PARTMHAR

ENGR. KRISTIAN 1 DE PADUA

 Digital communication

It is the transmission of digital information (data)

from one point to another. Any analog information can be
converted into digital form before transmission using
Analog-to-Digital conversion. Though the information is
digital, the transmission can be in the form of pulses,
analog or digital. It covers DIGITAL TRANSMISSION and
DIGITAL RADIO.
 Digital transmission

Transmittal of DIGITAL PULSES or BITS between two

points in a communication system.
 Digital RADIO

Transmittal of DIGITALLY MODULATED ANALOG

CARRIER between two points in a communication system.
 Information theory

HARTLEY’S LAW:
States that the amount of information that can be
sent in a given transmission is dependent (directly
proportional) on the BANDWIDTH of the channel and
the DURATION of transmission.

𝐼 ∝ 𝐵𝑡
 Information theory

SHANNON LIMIT:
This theorem gives an upper bound to the
capacity of a link, in bits per second (bps), as a
function of the available BANDWIDTH (B) and the
SIGNAL-TO-NOISE RATIO (S/N) of the link.
𝑆
𝐼 = 𝐵 × 𝑙𝑜𝑔2 1+
𝑁
 Information theory

SHANNON-HARTLEY LIMIT:
This theorem gives an upper bound to the
capacity of a link, in bits per second (bps), as a
function of the available BANDWIDTH (B) and the
NUMBER OF SIGNAL LEVEL (M = 2n) of the link.

𝐶 = 2𝐵 × 𝑙𝑜𝑔2 𝑀
 Information theory

ENTROPHY (H):
In general, the information content will vary from
message to message because the probability of
transmitting the nth message will not be always equal.
Consequently, we need an average information measure
for the source, considering all the possible message we
can send.
𝑁

𝐻 = − ෍ 𝑃𝑛 × 𝑙𝑜𝑔2 𝑃𝑛
𝑛=0
 Information theory

ENTROPHY (H):
𝑁

𝐻 = − ෍ 𝑃𝑛 × 𝑙𝑜𝑔2 𝑃𝑛
𝑛=0

H = Entropy
Pn = probability of transmitting message ‘n’
 Information theory

NYQUIST SAMPLING THEOREM

States that for a sample to be reproduced
accurately at the receiver, the sampling frequency must
be atleast twice the highest modulating frequency.

𝑓𝑠 ≥ 2𝑓𝑚 ≥ 2𝐵
 Sample problem no. 1:

Analog signals of 500 Hz, 1500 Hz and 3,000 Hz

are to be sampled for digital transmission. What
should be the minimum sampling frequency to be
used?
 Sample problem no. 2:

A radio channel has a bandwidth of 10 kHz and a

signal to noise ratio of 15 dB. What is the maximum
theoretical data rate that can be transmitted using
any system
 Sample problem no. 3:

Calculate the minimum data rate needed to transmit

audio with a sampling rate of 40 kHz and 14 bits
per sample.
 Sample problem no. 4:

Calculate the maximum data rate that could be

carried in a TV channel using a 16-level code
ignoring the noise. What would be the maximum
permissible signal-to-noise ratio in dB for this data
rate?
 Sample problem no. 5:

The vowel letters are to be transmitted by a system.

The probability of generating the input A, E, I, O
and U are 0.40, 0.25, 0.20, 0.10 and 0.05
respectively. What is the system entropy?
 PARTMHAR
ENGR. KRISTIAN 2 DE PADUA
 DIGITAL RADIO

In digital radio, remember that the INFORMATION is

DIGITAL and the CARRIER is ANALOG. It means that the
message is transmitted in analog form. Digital radio
system uses different DIGITAL MODULATION techniques.
 DIGITAL MODULATION

It is a generic name for modulation techniques that

uses DISCRETE SIGNALS (PULSES) to modulate a CARRIER
WAVE. In comparison, FM and AM are analog techniques.
The three main types of digital modulation are Frequency
Shift Keying (FSK), Phase Shift Keying (PSK) and
Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK).
DIGITAL MODULATION techniques

The binary information (pulses) changes the

characteristic of the carrier, either amplitude (ASK),
frequency (FSK), phase (PSK) or both amplitude and
phase (QAM).
 Amplitude shift keying (ask)

The most basic form of ASK involves the process of

switching the carrier either on or off (also called OOK), in
correspondence to a sequence of digital pulses that
constitute the information signal. One binary digit is
represented by the presence of a carrier, the other binary
digit is represented by the absence of a carrier while the
frequency remains fixed.
 Amplitude shift keying (ask)

ASK WAVE EQUATION:

𝑉𝑐
𝑉𝐴𝑆𝐾 𝑡 = 1 + 𝑉𝑚 𝑡 ∙ cos 𝜔𝑐 𝑡
2

where:
Vm(t) = information signal (+1 for logic 1; –1 for logic 0)
Vccos(ct) = instantaneous carrier wave
 Amplitude shift keying (ask)

ASK:
DATA

CARRIER

ASK WAVE
 frequency shift keying (fsk)

The most basic (binary) form of FSK involves the

process of varying the frequency of a carrier wave by
choosing one of two frequencies (binary FSK) in
correspondence to a sequence of digital pulses that
constitute the information signal. Two binary digits are
represented by two frequencies around the carrier
frequency while the amplitude remains fixed.
 frequency shift keying (fsk)

FSK:
DATA

MARK FREQUENCY

SPACE FREQUENCY

FSK WAVE
 frequency shift keying (fsk)

MODULATION INDEX OF FSK:

𝑓 𝑓𝑚 − 𝑓𝑠 𝑓𝑏
𝑚= 𝑓 = 𝑓𝑎 =
𝑓𝑎 2 2

where: m = modulation index fs = space frequency (Hz)

f = frequency deviation (Hz) fb = capacity (bps)
fa = modulating frequency (Hz)
fm = mark frequency (Hz)
 frequency shift keying (fsk)

BANDWIDTH OF FSK:

𝐵 = 2(∆𝑓 + 𝑓𝑏 )

where: B = bandwidth
f = frequency deviation (Hz)
fb = capacity (bps)
 phase shift keying (psk)

It similar to conventional phase modulation except

that with PSK the input signal is a binary signal and a
limited number of output phases are possible.
It can be of different types depending on the
number of bits ‘n’.
M-ary Encoding – a term derived from the word “binary”.
M is simply a digit that represents the number of
conditions possible. M = 2n
 phase shift keying (psk)

DIFFERENT TYPES OF PSK:

1. BPSK
2. QPSK
3. M-PSK
4. DPSK
 phase shift keying (psk)

BINARY PSK (BPSK):

Each data is represented by 1 bit (n = 1). Therefore
there are two output phases/signal levels (M = 21)
possible for a single carrier frequency
 phase shift keying (psk)

BPSK:
 phase shift keying (psk)

EIGHT PSK (8PSK):

Each data is represented by 3 bits (n = 3), one for
Q, I and C channel. Therefore there are eight output
phases/signal levels (M = 23) possible for a single carrier
frequency
 phase shift keying (psk)

8PSK:
 phase shift keying (psk)

SIXTEEN PSK (16PSK):

Each data is represented by 4 bits (n = 4), one for
Q, Q’, I and I’ channel. Therefore there are 16 output
phases/signal levels (M = 24) possible for a single carrier
frequency
 phase shift keying (psk)

16PSK:
 phase shift keying (psk)

DIFFERENTIAL PSK (DPSK):

An alternative form of digital modulation where the
binary input information is contained in the difference
between 2 successive signaling element rather than
absolute phase
QUADRATURE AMPLITUDE MODULATION

It is a form of digital modulation where the digital

information is contained in both the amplitude and phase
of the transmitted signal.
Common types:
1. 8-QAM
2. 16-QAM
QUADRATURE AMPLITUDE MODULATION

EIGHT QAM (8-QAM):

An M-ary encoding technique by which data are
represented by 3 bits (n = 3). Therefore there are eight
output symbols by which varies with 2 possible amplitudes
and 4 possible phases.
QUADRATURE AMPLITUDE MODULATION

SIXTEEN QAM (16-QAM):

An M-ary encoding technique by which data are
represented by 4 bits (n = 4). Therefore there are 16
output symbols by which varies with 2 possible amplitudes
and 8 possible phases or 3 amplitudes and 12 phases.
 Bandwidth consideration

For any M-PSK and M-QAM modulation technique,

the bandwidth (BW) is given by:

𝑓𝑏
𝐵𝑊 =
𝑛

where: n = number of bits

fb = bit rate
 Baud rate

Baud rate represents the number of times per

second a signal or symbol in a communications channel
changes state or varies. For any M-PSK and M-QAM
modulation technique, baud rate is always equal to the
bandwidth with a unit of Baud or symbols/sec.

𝑓𝑏
𝐵𝑎𝑢𝑑 = 𝐵𝑊 =
𝑛
 BANDWIDTH EFFICIENCY

Also called Spectral Efficiency or Information Density

is an indication of how a certain modulation scheme is
efficiently utilizing its bandwidth. For any M-PSK and M-
QAM modulation technique, the efficiency is:

𝑓𝑏 𝑆
𝜂= = log 2 1 +
𝐵𝑊 𝑁
Summary of various system
 Sample problem no. 6:

Determine the peak frequency deviation for a

binary FSK signal with a mark frequency of 49 kHz,
space frequency of 51kHz and an input bit rate of
2kbps. Find also the modulation index and
bandwidth of the system.
 Sample problem no. 7:

The bit rate of a QPSK system is 10 Mbps. How fast

are the bits travelling at the Q- channel before they
enter the modulator?
 Sample problem no. 8:

If the baud rate is 400 for a QPSK signal, the bit

rate is _____ bps.
 Sample problem no. 9:

If the bit rate for a 16-QAM signal is 4000 bps,

what is the baud rate?
 Sample problem no. 10:

A modulator transmits symbols, each of which has

64 different possible states, sampling of 10,000
times per second. Calculate the baud rate and the
bit rate.
 PARTMHAR
ENGR. KRISTIAN 3 DE PADUA
 DIGITAL TRANSMISSION

In digital transmission, remember that the

INFORMATION is ANALOG and the CARRIER are PULSES.
It means that the message is transmitted in analog form.
But also the pulses can be encoded into bits and
transmitted in digital form. Digital transmission system uses
different PULSE MODULATION techniques.
 PULSE MODULATION

It is the process in which signal is transmitted by

pulses (i.e., discontinuous signals) with a special technique.
The pulse modulation is classified as analog pulse
modulation and digital pulse modulation. The analog
pulse modulation is again classified as Pulse amplitude
modulation (PAM), Pulse time modulation (PTM) and Pulse
frequency modulation (PFM). The digital pulse modulation
is classified as Pulse code modulation (PCM) and Delta
modulation (DM)
 PULSE AMPLITUDE MODULATION

The pulse amplitude modulation is the modulation of

signals by VARYING the AMPLITUDE of PULSES in
accordance with the instantaneous amplitude of the
modulating signal. The WIDTH and POSITIONS of the
pulses are CONSTANTS in this modulation.
PULSE AMPLITUDE MODULATION
 PULSE TIME MODULATION

PTM is a class of signaling technique that encodes the

sample values of an analog signal information onto the
time axis of a digital signal. It is analogous to Angle
modulation in analog modulation.
Two types are:
1. Pulse Width Modulation (PWM)
2. Pulse Position Modulation (PPM)
 PULSE TIME MODULATION

PULSE WIDTH MODULATION (PWM):

Also called Pulse Duration Modulation, where the
pulse WIDTH of pulses are VARIED proportionally to the
instantaneous amplitude of the analog signal while the
amplitude and position remains constant.
PULSE TIME MODULATION
 PULSE TIME MODULATION

PULSE POSITION MODULATION (PPM):

It is a form of pulse modulation where the POSITION
of a pulse within a prescribed timeslot is VARIED in
accordance to the amplitude of the analog signal while
the amplitude and width of the pulses remains constant.
PULSE TIME MODULATION
PULSE frequency MODULATION

PFM is a form of pulse modulation where the pulse

PERIOD and PULSE duration are BOTH VARIED
proportional to the amplitude of the modulating signal in
such a way that the DUTY CYCLE of the pulse train
REMAINS CONSTANT.
PULSE frequency MODULATION
 PULSE CODE MODULATION

PCM is essentially an analog-to-digital conversion of

a special type where the information contained in the
instantaneous samples of an ANALOG SIGNAL is
REPRESENTED by digital words in serial BIT STREAM.
Pulses are of fixed length and fixed amplitude.
PULSE CODE MODULATION
 PULSE CODE MODULATION

PCM CIRCUIT BLOCK DIAGRAM:

 PULSE CODE MODULATION

i. BAND LIMITING
The bandpass filter limits the frequency of the input
analog signal to the standard voice frequency band. The
purpose is to eliminate any unwanted signal that will result
to aliasing or fold-over distortion at the receiver. Aliasing
is an effect that causes different signals to become
indistinguishable when sampled.
 PULSE CODE MODULATION

i. BAND LIMITING
 PULSE CODE MODULATION

ii. SAMPLING
The act of periodically holding a value (sample) of
the continually changing analog input signals. Generally, it
is the conversion of analog signals to discrete time signals.
Three types of sampling:
1. Ideal sampling
2. Natural sampling
3. Flat-top sampling
 PULSE CODE MODULATION

ii. SAMPLING
NYQUIST SAMPLING THEOREM
States that for a sample to be reproduced
accurately at the receiver, the sampling frequency must be
atleast twice the highest modulating frequency.

𝑓𝑠 ≥ 2𝑓𝑚
 PULSE CODE MODULATION

ii. SAMPLING
1. Ideal Sampling
 PULSE CODE MODULATION

ii. SAMPLING
2. Natural Sampling – sampling type that retains the
natural shape of the sample analog waveform.
 PULSE CODE MODULATION

ii. SAMPLING
3. Flat-top Sampling – the most common method used
for sampling voice signals in PCM where the sample-and-
hold circuit converts those samples to a series of PAM
levels.
 PULSE CODE MODULATION

iii. QUANTIZATION
The process of assigning discrete level to a time-
varying quantity in multiples of some fixed unit, at a
specified instant or specified repetition rate.
 PULSE CODE MODULATION

iv. ENCODING
The process of converting the quantized discrete-
signal (PAM samples) to parallel PCM codes.
 Pcm parameters

1. NUMBER OF LEVELS (M):

𝑀 = 2𝑛

where: n = number of bits

M = number of signal levels
 Pcm parameters

2. BANDWIDTH (DATA RATE):

𝐵 = 𝑓𝑏 = 𝑛 × 𝑓𝑠

where: n = number of bits

fb = bit rate/data rate
fs = sampling frequency
B = bandwidth
 Pcm parameters

3. DYNAMIC RANGE (DR):

It is the difference between the largest and smallest
signal a system can record or reproduce.
𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝐷𝑅 = = 2𝑛 − 1 𝐷𝑅𝑑𝐵 = 20 log 𝐷𝑅
𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑛
where: DR = dynamic range n =encoding bits
Vmax = maximum voltage
Vmin = minimum voltage
 Pcm parameters

4. RESOLUTION/STEP SIZE ():

It is defined as the accuracy of the digitizing system
to represent the analog signal into a sampled signal. It is
the smallest analog voltage that can be recognized by the
quantizer.
𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥
∆= 𝑛 ≈ 𝑛
2 −1 2
where: n = data bits
 Pcm parameters

4. RESOLUTION/STEP SIZE ():

Note that for voltage range with negative values,
consider only the +voltages and add 1 bit for sign bit.
 Pcm parameters

5. QUANTIZATION ERROR (Qe):

1 𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑄𝑒 = ∆ =
2 2

where:  = resolution/step size

Qe = quantization error
 Pcm parameters

6. SCALE FACTOR (SF):

1
S𝐹 = 𝑛 × 100%
2
where: n =encoding bits
 Pcm parameters

7. CODING EFFICIENCY ():

𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑎 𝑏𝑖𝑡𝑠

𝜂= = × 100%
𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑏𝑖𝑡𝑠
 Pcm parameters

8. SIGNAL-TO-QUANTIZATION NOISE RATIO (SQNR):

Also termed as the MAXIMUM Dynamic Range.
3 2
𝑆𝑄𝑁𝑅 = 𝑀 𝑆𝑄𝑁𝑅 𝑑𝐵 = 6.02𝑛 + 1.76
2
where: M = number of signal levels = 2n
n = number of bits
 Delta modulation

DM uses a single-bit PCM code to achieve digital

transmission of analog signals. With delta modulation,
only single bit is transmitted, which simply indicates
whether the sample is larger or smaller than the previous
sample.
 Delta modulation

TRADE-OFF OF DM:
i. Slope overload
Occurs when the input signal changes rapidly and
has a large slope than the DAC can maintain.
ii. Granular noise
Signal variations present in the reconstructed signal if
the original analog input signal has a relatively constant
amplitude.
 Delta modulation

TRADE-OFF OF DM:
 Adaptive Delta modulation

ADM is a delta modulation system where the step

size of the DAC is automatically varied depending on the
amplitude characteristics of the analog input signal.
DIGITAL TRANSMISSION VS. DIGITAL RADIO

ADVANTAGES
1. noise immunity
2. better suited to processing and multiplexing

DISADVANTAGES
1. requires more bandwidth
2. requires precise time synchronization between
transmitter and receiver
3. incompatible with existing analog facility
 Sample problem no. 11:

The compact disc system of digital audio uses two

channels with TDM. Each channel is sampled at 44.1
kHz and encoded using linear PCM with 16 bits per
sample. Find the number of quantizing levels.
 Sample problem no. 12:

Determine the step-size of an analog voltage to be

sampled using 12-bit linear code with maximum
value of 10V and minimum value –10V.
 Sample problem no. 13:

Determine the dynamic range of a PCM system that

uses an 8-bit sign magnitude code.
 Sample problem no. 14:

Find the maximum dynamic range for a linear PCM

system using 16-bit quantizing.
 Sample problem no. 15:

Calculate the maximum efficiency of an

asynchronous communication system using ASCII
with seven data bits, one start bit, one stop bit,
and one parity bit.