RIZAL HIGH SCHOOL

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CURRENT ISSUES IN AGRICULTURE THAT AFFECT

SECTOR IN THE PHILIPPINES

Presented To:
Mr. Manuel G. San Diego
A.P Teacher 9
Ms. Precious Faye C. Caguioa
A.P Student Teacher

In partial fulfillment of the requirements in

Araling Panlipunan 9

Submitted by:
Jericho Byron S. Granadino

Grade 9- Section 3
Fourth Grading Period
FEBRUARY 28, 2020
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NOTE:

ilagay ang title ng bawat issue, naka format na yan wala na

kayong babaguhin pa!

Example

African swine flu in the ph

Paste your research here

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References:

Link nung pinagkuhaan n’yo.

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CLIMATE CHANGE

Climate change

Main article: Climate change and agriculture

Climate change and agriculture are interrelated processes, both of

which take place on a worldwide scale. Global warming is
projected to have significant impacts on conditions affecting
agriculture, including temperature, precipitation and glacial run-off.
These conditions determine the carrying capacity of
the biosphere to produce enough food for the human
population and domesticated animals. Rising carbon dioxide levels
would also have effects, both detrimental and beneficial, on crop
yields. Assessment of the effects of global climate changes on
agriculture might help to properly anticipate and adapt farming to
maximize agricultural production. Although the net impact of
climate change on agricultural production is uncertain it is likely
that it will shift the suitable growing zones for individual crops.
Adjustment to this geographical shift will involve considerable
economic costs and social impacts.
At the same time, agriculture has been shown to produce
significant effects on climate change, primarily through the
production and release of greenhouse gases such as carbon
dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide. In addition, agriculture that
practices tillage, fertilization, and pesticide application also
releases ammonia, nitrate, phosphorus, and many other pesticides
that affect air, water, and soil quality, as well as biodiversity.
[1]
 Agriculture also alters the Earth's land cover, which can change
its ability to absorb or reflect heat and light, thus contributing
to radiative forcing. Land use change such
as deforestation and desertification, together with use of fossil
fuels, are the major anthropogenic sources of carbon dioxide;
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agriculture itself is the major contributor to increasing methane and

nitrous oxide concentrations in earth's atmosphere.
Most of the methane emissions result from the use of livestock, in
particular ruminants such as cattle and pigs. Other livestock as
poultry, fish, ... has a far lower impact. Some solutions are being
developed to counter the emissions of ruminants. Strategies
include using biogas from manure, genetic selection,immunization,
rumen defaunation, outcompetition of methanogenic archaea
with acetogens, introduction of methanotrophic bacteria into the
rumen, diet modification and grazing management, among
others. Certain diet changes (such as with Asparagopsis
taxiformis) allow for a reduction of up to 99% in ruminant
greenhouse gas emissions. Due to these negative impacts, but
also for reasons of farming efficiency (see Food vs. feed), one
projection mentions a large decline of livestock at least some
animals (i.e. cattle) in certain countries by 2030. Crops grown in
the United States are critical for the food supply here and around
the world. U.S. farms supply nearly 25% of all grains (such as
wheat, corn, and rice) on the global market.[4] Changes in
temperature, atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2), and the frequency
and intensity of extreme weather could have significant impacts on
crop yields.
Higher CO2 levels can affect crop yields. Some laboratory
experiments suggest that elevated CO2 levels can increase plant
growth.  However, other factors, such as changing temperatures,
ozone, and water and nutrient constraints, may counteract these
potential increases in yield. For example, if temperature exceeds a
crop's optimal level, if sufficient water and nutrients are not
available, yield increases may be reduced or reversed. Elevated
CO2 has been associated with reduced protein and nitrogen
content in alfalfa and soybean plants, resulting in a loss of quality. 
Reduced grain and forage quality can reduce the ability of pasture
and rangeland to support grazing livestock. More extreme
temperature and precipitation can prevent crops from growing.
Extreme events, especially floods and droughts, can harm crops
and reduce yields. For example, in 2010 and 2012, high nighttime
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temperatures affected corn yields across the U.S. Corn Belt, and
premature budding due to a warm winter caused $220 million in
losses of Michigan cherries in 2012.
 Dealing with drought could become a challenge in areas where
rising summer temperatures cause soils to become drier. Although
increased irrigation might be possible in some places, in other
places water supplies may also be reduced, leaving less water
available for irrigation when more is needed. Many weeds, pests,
and fungi thrive under warmer temperatures, wetter climates, and
increased CO2 levels. Currently, U.S. farmers spend more than $11
billion per year to fight weeds, which compete with crops for light,
water, and nutrients.[1] The ranges and distribution of weeds and
pests are likely to increase with climate change. This could cause
new problems for farmers' crops previously unexposed to these
species. Though rising CO2 can stimulate plant growth, it also
reduces the nutritional value of most food crops. Rising levels of
atmospheric carbon dioxide reduce the concentrations of protein
and essential minerals in most plant species, including wheat,
soybeans, and rice. This direct effect of rising CO2 on the
nutritional value of crops represents a potential threat to human
health. Human health is also threatened by increased pesticide use
due to increased pest pressures and reductions in the efficacy of
pesticides.

American fishermen catch or harvest five million metric tons of fish

and shellfish each year.[7] U.S. fisheries contribute more than $1.55
billion to the economy annually (as of 2012). Many fisheries
already face multiple stresses, including overfishing and water
pollution. Climate change may worsen these stresses. In particular,
temperature changes could lead to significant impacts.The ranges
of many fish and shellfish species may change. In waters off the
northeastern United States, several economically important
species have shifted northward since the late 1960s. The three
species shown in [the figure to the left]  (American lobster, red
hake, and black sea bass) have moved northward by an average of
119 miles. Many aquatic species can find colder areas of streams
and lakes or move north along the coast or in the ocean.
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Nevertheless, moving into new areas may put these species into
competition with other species over food and other resources, as
explained on the Ecosystems Impacts page. Drought may threaten
pasture and feed supplies. Drought reduces the amount of quality
forage available to grazing livestock. Some areas could experience
longer, more intense droughts, resulting from higher summer
temperatures and reduced precipitation. For animals that rely on
grain, changes in crop production due to drought could also
become a problem. Climate change may increase the prevalence
of parasites and diseases that affect livestock. The earlier onset of
spring and warmer winters could allow some parasites and
pathogens to survive more easily. In areas with increased rainfall,
moisture-reliant pathogens could thrive.

References: https://19january2017snapshot.epa.gov/climate-

impacts/

DEFORESTATION

Deforestation is clearing the Earth's forests on a large scale

worldwide and resulting in many land damages. One of the causes
of deforestation is to clear land for pasture or crops. According to
British environmentalist Norman Myers, 5% of deforestation is due
to cattle ranching, 19% due to over-heavy logging, 22% due to the
growing sector of palm oil plantations, and 54% due to slash-and-
burn farming.
Deforestation causes the loss of habitat for millions of species, and
is also a driver of climate change. Trees act as a carbon sink: that
is, they absorb carbon dioxide, an unwanted greenhouse gas, out
of the atmosphere. Removing trees releases carbon dioxide into
the atmosphere and leaves behind fewer trees to absorb the
increasing amount of carbon dioxide in the air. In this way,
deforestation exacerbates climate change. When trees are
removed from forests, the soils tend to dry out because there is no
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longer shade, and there are not enough trees to assist in the water
cycle by returning water vapor back to the environment. With no
trees, landscapes that were once forests can potentially become
barren deserts. The removal of trees also causes extreme
fluctuations in temperature.
In 2000 the United Nations Food and Agriculture
Organization (FAO) found that "the role of population dynamics in a
local setting may vary from decisive to negligible," and that
deforestation can result from "a combination of population pressure
and stagnating economic, social and technological conditions."
As the global demand for meat rises, so does the number of cattle
needed to produce beef. Those animals require space and
nourishment, so millions of acres of untouched land are cleared
every year to make room for feed crops and grazing pastures. But
additionally, forests are cleared to produce feed for other animals,
too, like pigs and chickens. 
Animals always require more calories to raise than the calories
they produce for humans to eat. Therefore animal agriculture is
always more destructive than agriculture producing plant-based
food directly for humans. Livestock operations occupy 45
percent of the global surface area, and an additional 10 percent is
dedicated to growing feed crops for those animals.
Nearly 60 percent of the world’s arable land is used for beef
production alone, which requires large amounts of land used for
cattle grazing and cultivating feed crops like soy.
Soy production has doubled in the past 20 years largely influenced
by expanding animal agriculture. Every year, around 1.2 million
acres of land are cleared for soy production in tropical climates,
and that number will continue to climb if the world does not reduce
animal-protein consumption.
Our biodiverse rainforests are often hit the hardest by
deforestation, including the plant and animal species residing
within them.  At least 15 percent of the Amazon rainforest has
already been destroyed, not including the devastation from recent
fires. Around 80 percent of that land is used for growing crops and
creating grazing pastures for cattle. Trees have been cut for human
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use for thousands of years, but the industrial boom of the 1800s
increased the demand for timber and also introduced technologies
that made clearing land a much faster and easier process.
Though it is difficult to pinpoint an exact number of how many trees
are cut down each year, the estimate is between 3.5 to 7 billion.
Agricultural expansion accounts for nearly 30 percent of this
estimate, including growing crops for livestock and clearing land for
grazing.

Reference: https://sentientmedia.org/how-does-agriculture-cause-
deforestation/

IRRIGATION
Among some of these problems is the depletion of
underground aquifers through overdrafting. Soil can be over-
irrigated because of poor distribution
uniformity or management wastes water, chemicals, and may lead
to water pollution. Over-irrigation can cause deep drainage from
rising water tables that can lead to problems of
irrigation salinity requiring watertable control by some form
of subsurface land drainage. However, if the soil is under irrigated,
it gives poor soil salinity control which leads to increased soil
salinity with consequent buildup of toxic salts on soil surface in
areas with high evaporation. This requires either leaching to
remove these salts and a method of drainage to carry the salts
away. Irrigation with saline or high-sodium water may damage soil
structure owing to the formation of alkaline soil. Irrigation is the
application of controlled amounts of water to plants at needed
intervals. Irrigation helps to grow agricultural crops,
maintain landscapes, and revegetate disturbed soils in dry areas
and during periods of less than average rainfall. Irrigation also has
other uses in crop production, including frost protection,
[1]
 suppressing weed growth in grain fields[2] and preventing soil
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consolidation.[3] In contrast, agriculture that relies only on direct

rainfall is referred to as rain-fed.

Irrigation systems are also used for cooling livestock, dust

suppression, disposal of sewage, and in mining. Irrigation is often
studied together with drainage, which is the removal of surface and
sub-surface water from a given area. Irrigation has been a central
feature of agriculture for over 5,000 years and is the product of
many cultures. Historically, it was the basis for economies and
societies across the globe, from Asia to the Southwestern United
States.Irrigation is an essential component of sustainable
agricultural development but it is not a unique sector, since it faces
challenges similar to those confronting other public and private
sector economic activities. The previous two sections (II and III) of
this report examine how various demand-side policy measures can
help shape decisions that encourage water-use efficiency.
However, while appropriate policies and regulations are necessary
for improved water productivity, a variety of additional water-saving
measures are required in the irrigation sector.

Some water-saving measures involve taking more advantage of

the scientific, engineering and technological advances in soils,
plants and irrigation. Other measures focus on administrative and
managerial reforms to improve efficiency, including the
decentralization of public irrigation agencies and a greater reliance
on farmer-owned and farmer-operated irrigation.

This final section highlights three key irrigation issues: declining

growth and investment trends in irrigation; the difficulties imposed
by irrigation-induced environmental degradation; and efforts to
reform managerial and administrative systems. Many of today's
irrigation-related problems appear imposing and even
overwhelming. The purpose of this section is not to present a
discouraging overview of irrigation's future but to focus on
important issues that will shape its future. When scarce water is
under human control in irrigation systems, there are many
opportunities to use it optimally. Understanding the problems
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associated with improper irrigation as well as the potential for

efficient irrigation is a first step in the search for these
opportunities.

Reference:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_agriculture#:
~:text=Some%20of%20the%20environmental%20issues,%2C
%20soil%20degradation%2C%20and%20waste.

POLLUTANTS
Synthetic pesticides such as 'Malathion', 'Rogor', 'Kelthane' and
'confidor' are the most widespread method of controlling pests in
agriculture. Pesticides can leach through the soil and enter
the groundwater, as well as linger in food products and result in
death in humans and non-targeted wildlife. A wide range
of agricultural chemicals are used and some
become pollutants through use, misuse, or ignorance. The erosion
of topsoil, which can contain chemicals such as herbicides and
pesticides, can be carried away from farms to other
places. Pesticides can be found in streams and groundwater.
Atrazine is a herbicide used to control weeds that grow among
crops. This herbicide can disrupt endocrine production which can
cause reproductive problems in mammals, amphibians and fish
that have been exposed. Pollutants from agriculture have a huge
effect on water quality. Agricultural nonpoint source (NPS) solution
impacts lakes, rivers, wetlands, estuaries, and groundwater.
Agricultural NPS can be caused by poorly managed animal feeding
operations, overgrazing, plowing, fertilizer, and improper,
excessive, or badly timed use of Pesticides. Pollutants from
farming include sediments, nutrients, pathogens, pesticides,
metals, and salts. Animal agriculture can also cause pollutants to
enter the environment. Bacteria and pathogens in manure can
make their way into streams and groundwater if grazing, storing
manure in lagoons and applying manure to fields is not properly
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managed. Agricultural pollution refers

to biotic and abiotic byproducts of farming practices that result
in contamination or degradation of the environment and
surrounding ecosystems, and/or cause injury to humans and their
economic interests. The pollution may come from a variety of
sources, ranging from point source water pollution (from a single
discharge point) to more diffuse, landscape-level causes, also
known as non-point source pollution. Management practices play a
crucial role in the amount and impact of these pollutants.
Management techniques range from animal management and
housing to the spread of pesticides and fertilizers in global
agricultural practices. Pesticides and herbicides are applied to
agricultural land to control pests that disrupt crop production. Soil
contamination can occur when pesticides persist and accumulate
in soils, which can alter microbial processes, increase plant uptake
of the chemical, and are toxic to soil organisms. The extent to
which the pesticides and herbicides persist depends on the
compound’s unique chemistry, which affects sorption dynamics
and resulting fate and transport in the soil environment. Pesticides
can also accumulate in animals that eat contaminated pests and
soil organisms. In addition, pesticides can be more harmful to
beneficial insects, such as pollinators, and to natural enemies of
pests (i.e. insects that prey on or parasitize pests) than they are to
the target pests themselves. Pesticide leaching occurs when
pesticides mix with water and move through the soil,
ultimately contaminating groundwater. The amount of leaching is
correlated with particular soil and pesticide characteristics and the
degree of rainfall and irrigation. Leaching is most likely to happen if
using a water-soluble pesticide, when the soil tends to be sandy in
texture; if excessive watering occurs just after pesticide application;
if the adsorption ability of the pesticide to the soil is low. Leaching
may not only originate from treated fields, but also from pesticide
mixing areas, pesticide application machinery washing sites, or
disposal areas. Fertilizers are used to provide crops with additional
sources of nutrients, such as Nitrogen, Phosphorus,and
Potassium, that promote plant growth and increase crop yields.
Nitrogen fertilizers supply plants with forms of nitrogen that are
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biologically available for plant uptake; namely NO 3- (nitrate) and

NH4+ (ammonium). Only a fraction of this is taken up by crops, and
the remainder accumulates in the soil or is lost as runoff. Nitrate
fertilizers are much more likely to be lost to the soil profile through
runoff because of the like charges between the molecule and
negatively charged clay particles. High application rates of
nitrogen-containing fertilizers combined with the high water-
solubility of nitrate leads to increased runoff into surface water as
well as leaching into groundwater, thereby causing groundwater
pollution. The excessive use of nitrogen-containing fertilizers (be
they synthetic or natural) is particularly damaging, as much of the
nitrogen that is not taken up by plants is transformed into nitrate
which is easily leached. Nitrate levels above 10 mg/L (10 ppm) in
groundwater can cause "blue baby syndrome" (acquired
methemoglobinemia). The nutrients, especially nitrates, in
fertilizers can cause problems for natural habitats and for human
health if they are washed off soil into watercourses or leached
through soil into groundwater. Moreover, the abuse of fertilizers
can cause air pollution in the form of ammonia. The concentration
of cadmium in phosphorus-containing fertilizers varies considerably
and can be problematic. For example, mono-ammonium phosphate
fertilizer may have a cadmium content of as low as 0.14 mg/kg or
as high as 50.9 mg/kg. This is because the phosphate rock used in
their manufacture can contain as much as 188 mg/kg cadmium
(examples are deposits on Nauru and the Christmas islands).
Continuous use of high-cadmium fertilizer can contaminate soil and
plants. Limits to the cadmium content of phosphate fertilizers has
been considered by the European Commission. Producers of
phosphorus-containing fertilizers now select phosphate rock based
on the cadmium content.

Reference:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agricultural_pollution#:~:text=The
%20major%20inputs%20of%20heavy,occurs%20naturally%20in
%20the%20soil.
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WASTE

Plasticulture is the use of plastic mulch in agriculture. Farmers use

plastic sheets as mulch to cover 50-70% of the soil and allow them
to use drip irrigation systems to have better control over soil
nutrients and moisture. Rain is not required in this system, and
farms that use plasticulture are built to encourage the fastest runoff
of rain. The use of pesticides with plasticulture allows pesticides to
be transported easier in the surface runoff towards wetlands or
tidal creeks. The runoff from pesticides and chemicals in the plastic
can cause serious deformations and death in shellfish as the runoff
carries the chemicals towards the oceans.In addition to the
increased runoff that results from plasticulture, there is also the
problem of the increased amount of waste from the plastic mulch
itself. The use of plastic mulch for vegetables, strawberries, and
other row and orchard crops exceeds 110 million pounds annually
in the United States. Most plastic ends up in the landfill, although
there are other disposal options such as disking mulches into the
soil, on-site burying, on-site storage, reuse, recycling, and
incineration. The incineration and recycling options are complicated
by the variety of the types of plastics that are used and by the
geographic dispersal of the plastics. Plastics also contain
stabilizers and dyes as well as heavy metals, which limits the
number of products that can be recycled. Research is continually
being conducted on creating biodegradable
or photodegradable mulches. While there has been a minor
success with this, there is also the problem of how long the plastic
takes to degrade, as many biodegradable products take a long
time to break down. Agricultural wastes from agro-based
industries, such as palm oil, rubber, and wood processing factories
have increased by more than threefold. Selangor, Perak, and Johor
collectively account for 65.7% of the total number of identified
sources of pollution in the manufacturing and agro-based sectors
(DOE, 2010). Another significant source of pollution is livestock
waste, which is a big contributor to BOD. A recent report provided
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by the Veterinary Services Department showed that the standing

pig population (SPP) of the WCPM was approximately 717
SPP/farm (Ibrahim et al., 2010; Singh & Fong, 2014). Pig farms
generate large quantities of waste and some of these farms
discharge effluents directly into estuaries and tidal rivers without
any pretreatment. The report indicated that most of the pig farms
(82%) in Selangor and Negeri Sembilan not only pollute the water
with parasites and bacteria, but also exert high demand for oxygen
and cause eutrophication.In recent years, the quantity of
agricultural waste has been rising rapidly all over the world. As a
result, the environmental problems and negative impacts of
agricultural waste are drawn more and more attention. Therefore,
there is a need to adopt proper approaches to reduce and reuse
agricultural waste. This review presented about 200 literatures
published in 2015 relating to the topic of agricultural waste. The
review examined research on agricultural waste in 2015 from the
following four aspects: the characterization, reuse, treatment, and
management. Researchers highlighted the importance to reuse
agricultural waste and investigated the potential to utilize it as
biofertilizers, cultivation material, soil amendments, adsorbent,
material, energy recycling, enzyme and catalyst etc. The treatment
of agricultural waste included carbonization, biodegradation,
composting hydrolysis and pyrolysis. Moreover, this review
analyzed the differences of the research progress in 2015 from
2014. It may help to reveal the new findings and new trends in this
field in 2015 comparing to 2014. The potential problems related to
the use of waste materials in agricultural production arise from
the often low efficiency of the nutrient use compared with mineral
fertilizers and the high costs of application which are due to the low
concentration.

Reference: https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-

planetary-sciences/agricultural-waste