STATISTICS-science of collecting, organizing, presenting, analyzing, and interpreting data to assist in making more effective decisions.

is to collect (2) Interpolating within that class to arrive at the median.

relevant datamust be organized in some way and perhaps presented in a chart The rationale for this approach is that the new members of the class are assumed to be evenly spaced throughout the class.
Types of Statistics The Mode Recall that the mode is defined as the value that occurs most often. For grouped
DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS - methods of organising, summarising, and presenting data in an informative way. frequency distribution, the mode can be approximated by the midpoint of the class
This kind of data can be organized into FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION. containing the largest number of class frequencies
INFERENTIAL STATISTICS - also called statistical inference and 1. For a symmetric , mound – shaped distribution, mean, median and mode are equal
inductive statistics. The methods used to determine something about a population, based on a sample. 2. If a set of data is non symmetrical or skewed. In a positively skewed distribution,
Population - A collection of all possible individuals, objects, or measurements of interest. the arithmetic mean is the largest of the three measures. The mode is the smallest. Median and the mode would be more representative of the
Sample - to infer something about a population, we usually take a data.
sample. A portion, or part of the population. As noted, taking a sample 3. Conversely, in a distribution that is negatively skewed,
to learn something about a population is done extensively in business, agriculture, politics, and government. the arithmetic mean is the lowest of the three measures. The mode is the highest.
Types of Variables In this chart, the mean should not be used to represent the data
Qualitative variable or an attribute - when the characteristic or variable being studied is non numeric Range Simplest measure of dispersion is the range. The difference between the highest and the lowest values in a data set.
Quantitative variable - when the variable studied can be reported numerically. MEAN DEVIATION The arithmetic mean of the absolute values of the deviations from the
Quantitative variable are either discrete or continuous. arithmetic mean.
Discrete variables can assume only certain values. They are a result from counting. VARIANCE The arithmetic mean of the squared diations from the mean.
Continuous variable - can assume any value within a specific range Note: The variance is non negative, zero if all the observations are
Levels of measurement STANDARD DEVIATION The square root of the variance.
Data can be classified according to levels of measurement. The level of measurement of the data often dictates the calculations that can be Population Variance The formulas for the population variance and the sample variance is slightly different. The population variance is considered
done to summarise and present the data. first. Population is the totality of all observations being studied. The population variance for ungrouped data not tabulated into a frequency
1. Nominal Level Data used as measures of identity. They can only be classified and counted. /Data categories are mutually exclusive distribution
and exhaustive. /Mutually exclusive - a property of a set of categories such that an individual, object, or measurement is included in There are other measures of dispersion besides standard deviation which is widely used. One method is to determine the location of values
only one category/Have no logical order. that divide a set of observations into equal parts. These measures include QUARTILE, DECILES and PERCENTILES.
2. Ordinal Level Data Ordinal Level Data - used in measurement, numbers reflect the rank order of the individuals or objects. Ordinal Quartile – divide a set of observations into four equal parts. The first quartile labeled Q1, is the value below which 25 percent of the observations
measures are arranged from the highest to the lowest or vice versa. Example: Birth order, rubric rating occur and Q3 is the value below which 75 percent of the observations occur. Q2 logically is the Median. Q1, Q2, Q3 divide a set of data into 4
3. Interval Level Data - provides numbers that reflect differences among items. With interval data, the measurement units are equal equal parts.
The interval level of measurement is the next highest level. It includes all the characteristics of the ordinal level, but in addition, the Decile – divide a set of observations into 10 equal parts
difference in values is a constant size. Percentile – divide a set of observations into 100 equal parts
Examples:Weight, age, salary, scores, temperature, shoe size, etc The properties of the interval level data are:Data classification are A box plot is a graphical display, based on quartiles, that helps
mutually exclusive and exhaustive. Data classification are scaled according to the amount of the characteristic they possess. Equal us picture a set of data. To construct a box plot, we need only
differences in the characteristic are represented by equal differences in the measurements. five statistics:the minimum value, Q1, (the 1 st Quartile)the median the Q3, (the 3rd Quartile) and the maximum value.
4. Ratio Level Data Ratio Level Data - it is the “ highest” level of measurement. It has all the characteristics of the Interval level, but in Probability – a value between zero and one,
addition, the zero point is meaningful and the ratio between two numbers is meaningful. Example of the Ratio scale of inclusive ,describing the relative possibility
measurement include: wages, unit of production, weight, changes in stock prices, etc.The properties of the ratio level data are: (chance or likelihood) an event will occur.
Data classifications are mutually exclusive and exhaustive. Experiment – a process that leads to the occurrence of one and only one several possible observations
Data classifications are scaled according to the amount of characteristics they possess. Outcome – a particular result of an experiment
Equal differences in the characteristic are represented by equal differences in the numbers assigned in the classifications. Event – a collection of one or more outcomes of an experiment
The zero point is the absence of the characteristic. OBJECTIVE VIEWPOINTS
Methods to describe data by finding a typicalsingle value to describe a set of data. This is Referred to as MEASURE OF CENTRAL TENDENCY single CLASSICAL PROBABILITY – is based on the assumptions that the outcomes of an experiment are equally likely. The probability of an event
value that summarizes a set of data. It locates the center of the values. happening is computed by dividing the number of favorable outcomes by the number of possible outcomes.
The arithmetic mean is a widely used measure of central tendency. It has several properties: Probability of an event = Number of favorable outcomes
1. Every set of interval – level data has a mean. Total number of possible outcomes
2. All the values are included in computing the mean. Empirical Probability - The probability of an event happening in the past is the fraction of the time similar events happened in the past
3. A set of data has only one mean. The mean is unique.
4. The mean is useful in comparing two or more populations.
5. The arithmetic mean is the only measure of central tendency where the sum of the deviations of each value from the mean will
always be zero. Expressed symbolically:
The Weighted Mean-The arithmetic mean is a special case of arithmetic mean. The weighted mean is the number of times an observation
happens.
The Median-The center point for such data can be better described using a measure of central tendency called the median. The midpoint of the
values after they have been ordered from the smallest to the largest, or the largest to the smallest. Fifty percent of the observations are above and
below the median.
Note: Ordinal level data ranked from low to high.
MODE The value of the observation that appears most frequently.
The annual salaries of quality – control managers in selected states are shown. What is the modal of the
Annual salary.
The Geometric Mean is useful in finding the average of percentage, ratios, indexes or growth rates. The geometric mean of a set of n positive
numbers is defined as nth root of the product of values.
The Geometric Mean is also used to find an average increase over a period of time where n Is the number of periods.
The Median Since the raw data have been organized into a frequency distribution, some of the information is not be identifiable. As a result, the
exact
Median is not identifiable. It can be estimated by
(1) Locating the class in which the median lies