELFLY)
 Phasmida (WALKING STICK)
 ORTHOPTERA (Diff, GRASSHOPPER) KATYDID) LUBBER GRASSHOPPER) TOWNY BROWN MOLE CRICKET)
 Mantodena ( PRAYING MANTID)
 Blattaria (AMERICN COCKROACH) GERMAN COCKROACH
 Soptera (SUBTERRANEAN TERMITES)