Physics Solutions UNITS 1-4 PDF

Heinemann Physics 1 4e
Chapter 1 Heating Processes
Section 1.1 Heat and temperature

Worked example: Try yourself 1.1.1
CALCULATING THE CHANGE IN INTERNAL ENERGY
A student places a heating element and a paddle wheel apparatus in an insulated container of water. She calculates
that the heater transfers 2530 J of heat energy to the water and the paddle does 240 J of work on the water.
Calculate the change in internal energy of the water.
Thinking Working
Heat is added to the system, so Q is positive. ∆U = Q − W

Work is done on the system, so W is negative. = 2530 − (− 240)
Note that the units are J, so express the final answer in J. ∆U = 2770 J
Section 1.1 Review

KEY QUESTIONS SOLUTIONS
1 C . The kinetic particle theory states that the particles in all substances (regardless of their state) are in constant
motion.
2 a C and D. Initially the chicken is cold and the air in the oven is hot, so the two objects are not in thermal equilibrium.
Energy flows from the hot air in the oven to the cold chicken.
b B. As both objects are at same temperature, no transfer of thermal energy takes place. The chicken and the air in
the oven are in thermal equilibrium.
3 C and D. Negative kelvin values and Celsius values below −273 are not possible because temperatures below absolute
zero are not possible.
4 The temperature of the gas is just above absolute zero so the particles have very little energy.
5 a kelvin = °C + 273
= 30 + 273
= 303 K
b °C = K − 273
= 375 − 273
= 102°C
6 300 K is 27°C. Higher temperatures mean molecules have greater average kinetic energy. So the average kinetic energy
of the hydrogen particles in tank B is greater than the average kinetic energy of the hydrogen particles in tank A.
7 absolute zero, 10 K, −180°C, 100 K, freezing point of water
8 ∆U = Q − W
= −20 − (+50)
= −70 kJ
9 ∆U = Q − W
= 75 − (−150)
= 225 J
10 ∆U = Q − W
250 = −300 − W
W = −550 J
The scientist does 550 J of work on the sodium.
Copyright © Pearson Australia 2016 (a division of Pearson Australia Group Pty Ltd) ISBN 978 14 8861 126 1
Section 1.2 Specific heat capacity

CALCULATING SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY
A bath contains 75 L of water. Initially the water is at 50°C. Calculate the amount of energy that must be transferred
from the water to cool the bath to 30°C.
Thinking Working
Calculate the mass of water. Volume = 75 L

1 L of water = 1 kg So mass = 75 kg
∆T = final temperature − initial temperature ∆T = 30 − 50 = −20°C
From Table 1.2.1, Q = mc ∆T

−1 −1
cwater = 4200 J kg K . = 75 × 4200 × −20
Use the equation Q = mc∆T. = −6 300 000 J
= 6.3 MJ transferred from the water

COMPARING SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITIES
What is the ratio of the specific heat capacity of liquid water to that of steam?
Thinking Working
Refer to Table 1.2.1 for the specific heat capacities of cwater = 4200 J kg−1 K−1
water in different states. csteam = 2000 J kg−1 K−1
cwater
Divide the specific heat of water by the specific heat
Ratio = csteam
of steam.
4200
=
2000
Note that ratios have no units since the unit of each Ratio = 2.1
quantity is the same and cancels out.
Section 1.2 Review

1 Water requires more energy per degree Celsius heated because the specific heat capacity of water is much greater
than that of aluminium.
2 All other variables being the same, as aluminium has the highest value for specific heat capacity, it will contain the
most thermal energy.
3 100 mL of water has a mass of 0.1 kg.
Q = mc ∆T
= 0.1 × 4200 × (20 − 15)
= 2100 J
4 150 mL of water has a mass of 0.15 kg.
Q = mc ∆T
= 0.15 × 4200 × (50 − 10)
= 25 200 J or 25.2 kJ
5 Remember that both ∆T and mass are proportional to energy.
Use the relationship Q = mc ∆T.
If x = 10c then 20c = 2x.
1
6 The ratio of the temperature rise is equal to the inverse ratio of the specific heat capacities as ∆T =
C
4200
Ratio of temperature rise is = = 4.67
900
The temperature of the aluminium is 4.67 times that of the water.
7 B. Different states will have different specific heat capacities.

8 If 4.0 kJ of energy is required to raise the temperature of 1.0 kg of paraffin by 2.0°C, then 2.0 kJ of energy is required
to raise the temperature of 1.0 kg of paraffin by 1.0°C.
So to raise the temperature by 5.0°C, you will need 5 times as much energy, i.e. 5 × 2.0 kJ = 10.0 kJ to raise the
temperature of 1.0 kg of paraffin by 5.0°C.
Q 4200
Mathematically: Calculate c for paraffin, so c = m∆T = = 2000 J kg −1 K−1
1×2
Then for 5.0°C, Q = mc ∆T = 1 × 2000 × 5 = 10 kJ
9 Q = mc ∆T
10 500 = 0.25 × 4200 × (T − 20)
10 = T − 20
T = 30
Final temperature = 30°C
10 Q = mc ∆T
−13 200 = m × 440 × −30
m = −13 200 ÷ −13 200
= 1 kg
Section 1.3 Latent heat

LATENT HEAT OF FUSION
How much energy must be removed from 5.5 kg of liquid lead at 327°C to produce a block of solid lead at 327°C?
Express your answer in kJ.
Thinking Working
5 −1
Cooling from liquid to solid involves the latent heat of Lfusion = 0.25 × 10 J kg
fusion, where the energy is removed from the lead.
Use Table 1.3.1 to find the latent heat of fusion for lead.
Use the equation: Q = mLfusion Q = mLfusion

= 5.5 × 0.25 × 105
= 1.38 × 105 J
2
Convert to kJ. Q = 1.38 × 10 kJ

CHANGE IN TEMPERATURE AND STATE
3 L of water is heated from a fridge temperature of 4°C to its boiling point at 100°C. It is boiled at this temperature
until it is completely evaporated. How much energy in total was required to raise the temperature and boil the water?
Thinking Working
Calculate the mass of water involved. 3 L of water = 3 kg

−1
Find the specific heat capacity of water. c = 4200 J kg K−1
Use the equation Q = mc ∆T to calculate the heat energy Q = mc ∆T

required to change the temperature of water from 4°C to = 3 × 4200 × (100 − 4)
100°C.
= 1 209 600 J
Find the specific latent heat of vaporisation of water. Lvapour = 22.5 × 105 J kg−1
Use the equation Q = mL to calculate the latent heat Q = mL

required to boil water. = 3 × 22.5 × 10
5
= 6 750 000 J
Find the total energy required to raise the temperature Total Q = 1 209 600 + 6 750 000
and change the state of the water. = 7 959 600 J (or 7.96 × 106 J)
Section 1.3 Review

1 The mercury is changing state from solid to liquid. It is melting; temperature does not change during phase
transitions as average kinetic energy does not change.
2 −39°C
3 357°C
4 Q = mL
126 = 0.01 × L
L = 126 ÷ 0.01 = 12 600
= 1.26 × 104
5 Q = mL
3520 − 670 = 0.01 × L
L = 2850 ÷ 0.01 = 285 000
= 2.85 × 105 J kg−1
6 Q = mL
= 0.1 × 22.5 × 105
= 2.25 × 105 J
7 Energy needed to raise the ice from −4.00°C to 0°C
Q = mc ∆T
= 0.100 × 2100 × 4.00
= 840 J
Energy needed to melt the ice at 0°C
Q = mLfusion
= 0.100 × 3.34 × 105
= 3.34 × 104 J
Total energy = 840 + 3.34 × 104
= 3.42 × 104
= 34 kJ
8 B. Hot water has more fast-moving molecules that are able to break through the surface of the water (evaporate).
9 D. A volatile liquid evaporates rapidly and loses its high-energy molecules. This results in a lower average kinetic
energy of the remaining particles and so it cools down.
Section 1.4 Conduction

1 The process is quite slow since the mass of the particles is relatively large and the vibrational velocities are fairly low.
2 Metals conduct heat by free moving electrons as well as by molecular collisions. Wood does not have any free moving
electrons, so it is a poor conductor of heat.
3 Thickness, surface area, nature of the material and the temperature difference between it and the second material.
4 Copper is a better conductor of heat than stainless steel.
5 C. Air is a poor conductor of heat so it limits the transfer of heat.
6 A lot of air is trapped in the down. As air is a poor conductor of heat, the down-filled quilt limits the transfer of heat
away from the person.
7 The insulation batts stop the thermal energy from escaping the house. The air in the batts has low conductivity and
the thermal energy is not able to from escape from the house.
8 Plastic and rubber have low conductivity, so they do not allow the transfer of heat from your hand very easily. Metal
has high conductivity, so heat transfers from your hand easily and your hand feels cold.
Section 1.5 Convection

1 liquids and gases
2 upwards
3 Air over certain places, such as roads, heats up and as a result becomes less dense. The less dense air rises to form
a column of rising air called a thermal.
4 D. Convection is a fast way of transferring thermal energy.
5 It is not possible for solids to pass on heat by convection because solids do not contain the free molecules that are
required to establish convection currents.
6 The source of heat, the Sun, is at the top of the water. It takes much longer to heat a liquid when the source is at the
top as the convection currents will also remain near the top. The warm water is less dense than the cool water and will
not allow convection currents to form throughout the water.
Section 1.6 Radiation

1 a The light can be partially reflected, partially transmitted and partially absorbed.
b Absorption of light is associated with temperature increase.
2 The higher the temperature of the object, the higher the frequency and the shorter the wavelength of the radiation
emitted. For example, if a particular object emits radiation in the visible range, a cooler one could emit light in the
infra-red range of the electromagnetic spectrum.
3 E. The rate of emission or absorption will depend upon:
• the temperature of the object and of the surrounding environment
• the surface area of the object
• wavelength of the radiation
• the surface characteristics of the object.
4 Conduction and convection require the presence of particles to transfer heat. Heat transfer by radiation can occur
in a vacuum as the movement of particles is not required.
5 The person, due to their temperature, emits stronger infra-red radiation than their surroundings. The infra-red
radiation is detected by the thermal imaging technology, which, since humans are usually a different temperature
to their surrounds, allows them to be distinguished. The human eye cannot always distinguish a person from their
surroundings, especially if they are under cover or if their clothes blend with their surroundings.
6 a The matt black beaker cools faster than the others because matt black objects emit radiant energy faster than
shiny, white surfaces.
b The gloss white surface will cool the slowest due to its light colour and shiny finish.
7 Heat sinks are made of dark coloured metals that radiate heat energy strongly and keep the computer cool.
Chapter 1 Review
1 A. The kinetic theory states that particles are in constant motion.
2 Temperature, that is, the average kinetic energy of particles in a substance.
3 Heat refers to the energy that is transferred between objects, whereas temperature is a measure of the average kinetic
energy of the particles within a substance.
4 5 + 273 = 278 K
200 − 273 = −73°C
5 As thermal equilibrium is reached, the balls must be at the same temperature.
6 B
7 This situation describes a change of state, in this case, melting. It occurs because the heat energy is used to increase
the potential energy of the particles in the solid instead of increasing their kinetic energy. The energy needed to
change from solid to liquid is the latent heat of fusion.
8 Both have the same kinetic energy as their temperatures are the same; however the steam has more potential energy
due to its change in state. Therefore the steam has greater internal energy.
9 The higher energy particles are escaping, leaving behind the lower energy particles. The result is that the average
kinetic energy of the remaining particles decreases, thus the temperature drops.
10 Q = mc ∆T
Q
c = m∆T
5020
= 2.00 × 20
−1
= 125.5 J kg K−1
= 126 J kg−1 K−1
11 Q = mL
= 0.08 × 0.88 × 105
= 7.0 kJ
12 ∆U = Q − W
= +14 600 − (−2.65 × 106)
= 2 664 600 J
Q = mLfusion + mc ∆T
2 664 600 = 4.55 × 3.34 × 105 + 4.55 × 4200 × (T − 0)
T = 60°C
13 Polystyrene is a good insulator, whereas metal is a good conductor of heat. When the ice-cube is in thermal contact
with the polystyrene, not much heat energy flows from the polystyrene to the ice. The ice-cube melts very slowly as a
result. When the ice-cube is in thermal contact with the metal, heat energy flows very quickly from the metal into the
ice causing the ice-cube to melt rapidly (recall that heat is always transferred from the hotter to the colder object).
When you touch the metal, for the same reason, heat energy flows very rapidly from your skin into the metal causing
your fingers to feel cold. As you touch the polystyrene, not much heat energy flows from your fingers so they do not
feel as cold.
14 Sweat is a thin layer of water and as it evaporates, it cools down. This is because the higher energy water molecules
escape into the air, leaving the lower energy ones behind. The sweat on your body has a large surface area that
increases the rate of evaporation. The breeze also increases the rate of evaporation. The cooler layer of sweat
remaining on your skin draws heat energy from your skin and so your body cools down.
15 The stopper reduces heat loss by convection and conduction. The air between the walls reduces heat transfer by
conduction. The space between the walls is small enough that convection currents will not form either. The flask’s
shiny surface reduces heat transfer by radiation.
16 Water is a better conductor of heat than air. When a person is in cold water, the rate of energy flowing from their body
is far greater (25 times) than when in cold air. In cold water, heat energy quickly flows from the warm body into the
cold water decreasing the body’s temperature to dangerous levels. A wetsuit provides a layer of insulating material
(neoprene) around the body and slows the rate of heat loss from the warm body into the cold water. This prevents the
person from getting hypothermia.
Chapter 2 Applying thermodynamic principles
Section 2.1 Heating by radiation

THE TEMPERATURE AT A STAR’S SURFACE
A newly discovered star is observed to have a peak emitted radiation wavelength of approximately 90 nm.
Based on this wavelength, estimate the surface temperature of this star.
Thinking Working
Express the peak wavelength in metres. λmax = 90 nm = 90 × 10−9 m
Rearrange Wien’s law to solve for T. λmaxT = 2.898 × 10−3 m K

2.898 × 10−3
T= λmax
Substitute the value for λmax and solve for T. 2.898 × 10−3
T=
90 × 10−9
= 32 200 K

RE-RADIATED ENERGY FROM THE EARTH
The Earth’s average surface temperature at the equator is 300 K. What is the peak wavelength of the re-radiated
electromagnetic radiation from this portion of the Earth?
Thinking Working
State Wien’s law. λmaxT = 2.898 × 10−3 m K
Rearrange Wien’s law to express it in terms of λmax. 2.898 × 10−3

λmax = T
Substitute the value for T and solve for λmax. 2.898 × 10−3
λmax = 300
= 9.66 × 10−6 m
= 9.66 µm

RATE OF ENERGY RADIATION BY PROPORTION
The surface temperature of a particular object increases from 900 K to 1800 K. What effect does this have on the rate
of transmission of thermal energy from the object?
Thinking Working
Find the factor by which the temperature has increased Tmultiple =

Tfinal
or decreased. Tinitial
1800
=
900
=2
Use the relationship between power and temperature to P ~ T4

find the effect on thermal energy transmission. ~ 24
~ 16
The rate of transmission is increased by 16 times.

RATE OF ENERGY RADIATION BY CALCULATION
A galvanised water tank (e = 0.28) holds 1000 L of hot water at 90°C. The tank is a cube of 1 m length on each side.
Estimate the rate of heat loss from the tank, assuming the surrounding environment is at 20°C.
Thinking Working
Convert temperature from degrees Celsius to kelvin. T = 90°C = 363 K

Ts = 20°C = 293 K
Determine the surface area of the cube. Surface area of a cube = 6 × area of one side
2
Area = 6 × 1 × 1 = 6 m
Substitute values into the Stefan−Boltzmann equation to P = e σA(T 4 − Ts4)

find the rate of energy transmission, P. = 0.28 × 5.67 × 10
−8
× 6 × (3634 − 2934)
= 952 W
The galvanised tank is losing heat at around one-third
that of the plastic tank from Worked example 2.1.4.
Section 2.1 Review

−5
1 Infrared. The wavelength of radiation from ice is approximately 10 m, which lies in the infrared region of the
electromagnetic spectrum.
2 λmaxT = 2.898 × 10−3 m K 3 λmaxT = 2.898 × 10−3 m K 4 λmaxT = 2.898 × 10−3 m K

2.898 × 10−3 2.898 × 10−3 2.898 × 10−3
T= T= λmax =
λmax λmax T
2.898 × 10−3 m K 2.898 × 10−3
= 2.898 × 10−3
800 × 10 −9
m = =
700 × 10−9 9000
= 3.622.5 K = 4140 K = 322 nm
5 D is correct.
A
P ∝ T4
∝ 24
∝ 16
1 1
6 If the emissivity of a bald head is that of a full head of hair then it will absorb radiant energy at the rate.
3 3
7 A = 4πr2
= 4π × 0.122
= 0.18 m
P= eσAT4
= 0.98 × 5.67 × 10−8 × 0.18 × 2984
= 78.87
= 79 W
8 P = eσA(T4 × Ts4)
= 0.7 × 5.67 × 10−8 × 1.5 × (3074 − 2884)
= 119 W
9 P = eσAT4
P
T4 =
eσA
390
=
1 × 5.67 × 10−8 × 1
T = 288 K
= 15°C
Section 2.2 The enhanced greenhouse effect

1 The main source of thermal energy for the Earth is from the Sun.
2 Radiant energy from the Sun reaches the Earth largely as electromagnetic radiation in or near the visible wavelengths.
The Earth reflects radiant energy as longer wavelength, infrared radiation.
3 Carbon dioxide, like other greenhouse gases, absorbs and emits long-wavelength infrared radiation, and re-radiates
it back to the surface of the Earth rather than reflecting it back out to space. Carbon dioxide is present in the largest
proportion relative to other greenhouse gases so has a greater impact than other greenhouse gases.
4
Greenhouse gas Source of greenhouse gas
carbon dioxide combustion of fossil fuels

methane agriculture
CFCs air-conditioners
nitric oxide artificial fertilisers
5 Thermal energy moves through the Earth’s mantle by convection currents that rise to the upper layer of the mantle
and fan out before sinking as cooler magma.
6 While some energy is transferred by conduction and radiation in the atmosphere, the major method is by convection.
Locally, sea breezes and land breezes move heat energy around. On a global scale, radiant energy from the Sun at the
equator heats the air. Cool, dense air moves in, forcing the less dense warm air upwards where it spreads out towards
the poles. There it cools and sinks.
7 On a hot day, the surface of a land mass heats up more quickly than the ocean. Hot air rises over the land and cooler,
denser air moves in from over the ocean creating a breeze.
Section 2.3 Scientific modelling: The enhanced greenhouse effect

1 A. Scientific theories are not regarded as fact; they will be subject to change or revision if further evidence comes
to light that no longer support an earlier theory. They are tested and those tests are able to be replicated by other
scientists.
2 In order to run a controlled investigation, it is important to keep all factors constant except for the independent
variable which is being investigated. This allows any observed changes to be attributed to the independent variable.
In this case the independent variable is the long-term change in time (17 years). The time of year is a separate factor
that must be kept constant because there may be seasonal changes in methane concentration.
3 In order to remove bias from data, standard procedures need to be followed. Without this, the data may be invalid.
4 1. make an observation
2. form a hypothesis
3. apply/test the hypothesis
4. assess the reliability of the results
5 There is good correlation between increased concentrations of carbon dioxide and warmer temperatures over the
last 450 000 years. During ice ages, carbon dioxide levels were around 200 parts per million (ppm). Over the warmer
interglacial periods they hovered at 280 ppm or more.
Section 2.4 Issues related to thermodynamics

1 Windows can account for more thermal gain or loss than any other element in a building.
2 In the southern hemisphere, the sun passes through the northern part of the sky. For this reason, homes should be
orientated in this direction to allow maximum exposure to the Sun. As the Sun is high in the sky in summer, awnings
can provide shade during this time of year. In winter, the Sun will be lower in the sky and therefore the large windows
towards the north will allow maximum thermal energy into the home, which is desirable to reduce heating costs.
3 E. All of these elements are features of passive design.

4 Conduction, convection and radiation
5 Ethanol: 1.5 kg per litre
LPG: 1.67 kg per litre
Petrol: 2.35 kg per litre
Diesel: 2.68 kg per litre
6 On average 38%, or just over one-third, of all energy is used for heating and cooling.
CHAPTER 2 REVIEW
1 As temperature increase, the wavelength of the emitted radiation decreases and the frequency increases.
2 gamma rays (γ-rays)
X-rays
ultraviolet (UV)
visible light
infrared (IR)
microwaves
radio and television waves
3 B. A longer wavelength corresponds to a lower temperature.
4 P = kT4 = k ()
1 4
2
=
1
16
k
It will decrease by 16 times.
5 The heater is a very good absorber of radiant thermal energy.
The heater is also a good emitter of radiant energy.
2.898 × 10−3
6 λmax =
T
2.898 × 10−3
=
7000
= 4.4 × 10−7
= 414 nm
7 The first kettle will emit radiant thermal energy at double the rate of the second kettle.
P = eσAT4—if the surface area is doubled then the rate at which thermal energy is radiated will also double.
8 C. A shiny white surface is a very good reflector of thermal energy.
2.898 × 10−3
9 λmax =
(273 + 30)
2.898 × 10−3
=
303
2.898 × 10−3
10 T =
λmax
2.898 × 10−3
=
650 × 10−9
= 4458 K
= 4500 K (to two significant figures)
P
11 e =
σAT4
45 360
=
5.67 × 10−8 × 1 × 10004
= 0.80
2.898 × 10−3
12 λmax =
9300
= 3.11 × 10−7 m
= 311 nm
This corresponds to UV light.
13 The increase in the retention of radiated thermal energy by the Earth’s atmosphere due to the increase of
greenhouse gases.
14 The rate at which energy is re-radiated by the Earth’s surface depends on the surface material. Materials with a high
emissivity will not only readily absorb thermal energy, but will also re-radiate the energy very well. This contributes
to the greenhouse effect. Building cities and land clearing on a large-scale changes the amount of thermal energy
retained or reflected by changing the surface characteristics by increasing the emissivity.
15 A. Additional thermal energy from the Sun is reflected back by the atmosphere and around 70% of that absorbed by
the atmosphere from the Earth is eventually radiated by the atmosphere back into space.
16 The sun is higher in the sky during the summer months and so is blocked by the eaves. The lower angle of the winter
sun means that sunlight can pass under the eaves and through the windows.
17 Deciduous trees lose their leaves in winter, allowing sunlight to strike a window. In summer, deciduous trees are full of
leaves, providing shade for the window
18 While fans don’t actually reduce the temperature or humidity, air flow increases convective cooling by moving air
around the body, creating a similar effect to reducing the actual air temperature by around 3°C.
19 Running an electric car produces no direct emissions.
• An electric car needs regular charging from a mains supply of its batteries to continue running. The mains supply
may come from a source of high emissions such as a coal fired power station.
• Recharging from a zero emissions source such as solar power would make an electric car emission free.
Chapter 3 Electrical physics
Section 3.1 Behaviour of charged particles

THE AMOUNT OF CHARGE ON A GROUP OF ELECTRONS
Calculate the charge, in coulombs, carried by 4 million electrons.
Thinking Working
6
Express 4 million in scientific notation. 1 million = 10
4 million = 4 × 106
6
Calculate the charge, Q, in coulombs by multiplying the Q = (4 × 10 ) × (−e)
number of electrons by the charge on an electron 6
= (4 × 10 ) × (−1.6 × 10
−19
C)
−19
(−1.6 × 10 C). = −6.4 × 10
−13
C

THE NUMBER OF ELECTRONS IN A GIVEN AMOUNT OF CHARGE
The net charge on an object is −4.8 μC (1 μC = 1 microcoulomb = 10−6 C). Calculate the number of extra electrons on
the object.
Thinking Working
Express −4.8 μC in scientific notation. Q = −4.8 μC

−6
= −4.8 × 10 C
Find the number of electrons by dividing the charge on Q

the object by the charge on an electron. (−1.6 × 10−19 C) ne = −e
−4.8 × 10−6 C
=
−1.6 × 10−19 C
= 3.0 × 1013 electrons
Section 3.1 Review

1 They will attract as they will be oppositely charged.
−5.0C
2 ne = = 3.1 × 1019
−1.6 × 10−19 C
3 Q = 4.2 × 1019 × 1.6 × 10−19 C = + 6.7 C
4 Copper is a good conductor of electricity because its electrons are loosely held to their respective nuclei. This allows
electrons to move freely through the material by ‘jumping’ from one atom to the next. Rubber is a good insulator. The
rubber coating is used to insulate copper wiring to prevent charge leaving the circuit.
Section 3.2 Electric current and circuits

Q
USING I =
t
Calculate the number of electrons that flow past a particular point each second in a circuit that carries a current of
0.75 A.
Thinking Working
Q Q
Rearrange the equation I = to make Q the subject. I=
t t
Q
I×t= ( )×t
t
I×t=Q
so Q = I × t
Calculate the amount of charge that flows past the point Q = 0.75 × 1
in question by substituting the values given.
= 0.75 C
Find the number of electrons by dividing the charge by Q

the charge on an electron ne = qe
−19 0.75
(1.6 × 10 C). =
1.6 × 10−19
= 4.69 × 1018 electrons
Section 3.2 Review

1 A continuous conducting loop (closed circuit) must be created from one terminal of a power supply to the other
terminal.
2 Cell, light bulb, open switch, resistor, and ammeter.
3 C In reality charge carriers are electrons, which flow from the negative terminal to the positive terminal of the battery.
Q
4 I= in coulombs and seconds
t
a 3A b 0.5 A c 0.008 A
5 Q = It in amperes and seconds
a 5C b 300 C c 18 000 C
Q Q
6 a I= b I=
t t
(+15 − (−30)) (+5 + (−15))
= =
5 5
+45 −10
= =
5 5
= 9 A to the right = 2 A to the left
−3
7 a Q = It = (5 × 10 )(600) = 3 C b Q = 200 × 5 = 1000 C c Q = (400 × 10−3)(3600) = 1440 C
8 a Q = ne × qe Q
b I=
= 1020 × 1.6 × 10−19 C t
16
= 16 C =
4
=4A
9 3.2 C flow past a point in 10 seconds. Calculate:
Q Q
a ne = b I=
qe t
3.2 3.2
= −19 =
1.6×10 10
= 2 × 1019 electrons = 0.32 A
10 B. Circuit B is the only circuit in which the current passes through both globes and the ammeter is in series with both
globes when the switch is closed.
Section 3.3 Energy in electric circuits

DEFINITION OF POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE
A car battery can provide 3600 C charge at 12 V. How much electrical potential energy is stored in the battery?
Thinking Working
Recall the definition of potential difference. E

V=
Q
Transpose the definition of potential difference to make E = VQ

energy the subject.
Substitute in the appropriate values and solve. E = 12 × 3600

= 43 200 J

USING E = VIT
A potential difference of 12 V is used to generate a current of 1750 mA to heat water for 7.5 minutes. Calculate the
energy transferred to the water in that time.
Thinking Working
Convert quantities to SI units. 1750 mA

= 1.75 A
1000
7.5 min × 60 s = 450 s
Substitute values into the equation and calculate the E = VIt

amount of energy in joules. = 12 × 1.75 × 450
= 9 450 J

USING P = VI
An appliance running on 120 V draws a current of 6 A. Calculate the power used by this appliance.
Thinking Working
Identify the relationship needed to solve the problem. P = VI
Identify the required values from the question, substitute P = 120 × 6

and calculate. = 720 W
Section 3.3 Review

1 A. When a conductor links two bodies between which there is a potential difference, charges will flow through the
conductor until the potential difference is equal to zero.
2 a t = 5 × 60 = 300 s P
b I=
E=P×t V
460
= 460 × 300 =
230
= 138 000 J (or 138 kJ)
=2A
E q
3 V= b I=
Q t
40 10
a i =4V i = 10 A
10 1
10
ii same, 4 V ii =1A
10
20 10
iii =2V iii =1A
10 10
E
4 V=
Q
100
= = 20 V
5
5 E = VQ
2 × 103 J = Q(12 V)
Q = 167 C
6 a Heat and light. E P
b P= c I=
t V
3600 J 60 W
= =
60 s 240 V
= 60 W = 0.25 A
7 the gravitational potential energy of the water
8 a The voltmeter must always be in parallel with the light bulb, M2 or M3.
b The ammeter must always be in series with the light bulb, M1 or M4.
Section 3.4 Resistance

USING OHM’S LAW TO CALCULATE RESISTANCE
An electric bar heater draws 10 A of current when connected to a 240 V power supply. Calculate the resistance of the
element in the heater.
Thinking Working
Ohm’s law is used to calculate resistance. V = IR
Rearrange the equation to find R. V

R=
I
Substitute in the values for this situation. 240

R=
I0
= 24 Ω
Worked Example: Try yourself 3.4.2

USING OHM’S LAW TO CALCULATE RESISTANCE, CURRENT AND POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE
The table below shows measurements for the potential difference and corresponding current for an ohmic conductor.
V [V] 0 3 9 V2
I [A] 0 0.20 I1 0.80
Determine the missing results, I1 and V2.
Thinking Working
Determine the factor by which potential difference has 9

=3
increased from the second column to the third column. 3
The potential difference has tripled.
Apply the same factor increase to the current in the I1 = 3 × 0.20

second column, to determine the current in the third = 0.6 A
column (I1).
Determine the factor by which current has increased 0.80

=4
from the second column to the fourth column. 0.20
Apply the same factor increase to the potential difference V2 = 4 × 3

in the second column, to determine the potential = 12 V
difference in the fourth column (V2).

CALCULATING RESISTANCE FOR A NON-OHMIC CONDUCTOR
A 240 V, 60 W incandescent light bulb has I−V characteristics light bulb

shown. Calculate the resistance of the light bulb at 175 V.
200
I (mA)
100
100 200
V (V)
Thinking Working
From the graph, determine the current at the required At V = 175 V, I = 225 mA.
potential difference. Note that current is given in mA, Therefore I = 0.225 A
so convert it to A.
Substitute these values into Ohm’s law to find the 175

R=
resistance. 0.225
= 778 Ω

USING OHM’S LAW TO FIND CURRENT
The element of a bar heater has a resistance of 25 Ω. Calculate the current (in mA) that would flow through this
element if it is connected to a 240 V supply.
Thinking Working
Recall Ohm’s law. V = IR
Rearrange the equation to make I the subject. V

I=
R
Substitute in the values for this problem and solve. 240

I=
25
= 9.6 A
Convert the answer to the required units. I = 9.6 A

3
= 9.6 × 10 mA
= 9600 mA

USING OHM’S LAW TO FIND POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE
The globe of a torch has a resistance of 5.7 Ω when it draws 700 mA of current. Calculate the potential difference
across the globe.
Thinking Working
−3
Convert 700 mA to A. 700 × 10 = 0.7 A
Recall Ohm’s law. V = IR
Substitute in the values for this problem and solve. V = 0.7 × 5.7
= 4.0 V
Section 3.4 Review

1 a A, B, C
b C, B, A
V
2 R=
I
2
=
0.25
=8Ω
V
I=
R
3
I1 =
8
= 0.375 A
V = IR
V1 = 0.60 × 8
= 4.8 V
3 a The wire is ohmic. This is because there is a proportional relationship between the voltage and the current, as
shown by the linear nature of the I−V graph, which means that the resistance is a constant.
b 3A
V
c R=
I
25
=
10
= 2.5 Ω
V
4 a R=
I
2.5
=
3.5
= 0.71 Ω
b The resistor is ohmic, as its resistance is constant.
5 They are both right. The resistance of the device is different for different voltages. Therefore the device is non-ohmic.
5V
6 R= = 111.11 Ω
45 × 10−3
8V
I= = 72 mA
111.11 Ω
∆V 4
7 a R= = =2Ω
∆I 2
10 V
b I= =5A
2Ω
kL
8 a R=
A
kL k(2L)
0.8 = then 1.6 = = 1.6 Ω
A A
b A wire of twice the diameter has four times the cross-sectional area.
0.8
Then R = = 0.2 Ω.
4
9 a It is non-ohmic, as the I−V relationship is non-linear.
b From the graph, when V = 10 V, I = 0.5 A.
c For I = 1.0 A, V = 15 V.
V
d The resistance of the device at these voltages will be given by R = .
I
10 V
i For 10 V, R = = 20 Ω.
0.5 A
20 V
ii For 20 V, R = = 13.3 Ω.
1.5 A
Chapter 3 Review
Q
1 ne =
qe −3
=
−1.6 × 10−19
2 Q = ne × qe
= 4.2 × 1019 × 1.6 × 10−19 C
= 6.7 C
3 A. In a solid metal, electrons are the only charged particles that are free to move. Electrons are negatively charged.
4 Q = ne × qe
= 2 × 1.6 × 10−19 C
−19
= 3.2 × 10 C
5 C. An analogy for electric current must reflect that charges do not leak out of the conductor and that charges repel
each other.
6 D. Electrons repel one another so the movement of one electron affects others.
Q
7 I=
t
0.23
=
60
= 3.8 × 10−3 A
8 Conventional current represents the flow of charge around a circuit as if the moving charges were positive, which
means the direction is from the positive terminal to the negative terminal. In reality, the moving particles in a metal
wire are negatively charged electrons. Electron flow describes the movement of these electrons from the negative
terminal to the positive terminal.
9 a Q = It Q
= 1.6 × 100 b ne =
qe
160
= 160 C =
1.6 × 10−19
= 1021 electrons
10 a Q = ne × qe Q
b t=
I
= 5 ×1018 × 1.6 × 10−19 0.8
=
= 0.8 C 0.04
= 20 seconds
11 E = VQ
= 3.8 × 2
= 7.6 J
E
12 V =
Q
2
=
0.5
=4V
13 C. Using E = VIt, you would need to measure current, time and potential difference.
E
14 P =
t
2500
=
30 × 60
= 1.39 W
E
15 V =
Q
1.4 × 10−18
=
1.6 × 10−19
= 8.75 V
P
16 I =
V
2000
=
230
= 8.7 A
V
17 R =
I
2.5
=
5
= 0.5 Ω
V
18 R =
I
240
=
0.25
= 960 Ω
19 At 50 V, I = 150 mA = 0.15 A
V
R=
I
50
=
0.15
= 333 Ω
20 V = IR
= 0.25 × 80
= 20 V
V
21 R =
I
1.5
=
0.05
= 30 Ω
22 a At 1 V, I = 1 A. b At 7 V, I = 3.5 A. c At 12 V, I = 4 A.
V V V
R= R= R=
I I I
1 7 12
= = =
1 3.5 4
=1Ω =2Ω =3Ω
23 As electrons travel through a piece of copper wire, they constantly bump into copper ions that slow them down.
Resistance is a measure of how much energy electrons need to be given to maintain a constant speed through
the wire.
24 E = VIt
= 240 × 5 × (3 × 60)
= 216 000 J
= 216 kJ
25 At 1.0 V, I = 2.5 A
V
R=
I
1.0
=
2.5
= 0.4 Ω
26 P = VI
= 240 × 0.5
= 120 W
P
27 I =
V
1600
=
240
= 6.67 A
V
R=
I
240
=
6.67
= 36 Ω
V
28 When lamp is cold: R =
I
120
=
12.5
= 9.6 Ω
V
When lamp is hot: R =
I
120
=
0.8
= 150 Ω
29 Q = It
= 0.8 × 1
= 0.8 C
Q
ne =
qe
0.8
=
1.6 × 10−19
30 a Q = (0.3 A) × (60 s) = 18 C
b E = QV = 18 × 3 = 54 J
c The energy is provided by the battery.
Chapter 4 Practical electrical circuits
Section 4.1 Series and parallel circuits

Calculating an equivalent series resistance
A string of Christmas lights consists of 20 light bulbs connected in series. Each bulb has a resistance of 8 Ω. Calculate
the equivalent series resistance of the Christmas lights.
Thinking Working
Recall the formula for equivalent series resistance. RT = R1+ R2+ … + Rn
Substitute in the given values for resistance. RT = 8 + 8 + 8 + …

As there are 20 equal globes, the problem is easier to = 20 × 8
answer by multiplying 8 Ω by 20 globes. = 160 Ω

USING EQUIVALENT SERIES RESISTANCE FOR CIRCUIT ANALYSIS
Use an equivalent series resistance to calculate the current flowing in the series circuit below and the potential
difference across each resistor.
12 V
100 Ω 690 Ω 330 Ω
Thinking Working
Recall the formula for equivalent series resistance. Find RT = R1 + R2 + R3 + …

the total resistance In the circuit. = 100 + 690 + 330 = 1120 Ω
Use Ohm’s law to calculate the current in the circuit. V 12

I= =
Whenever calculating current in a series circuit, use RT R 1120
and the voltage of the power supply. = 0.011 A
Use Ohm’s law to calculate the potential difference across V = IR

each separate resistor. Therefore:
V1 = 0.011 A × 100 Ω = 1.1 V
V2 = 0.011 A × 690 Ω = 7.6 V
V3 = 0.011 A × 330 Ω = 3.6 V
Use the loop rule to check the answer. VT = V1 + V2 + V3

= 1.1 + 7.6 + 3.6
= 12.3 V
Since this is approximately the same as the voltage
provided by the cell, the answer is reasonable.

CALCULATING AN EQUIVALENT PARALLEL RESISTANCE
A 20 Ω resistor is connected in parallel with a 50 Ω resistor. Calculate the equivalent parallel resistance.
Thinking Working
Recall the formula for equivalent effective resistance. 1 1 1 1

= + + +…
RT R1 R2 R3
Substitute in the given values for resistance. 1 1 1

= +
RT 20 50
Solve for RT. 1 1 1

= +
RT 20 50
5 2
= +
100 100
7
=
100
100
RT =
7
= 14.3 Ω

USING EQUIVALENT PARALLEL RESISTANCE FOR CIRCUIT ANALYSIS
se an equivalent parallel resistance to calculate the 10 V
current flowing in the parallel circuit below and through

each resistor of the circuit.
30 Ω
50 Ω
Thinking Working
Recall the formula for equivalent parallel resistance. 1 1 1 1

= + + +…
RT R1 R2 R3
Substitute in the given values for resistance. 1 1 1

= +
RT 30 50
Solve for RT . 1 1 1
= +
RT 30 50
5 3
= +
150 150
8
=
150
150
RT =
8
= 19 Ω
Use Ohm’s law to calculate the current in the circuit. To V 10

Icircuit = = = 0.53 A
calculate I, use the voltage of the power supply and the R 19
total resistance.
Use Ohm’s law to calculate the current through each V 10

30 Ω resistor: I30 = = = 0.33 A
resistor. Remember that the voltage through each resistor R 30
is the same as the voltage of the power supply, 10 V in V 10
50 Ω resistor: I50 = = = 0.2 A
this case. R 50
Use the junction rule to check the answers. Icircuit = I30 + I50
0.53 A = 0.33 A + 0.20 A

COMPLEX CIRCUIT ANALYSIS
Calculate the potential difference across, and current through, each resistor in the circuit below.
R5 = 5.0 Ω
R1 = 20.0 Ω
R6 = 10.0 Ω
100.0 V R7 = 30.0 Ω
R2 = 50.0 Ω
R3 = 25.0 Ω
R4 = 100.0 Ω
Thinking Working
Find an equivalent parallel resistance for each For the 10 Ω and 5 Ω resistor Similarly, for the group of three
of the parallel groups of resistors. group: parallel resistors:
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
= + = + +
R5−6 10 5 R2−4 25 50 100
1 2 4 2 1
= + = + +
10 10 100 100 100
3 7
= =
10 100
10 100
R5−6 = R2−4 =
3 7
= 3.33 Ω = 14.3 Ω
Find an equivalent series resistance for the RT = 20 + 3.3 + 30 + 14.3 = 67.6 Ω

circuit. Note that the circuit can now be
thought of as containing four resistors in series.
Use Ohm’s law to calculate the current in V = IR

the circuit. Use the supply voltage and total V 100
∴R= = = 1.48 A
resistance to do this calculation. I 67.6
Use Ohm’s law to calculate the potential V = IR

difference across each resistor (or parallel ∆V1 = 1.48 × 20.0 = 29.6 V
group of resistors) in series.
∆V5−6 = 1.48 × 3.3 = 4.9 V
∆V7 = 1.48 × 30.0 = 44.4 V
∆V2−4 = 1.48 × 14.3 = 21.2 V
Check:
29.6 + 4.9 + 44.4 + 21.2 ≈100 V
(with some slight rounding error).
Use Ohm’s law where necessary to calculate I1 = I7 = 1.48 A 21.2

I2 = = 0.42 A
the current through each resistor. V 50
I= 21.2
R
4.9 I3 = = 0.85 A
25
I5 = = 0.98 A
5 21.2
4.9 I4 = = 0.21 A
I6 = = 0.49 A 100
10
Check:
Check: 0.98 + 0.49 ≈1.48 A
0.42 + 0.85 + 0.21 = 1.48 A
(with some slight rounding
error). This confirms that the junction
rule holds for this section.
This confirms that the junction
rule holds for this section.

COMPARING POWER IN SERIES AND PARALLEL CIRCUITS
Consider a 200 Ω and a 800 Ω resistor wired in parallel with a 12 V cell. Calculate the power drawn by these resistors.
Compare this to the power drawn by the same two resistors when wired in series.
Thinking Working
Calculate the equivalent resistance for the parallel circuit. 1 1 1 1

= + +…+
RT R1 R2 Rn
1 1
= +
200 800
1 4 1
= +
RT 800 800
5
=
800
RT = 160 Ω
Calculate the total current drawn by the parallel circuit. V=IR

V
I=
R
12
=
160
= 0.075 Ω
Use the power equation to calculate the power drawn by P = VI

the parallel circuit. = 12 × 0.075
= 0.9 W
Calculate the equivalent resistance for the series circuit. RT = R1 + R2

= 200 + 800
= 1000 Ω
Calculate the total current drawn by the series circuit. V = IR

V
I=
R1
12
= = 0.012 A
1000
Use the power equation to calculate the power drawn by P = VI

the series circuit. = 12 × 0.012 = 0.144 W
Compare the power drawn by the two circuits. Pparallel 0.9

= = 6.25
Pseries 0.144
The parallel circuit draws 6.25 times as much power as

the series circuit.
Section 4.1 Review

1 B
RT = R1 + R2
= 20 + 20 = 40 Ω
V
1=
R1
6
= = 0.15 A
40
V across each resistor:
V = IR = 0.15 × 20 = 3 V
(Or, as the resistors are equal, the same voltage will be lost across each and will add to 6 V, so 3 V must be lost across
each resistor.)
2 a RT = R1 + R2 + R3
= 100 + 250 + 50 = 400 Ω
V 3
IT = = = 0.0075 A or 7.5 mA
RT 400
b R = 100 Ω and I = 0.0075 A
V100 = IR
= 0.0075 × 100 = 0.75 V
1 1 1 1 1
3 = + = + (the resistors are identical, so R1 = R2)
RT R1 R2 R1 R1
2
=
RT
R1
∴ RT =
2
R1 = 2 × RT = 2 × 68 = 136 Ω
1 1 1
4 a = +
RT R1 R2
1 1
= +
20 10
1 2
= +
20 20
3
=
20
20
RT =
3
= 6.67 Ω
V
I=
R
5
IT =
6.67
= 0.75 A
V20 5
b I20 = = = 0.25 A
R 20
V10 5
c I20 = = = 0.5 A
R 10
5 a V = IR
V40 = 0.3 × 40 = 12 V (300 mA = 0.3 A)
Since the components are in parallel the voltage across the 40 Ω resistor (or the 60 Ω resistor) is also the voltage of
the battery.
V60 12
b I60 = = = 0.2 A (or 200 mA)
R 60
6 First determine the total resistance of the circuit:
1 1 1
= +
R3−4 R3 R4
1 1
= +
10 10
R3−4 = 5 Ω
RT = 20 + 15 + 5 = 40 Ω
VT 12
IT = = = 0.3 A (or 300 mA)
RT 40
I1 = I2 = IT = 0.3 A (since these are in series)
V1= I1R1 = 0.3 × 20 = 6 V
V2 = I2R2 = 0.3 × 15 = 4.5 V
V3 = V4 = I3−4R3−4 = 0.3 × 5 = 1.5 V
V3 V4 1.5
I3 = I4 = = = = 0.15 A
R3 R4 10
7 Rtop row = 3 + 4 = 7 Ω
Rbottom row = 5 + 6 = 11 Ω
1 1 1 11 7 18
= + = + =
Rparallel 7 11 77 77 77
Rparallel = 4.278 Ω
8 a RT = R1 + R2 + … + Rn
= 20 + 20 + 20 + 20
= 80 Ω
V = IR
V
∴I=
R
10
=
80
= 0.125 A
P = VI
= 10 × 0.125
= 1.25 W
1 1 1 1
b = + …+
RT R1 R2 Rn
1 1 1 1
= + + +
20 20 20 20
4
=
20
RT 20
=
1 4
RT = 5 Ω
V = IR
V 10
∴I= =
R 5
=2A
P = VI
= 10 × 2
= 20 W
9 C. Parallel wiring allows each appliance to be switched on and off independently (and also receive mains
voltage supply).
Section 4.2 Using electricity

VOLTAGE DIVIDER
A voltage divider is constructed from a 12 V battery, a 40 Ω resistor and a 20 Ω resistor as shown. Calculate the
voltage output, Vout, of the circuit.
12 V
+ 40 Ω
Vin R1
20 Ω
Vout
R2
Thinking Working
Calculate the total resistance of the circuit. RT= 40 + 20

= 60 Ω
Calculate the current flowing through the circuit. V

I=
R
12
=
60
= 0.2 A
Calculate the potential difference across the second Vout = IR

resistor.
= 0.2 × 20
=4V

THERMISTOR IN A VOLTAGE DIVIDER CIRCUIT
A voltage divider circuit includes a thermistor (R1) and a fixed resistor (R2). The characteristic curve of the thermistor and
the circuit are shown in Figure 4.2.7. Using the graph and the information included on the circuit diagram, determine
the following:
a the resistance of the thermistor at 20°C
Thinking Working
The resistance of the thermistor can be read straight from R = 20 kΩ

the graph at the point where the temperature is 20°C.
b the current in the circuit
Thinking Working
Find the effective resistance of the circuit, note that the RT = 20 kΩ + 5 kΩ

fixed resistor is 5 kΩ. = 25 kΩ
Find the current. V

I=
R
5
=
25 000
= 0.20 mA
c the output potential difference, Vout.
Thinking Working
Use Ohm’s Law to calculate the voltage across the fixed V = IR

resistor. = 0.0002 × 5 000
=1V

LDR IN A VOLTAGE DIVIDER CIRCUIT
A voltage divider circuit includes an LDR (R1) and a fixed resistor (R2).
Using the information included on the circuit diagram in Worked example 4.2.3 and the fact that the LDR has a
resistance of 3.0 kΩ at a light intensity of 2000 mW m−2, determine the following:
a the total resistance of the circuit
Thinking Working
The total resistance equals the resistance of the LDR plus R = 3.0 + 6.8 = 9.8 kΩ
the 6.8 kΩ fixed resistor.
b the current in the circuit
Thinking Working
Find the current using Ohm’s law. V

I=
R
9
=
9800
= 0.92 mA
c the output potential difference, Vout.
Thinking Working
Use Ohm’s Law to calculate the voltage across the fixed V = IR

resistor. = 0.00092 × 6800
= 6.3 V

DIODES
A student is investigating the current−voltage characteristics of a diode using the same circuit diagram and I−V graph
shown in Worked example 4.2.4.
a What is the potential difference across the diode?
Thinking Working
The potential difference across the diode can be read At 5.0 mA the voltage across the diode will be 0.6 V.
directly from the I−V graph.
b What is the value of R1?
Thinking Working
The battery voltage is 9.0 V, the voltage drop across voltage across R1 = 9.0 − 0.6
the diode is 0.6 V and the current is 5.0 mA. Use this = 8.4 V
information to find R1. V
resistance R1 =
I
8.4
=
5.0 × 10−3
= 1680 Ω

LEDs
An LED has the following optimum operating characteristics:

Id = 30 mA when Vd = 1.9 V
Use the diagram from Worked example 4.2.5 to determine the value of the current-limiting resistor (R) if the current
through the diode is to be limited to 30 mA when powered by a 6 V battery
Thinking Working
Voltage divider circuit so the 6 V is divided between the VR = 6 − 1.9 = 4.1 V

resistor, R, and the LED.
Use Ohm’s Law to calculate the value of R. V

R=
I
4.1
=
30 × 10−3
= 137 Ω
Section 4.2 Review

1 a C b A
RT = 100 + 300 = 400 Ω RT = 100 + 300 = 400 Ω
V = IR V = IR
V V
I= I=
R R
10 10
= =
400 400
= 0.025 A = 0.025 A
V300 = IR300 V100 = IR100
= 0.025 × 300 = 0.025 × 100
= 7.5 V = 2.5 V
Alternatively: Alternatively, V100 + V300 = 10 V
R300 300
Vout = × Vin = × 10 = 7.5 V ∴ V100 = 10 − V300 = 10 − 7.5 = 2.5 V
R300 + R400 400
2 RT = 1000 + 2000 = 3000 Ω

V = IR
V
I=
R
24
=
3000
= 0.008 A
V2000 = IR2000
= 0.008 × 2000
= 16 V
3
Input transducer Signal-processing component Output transducer
LDR / microphone / thermistor diode / potentiometer LED / light globe / speaker
4 A and B. Diodes only allow current flow in one direction. An LED is a type of diode.
5 B. As the temperature of a PTC (Positive Temperature Coefficient) thermistor increases, its resistance increases.
6 B. A thermistor could be used as an input transducer in a circuit to control the temperature inside a refrigerator
because its resistance varies with temperature.
7 A. As the amount of light falling on an LDR increases, the resistance of the LDR decreases.
8 At minimum operating level
VL = Vin − VLED = 9 − 2 = 7 V
VL 7
RL= = = 350 Ω
I 20 × 10−3
9 a Circuit (i): In parallel, required current = 3 × 20 mA = 60 mA

VL = Vin − VLED = 9 − 2 = 7 V
VL 7
RL = = = 117 Ω
I 60 × 10−3
Circuit (ii): In series, required current = 20 mA
VL = Vin − 3 × VLED = 9 − 6 = 3 V
VL 3
RL = = = 150 Ω
I 20 × 10−3
b Both circuits will emit the same light—all are operating at the same V and I.
c Circuit (ii) requires only 20 mA, so will run longer.
10 a From the graph, RT = 500 Ω at 20°C
7.5
b VT = 10 − 2.5 = 7.5 V, IT = = 0.015 A
500 2.5
since ILED = 0.011, IR = IT − ILED = 0.004 A and RR = = 625 Ω
0.004
c VR = VLED = 2 V since the two are in parallel
2
Hence IR = = 0.0032A
625
And IT = 0.0032 + 0.0048 = 0.008 A
VT = 10 − 2.0 = 8.0 V
8.0
Hence RT = = 1000 Ω
0.008
Using this value on the graph supplied, T = 10°C
Section 4.3 Electrical safety

CALCULATING THE COST OF ELECTRICITY
A 2500 W iron is used for 2.5 hours. Assume the price for household electricity is 26 cents per kW h. How much
would it cost (to the nearest cent) to use this iron for 2.5 hours?
Thinking Working
Convert the power consumption of the appliance to kW. 2500 W = 2.5 kW
Use the appropriate equation to multiply the power of the E = Pt

appliance in kW by the number of hours it operates. = 2.5 kW × 2.5 h
= 6.25 kWh
Multiply the number of kWh by the cost per kWh. Give Cost = 6.25 × 0.26
your answer correct to two decimal places. (26 cents = $0.26)
= $1.63
Section 4.3 Review

1 A. In the event of an electrical fault the current will rapidly increase through the zero resistance path offered by the
earth connection. Once this current exceeds the fuse’s rating the fuse will blow, shutting off power to the appliance.
2 D. Double insulated appliances usually do not have an earth connection.
3. 1 kWh = 1000 W × 3600 s
= 3 600 000 J
10 kWh = 10 × 3 600 000
= 3.6 × 107 J
4 This air conditioner would cost 0.75 × 5 × 0.27 = approximately $1 to run for 5 hours. Therefore, the figure $10 in the
statement is incorrect.
5 The neutral and earth are common.
6 It is much safer to place the fuse in the active circuit because then it cuts off the supply to the circuit.
7 The earth stake ensures that the neutral and earth conductors are at zero potential.
8 The toaster will work normally, but the connection is very unsafe because it will remain live even when switched off.
9 The outer casing of the appliance could become live.
240 V
10 I = = 2.4 mA
1.0 × 105 Ω
Chapter 4 Review
1 A. The equivalent resistance of series resistors is the sum of their individual resistances.
2 a RT = Rparallel pair + R3
∴ R3 = RT − Rparallel pair = 8.5 − 5 = 3.5 Ω
VT 3
b I3 = IT = = = 0.35(3) A
RT 8.5
c V3 = I3 × R3 = 0.35 × 3.5 = 1.2 V
Vparallel pair = 3 − 1.2 = 1.8 V
V2 1.8
d I2 = = = 0.12 A
R2 15
e I1 = IT − I2 = 0.35 − 0.12 = 0.24 A
V1 1.76
f R1 = = = 7.46 Ω
I1 0.24
3 a Ammeter. The meter is connected in series so it must be an ammeter.
1 1 1 2
b = + =
Rtop parallel group 40 40 40
Rtop parallel group = 20 Ω
1 1 1 3 1 4
= + = + =
Rbottom parallel group 20 60 60 60 60
Rbottom parallel group = 15 Ω
1 1 1
= +
Rtotal 20 15
3 4 7
= + =
60 60 60
60
Rtotal = = 8.57 Ω
7
4 The earth wire is usually connected to the metal casing of an electrical appliance. If the insulation around the wire
inside the appliance becomes degraded, the casing of the appliance could become ‘live’ and dangerous to touch. In
this situation, the earth wire provides an alternative low-resistance path to earth, protecting any users of the appliance
from electrocution.
5 The circuit will need to have either two pairs of series resistors connected in parallel or two pairs of parallel resistors
connected in series.
6 RT = R1 + R2 = 600 + 1200 = 1800 Ω
V 9
I= = = 0.005 A
R 1800
V600 = IR
= 0.005 × 600
=3V
7 B
Vout = IR400
8 = I × 400
I = 0.02 A
VR = IRR
12 = 0.02 × RR
R = 600 Ω
Alternatively,
R: 400 Ω = 12 V : 8 V
12
∴ R = 400 ×
8
= 600 Ω
8 C. An LDR is a type of input transducer.

9 a RT = R1 + R2 + R3 = 20 + 20 + 20 = 60 Ω
V = IR
V 12
∴I= = = 0.2 A
R 60
P = VI = 12 × 0.2 = 2.4 W
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 3
b = + + = + + =
RT R1 R2 R3 20 20 20 20
20
RT = = 6.67 Ω
3
V 12
I= = = 1.8 A
R 6.67
P = VI = 12 × 1.8 = 21.6 W
Pparallel 21.6
c = = 9 The parallel circuit draws 9 times more power.
Pseries 2.4
10 D. A 50 mA current for over 4.5 s is likely to cause severe shock and possible death.
11 E = Pt
=3×4
= 12 kWh
Cost = 12 × 0.30
= $3.60
12 D: Power is how quickly energy is consumed/supplied/transformed.
1 watt = 1 joule per second
1 1 1 1
13 a = + +
RT 100 200 600
6 3 1
= + +
600 600 600
10
=
600
600
RT = = 60 Ω
10
b V = IR
120 = I × 60
I = 2.0 A
c Each branch has 120 V across it
V 120
I1 = = = 1.2 A
RT 100
V 120
I2 = = = 0.6 A
RT 200
V 120
I3 = = = 0.2 A
RT 600
I1 = 1.20 A, I2 = 0.60 A, I3 = 0.20 A
d P = VI
= 120 × (1.2 + 0.6 + 0.2)
= 240 W
e 240 W
14 a 4 V. This is calculated using Ohm’s Law, or alternatively, by recognising that the voltage drop at Vout is half the
voltage drop across the LDR.
V = IR
12 = I × 300
I = 0.04 A
V = IR
= 0.04 × 100
=4V
b above; as light increases, the resistance of the LDR decreases, hence Vout rises
c Vout approaches zero, as the LDR has increased resistance and therefore the voltage drop across the LDR
approaches 12 V.
15 a A thermistor is a temperature-sensitive resistor whose resistance decreases as its temperature increases. It is

usually constructed from Ge, Si or a mixture of various oxides. The resistance of a typical thermistor may range
from 10 kΩ at 0°C to 100 Ω at 100°C.
b
20
15
R (Ω)
10
0
10 20 30 40 50
Temperature (°C)
(not linear)
16 VR = IR
1 = I × 1000
I = 0.001 A
VT = IR
5 = 0.001 × R
R = 5000 Ω
From the graph, this corresponds to T = 20°C
17 a Combining Ohm’s law, V = IR, and the equation for power:
V2
P = VI = I2R =
R
2
25 = IX RX
25
= 25 ×10−2
2
IX =
100
IX = 5 × 10−1 = 0.5 A
VX = IRX = 0.5 × 100 = 50 V
1
VY = RY × = 100 × 0.25 = 25 V
2
Vtotal = VX + VY = 75 V
b P = VI = 75 × 0.5 = 37.5 W
18 a 3
b 1
c 2
19 The finger provides less contact with the live wire and hence more resistance.
20 A fuse will melt when a high current flows in a circuit. Without the fuse the heat generated from a high current could
be enough to start a fire and burn the house down. A safety switch switches off a circuit when the current in the active
and neutral wires are not equal, thus preventing possible electrocution.
Chapter 5 The origins of everything
Section 5.1 Measurements in the universe

CALCULATING RECESSIONAL VELOCITY
Using a Hubble constant of 70 km s−1 Mpc−1, calculate the recessional speed of a galaxy that is 250 Mpc from Earth.
Thinking Working
State Hubble’s law. v = H0d
Substitute the given values into Hubble’s law. v = 70 × 250

−1
Calculate the speed. v = 17 500 km s
Section 5.1 Review

1
1 d=
p
1
p=
d
1
=
2.6
= 0.38
2 d = 1.30 × 3.086 × 1016 = 4.0 × 1016 m
3 d = 1.30 × 3.2616 = 4.2 ly
4 d = 1.30 × 206 265 = 270 000 AU
= 2.7 × 105 AU
5 1000 Mpc = 109 pc
= 109 × 3.086 × 1016 m
= 3.086 × 1025 m
6 40 000 ÷ 600 = 67 km s−1 Mpc−1
v
7 d=
H0
3.6 × 107 m s−1 = 3.6 × 104 km s−1
3.6 × 104
=
72
= 500 Mpc
8 C. Space itself is expanding and so the space between galaxies is expanding.
9 Hubble achieved this by measuring the redshift in the spectrum of the galaxies.
10 v = H0d
= 70 × 350
= 24 500 km s−1
Section 5.2 The big bang

Section 5.2 Review
1 It is radiation from the early universe whose wavelength has expanded with the expansion of the universe.
2 The steady state theory suggests that the universe was infinite and that matter was being created all the time at just
the right rate to keep the density constant as it expanded.
3 The CMB radiation was generated in the initial very hot state of the universe, which the steady state theory did not
support. The steady state theory had no explanation for the CMB.
4 As the universe cooled, the energy of photons decreased which consequently decreased pair production and most
particles annihilated with their antiparticles. However, there was a slight imbalance of matter and antimatter which left
the universe mostly with matter particles.
5 The matter created during inflation would never have condensed to form atoms, and therefore, ultimately, galaxies
or stars.
6 Annihilation, which involves the conversion of an electron and positron into two photons.
7 Although the initial radiation was largely the result of matter−antimatter annihilation at around 0.001 seconds, it
continually interacted with the extremely hot nuclei for the next 300 000 years. It was only when the radiation had
cooled below the temperature at which it was hot enough to ionise atoms that atoms could form and the radiation
became stable and simply filled the universe. As the universe expanded so too did the wavelength of the radiation.
8 There was a tiny fraction of a percent more matter than antimatter created in the first microseconds of the universe.
9 a At that time hydrogen, helium and lithium were the only elements to exist. They had been formed in the first few
minutes while the universe was hot enough for fusion to occur. Other elements didn’t form as the universe was still
hot enough that photons had enough energy to ionise any atoms that did form.
b Other elements formed from the supernovae of the early, large stars. These supernovae not only formed other stars,
but eventually whole solar systems.
Section 5.3 Particles of the Standard Model

Section 5.3 Review
1 The strong nuclear force acts between nucleons i.e. protons and neutrons.
2 weak nuclear: W+, W− and Z bosons; strong nuclear: gluons; electromagnetic: photons.
3 The gauge bosons are the force-carrier particles. The leptons are fundamental particles that can be found individually
and do not experience the strong force. The hadrons all experience the strong nuclear force and are made of quarks.
4 Quarks must exist in groups of two or three; leptons can exist individually.
5 The ball represents the force-carrier particle being exchanged, namely bosons.
6 The two groups of hadrons are called mesons and baryons. The mesons contain two quarks. One of the quarks in this
group is normal matter while the other is antimatter. The baryons have three quarks. This group contains the familiar
particles called protons and neutrons.
7 All quarks experience the strong force; leptons do not. Quarks also have non-integer (fractional) charges; leptons have
charges of −1 or 0.
8
Gauge boson Lepton Hadron
gluon, photon electron, neutron, proton

neutrino, muon
Chapter 5 Review
1 The light from a source that is moving away from the observer will appear to have a longer wavelength and a
lower frequency.
2 Galaxy 3 has the greatest redshift, then galaxy 2 and galaxy 1 has the least redshift. Therefore in order of increasing
distance from Earth they are: galaxy 1, galaxy 2, galaxy 3.
3 There is a relationship between the period of the variation in their brightness and their intrinsic brightness. It is
possible to work out the distance to these stars by comparing their intrinsic brightness to their apparent brightness.
4 For each Mpc a galaxy is away from us, it is receding from us at 67.80 km s−1.
5 A conventional explosion has a definite centre or source and the shock wave expands into the space around it. In
the expansion of the universe, there is no centre to the expansion and as the universe is expanding space is also
expanding; the universe does not expand ‘into’ space.
6 For a steeper line of best fit, the Hubble constant would be greater and this would indicate the universe was younger
than Hubble would have calculated from the graph.
7 Age of the universe = 980 ÷ Hubble constant = 980 ÷ 70 = 14 billion years
1019
or T = 3.1 × = 4.4 × 1017 seconds = 1.4 × 1010 years = 14 billion years
70
6 16 24
8 100 Mpc = 100 × 10 × 3.086 × 10 = 3.086 × 10
3.086 × 1024
Time taken =
3 × 108
= 1.03 ×1017 s
1.03 × 1017
= years
365 × 24 × 3600
8
= 3.3 × 10 years
9 In order for the fusion of lighter nuclei to form the more complex nuclei of the heavier elements, extreme
temperatures and pressures were needed. Although these conditions did not occur in the early universe, they did
occur billions of years later as the early huge stars burnt out and collapsed due to gravitational forces. This resulted
in a supernova explosion which created those extreme temperatures and pressures and resulted in the production of
heavier elements which were scattered into space by the explosion.
10 As a result of the expanding universe, the CMB radiation will be detected at a longer wavelength, which corresponds to
a lower frequency and less energy.
11 A photon creates a particle and its antiparticle and energy is converted into mass.
12 A particle collides with its antiparticle and mass is converted into energy.
13 Protons are made of up, up, down quarks and neutrons are made of up, down, down quarks.
14 electromagnetism and the strong and weak nuclear forces
2 1 4 1
15 A proton is made up of two up quarks (2 × + ) and one down quark (− ) so − = +1.
3 3 3 3
1 2 2 2
A neutron is made up of two down quarks (2 × − ) and one up quark (+ ) so − + = 0.
3 3 3 3
16 The correct order is: weak nuclear, electromagnetic, gravity, (strong nuclear).
17 The Standard Model is based on the assumption that forces arise through the exchange of particles called gauge
bosons (or just bosons). Each of the three forces is mediated by a different particle: strong—gluon, electromagnetic—
photon, weak—W+, W− and Z.
18 An electron is a fundamental particle and it is a lepton.
Chapter 6 Particles in the nucleus
Section 6.1 Atoms, isotopes and radioisotopes

WORKING WITH ISOTOPES
Consider the isotope of thorium, 230Th. Work out the number of protons, nucleons and neutrons in this isotope.
90
Thinking Working
The lower number is the atomic number. atomic number = 90

This nuclide has 90 protons.
The upper number is the mass number. This indicates mass number = 230
the number of particles in the nucleus, i.e. the number of This nuclide has 230 nucleons.
nucleons.
Subtract the atomic number from the mass number to This isotope has 230 − 90 = 140 neutrons.
find the number of neutrons.
Section 6.1 Review

1 nucleons
2 79 protons and 118 neutrons (197 − 79)
3 235
4 a Chlorine-35 has 17 protons, 18 neutrons (35 − 17) and 35 nucleons.
b Plutonium-239 has 94 protons, 145 neutrons (239 − 94) and 239 nucleons.
13 14
5 B and D. Carbon has 6 protons, so C has 7 neutrons (13 − 6). Nitrogen has 7 protons, so N has 7 neutrons
(14 − 7).
6 The number of electrons in a neutral atom is the same as the number of protons, which is given by the
atomic number.
7 Isotopes are atoms with the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons.
8 a Their atomic numbers are the same as they are both krypton. Their mass numbers (84 and 89) are different as
they are isotopes.
b There would be no difference in their chemical interactions with other atoms.
9 A radioisotope is an unstable isotope. At some time, it will spontaneously eject radiation in the form of alpha particles,
beta particles or gamma rays from the nucleus.
10 Yes, a natural isotope can be radioactive. For example, uranium is naturally occurring and every isotope of uranium
is radioactive.
Section 6.2 Radioactivity

RADIOACTIVE DECAY
Polonium-218 decays by emitting an alpha particle and a gamma ray. The nuclear equation is: 218Po → X + 42α + γ
84
Determine the atomic number and mass number for X, then use the periodic table to identify the element.
Thinking Working
Balance the mass numbers. 218 = b + 4

mass number = 214
Balance the atomic numbers. 84 = a + 2

atomic number = 82
Use the periodic table to look up element 82. Element 82 is lead.
Section 6.2 Review

1 mass number of X is 218 − 214 = 4
atomic number of X is 86 − 84 = 2
X is an alpha particle.
2 mass number of Y is 214 − 214 = 0
atomic number of Y is 82 − 83 = −1
Y is a beta minus particle.
3 beta plus
4 A positron is a positively charged electron.
5 Alpha is a helium nucleus. Beta is a positively or negatively charged electron. Gamma is electromagnetic radiation.
6 40, 42, 43, 44, 46, 48
7 Alpha, beta and gamma radiation all originate from the nucleus of an atom.
8 a X: atomic number = 92 − 2 = 90, mass number = 235 − 4 = 231, X is thorium
b Y: atomic number = 88 + 1 = 89, mass number = 228 + 0 = 228, Y is actinium
9 a Nitrogen-14 has 7 protons and 7 neutrons.
b A neutron has changed into a proton, an electron and an antineutrino.
10 a atomic number = 20 − 21 = −1, mass number = 45 − 45 = 0, beta minus particle
b atomic number = 70 − 68 = 2, mass number = 150 − 146 = 4, alpha particle
Section 6.3 Properties of alpha, beta and gamma radiation

Section 6.3 Review
1 a gamma b beta minus c alpha d beta e gamma
2 gamma
3 beta
4 gamma
5 beta and gamma
6 a nucleus
b nucleus
c nucleus
7 gamma, beta, alpha
8 Alpha particles travel through air at a relatively low speed and have a double positive charge. Their charge and their
relatively slow speed make them very easy to stop. This means that they have a very poor penetrating ability.
9 The wire should be a beta emitter, since the irradiation needs to be confined to a relatively small area. Alpha radiation
does not have sufficient penetrating power, while gamma radiation would irradiate adjacent healthy cells.
10 Alpha particles will all be stopped by the metal sheet. Gamma rays will all penetrate the metal sheet. Differences in
the thickness of the metal sheet will not affect the count rates of these two.
Some beta particles will pass through thin metal so for a set metal thickness there is a set rate of beta that should
make it to the other side.
Section 6.4 Half-life and decay series

HALF-LIFE
A sample of the radioisotope sodium-24 contains 4.0 × 1010 nuclei. The half-life of sodium-24 is 15 hours. How many
sodium-24 atoms will remain in the sample after 150 hours?
Thinking Working
Calculate how many half-lives 150 hours corresponds to. 150

n=
15
= 10 half-lives
1 n
Substitute N0 = 4.0 × 1010 and n = 10 into the equation. N = N0 ()
2
1 10
Calculate the number of nuclei remaining. = 4.0 × 1010 × ()
2
= 3.9 × 107 nuclei
Section 6.4 Review

1 The ‘activity’ is the count rate or the number of decays each second.
1 1
2 N = 8.0 × 1010 × ()
2
= 4.0 × 1010
1 3
3 N = 2.4 × 1012 × ()
2
= 3.0 × 1011
4 a Halve successively from a starting number e.g. 800 until 0.1% of 800 (0.8) is reached:
800 → 400 → 200 → 100 → 50 → 25 → 12.5 → 6.25 → 3.125 → 1.56 → 0.78
this takes 10 halvings
or
0.1% = 0.001
1 n
()2
= 0.001
take logs of both sides
1
n log ( ) = log 0.001
2
−0.3 n = −3
n = 10
It will take 10 half-lives to drop below 0.1%.
b 10 half-lives must pass = 10 × 24 000 = 240 000 years
5 The percentage chance any atom has of decaying in a period of time equal to its half-life is always 50%.
6 number of half-lives = 4
1 4
12 = N × () 2
N = 12 ÷ 0.0625 = 192
so 192 µg must be produced.
7 6000 → 3000 → 1500 → 750 → 375

so 4 half-lives have passed:
60 ÷ 4 = 15
So the half-life of the radioisotope is 15 minutes
8 a time to drop from 800 → 400 = 10 minutes or from 400 → 200 = 10 minutes
1 4
b 40 minutes = 4 half-lives; A = 800 × ()
2
= 50 Bq
9 Lead-210 undergoes beta decay. Its half-life is 20 years.
10 Starting from U-234, seven alpha and four beta-minus decays have occurred.
Chapter 6 Review
1 20 protons and 25 neutrons (45 − 20)
2 Cobalt-60 has 27 protons, 33 neutrons (60 − 27) and 60 nucleons.
3 The atomic and mass numbers of X are both 0, so X is a gamma ray.
4 Potassium is element 19. It has 48 − 19 = 29 neutrons. Figure 6.2.6 shows a minus sign so it emits a beta minus
particle.
5 a beta minus b proton c alpha d neutron e gamma f beta positive (positron)
6 atomic number = 5 − 2 = 3, mass number = 11 − 4 = 7, so X is lithium
7 a atomic number = 9 − 8 = 1, mass number = 18 − 17 = 1, so X is a proton
b atomic number = 13 − 13 = 0, mass number = 28 − 27 = 1, so Y is a neutron
8 a 208 = x + 0 → x = 208
81 = y − 1 → y = 82
b 180 = x + 4 → x = 176
80 = y + 2 → y = 78
9 18 = a + 0 → a = 18
10 = b + 1 → b = 9
18 = c + 0 → c = 18
9=d+1→d=8
X has atomic number 9 which is fluorine, F.
Y has atomic number 8 which is oxygen, O.
10 atomic number = 12, mass number = 7 − 1 = 6, X is carbon-12
11 Electromagnetic forces are balanced by the strong nuclear force acting between all nucleons in close proximity.
12 a gamma
b gamma
13 gamma radiation
14 The bombarding electrons will be strongly repelled by the electron clouds of the atoms as they are all negatively
charged. The small mass of the bombarding electrons also makes them relatively easy to repel compared to, say,
a proton.
15 1 half-life has passed so
1 1
N = 6.0 × 1014 × ()
2
= 3.0 × 1014
16 3 half-lives have passed so
1 3
N = 5.6 × 1015 × ()
2
= 7.0 × 1014
17 To have a shorter half-life, the nuclei are decaying at a faster rate so uranium-235 has a greater activity.
18 a After one half-life the activity halves to 2 MBq
b 6 hours
c 18 hours pass = 3 half-lives
1 3
4.0 × 106 × ()
2
= 5.0 × 105 Bq
19 two half-lives pass
1 2
N = 6.0 × 1010 × ()
2
= 1.5 × 1010
20 The long half-life means that the source will not need to be replaced for many years. The gamma rays have a strong
penetrating power so they are able to penetrate the skull and reach the tumour site.
Chapter 7 Energy from the atom
Section 7.1 Nuclear fission and energy

FISSION
Plutonium-239 is a fissile material. When a plutonium-239 nucleus is struck by and absorbs a neutron, it can split in
many different ways. Consider the example of a nucleus that splits into lanthanum-143 and rubidium-94 and releases
some neutrons.
The nuclear equation for this is: 10n + 239Pu
94
+ 143La
57
+ 94Rb
37
+ a10n + energy
a How many neutrons are released during this fission process, i.e. what is the value of a?
Thinking Working
Analyse the mass numbers (Z). 1 + 239 = 143 + 94 + (a × 1)

a = (1 + 239) − (143 + 94)
=3
3 neutrons are released during fission.
b During this single fission reaction, there was a loss of mass (a mass defect) of 4.58 × 10−28 kg. Calculate the amount
of energy that was released during fission of a single plutonium-239 nucleus. Answer in both MeV and joules. (Give
your answers to two significant figures.)
Thinking Working
2
The energy released during the fission of this plutonium E = mc
nucleus can be found by using E = mc2. = (4.58 × 10−28)(3.00 × 108)2
= 4.12 × 10−11 J
−19
To convert J into eV, divide by 1.6 × 10 . 4.12 × 10−11
E=
6 1.6 × 10−19
Remember that 1 MeV = 10 eV.
= 2.58 × 108 eV
= 258 MeV
c The combined mass of the plutonium nucleus and bombarding neutron was 2.86 × 10−25 kg. What percentage of
this initial mass was converted into the energy produced during the fission process?
Thinking Working
Use the relationship mass defect 100

mass defect 100
% mass decrease = ×
initial mass 1
% mass decrease = ×
initial mass 1 4.58 × 10−28 100
= ×
2.86 × 10−25 1
= 0.16%
Section 7.1 Review

1 The strong nuclear force is a force of attraction that acts between every nucleon but only over relatively short
distances. This force acts like a nuclear cement.
2 The decay products of the nuclear fission process comprise many different, often highly radioactive isotopes. This is
what makes up the waste.
3 Since the neutron is neutral it will only experience attractive forces from other nucleons.
4 5.0 × 106 × 1.6 × 10−19 = 8.0 × 10−13 J
6.0 × 10−15
5 = 3.8 ×104 eV
1.6 × 10−19
6 Fissile—uranium-235 and plutonium-239

non-fissile—uranium-238 and cobalt-60
7 1 + 235 = 148 + 85 + x
∴x=3
8 a E = mc2
= (2.12 × 10−28)(3.00 × 108)2
= 1.91 × 10−11 J
1.9 × 10−11
b E=
1.6 × 10−19
= 1.19 × 108 eV
Section 7.2 Nuclear fusion

Section 7.2 review
1 Fusion is the joining together of two small nuclei to form a larger nucleus. Fission is the splitting apart of one large
nucleus into smaller fragments.
2 The mass of the products is less than the mass of the reactants. The mass difference is related to the energy released
via E = mc2.
3 The amount of energy released per nucleon during a single nuclear fission reaction is less than the amount for a
single fusion reaction.
4 less than 1%
5 a 2+3=a+1
∴a=4
1+1=b+0
∴b=2
X is helium, He
b E = mc2
E
∴m=
c2
33 × 106 × 1.6 × 10−19
(3.0 × 108)2
∴ m = 5.9 × 10−29 kg
6 Electrostatic forces of repulsion act on the protons. If the protons are moving slowly they will not have enough energy
to overcome the repulsive forces and they will not fuse together.
7 Initially, electrostatic forces of repulsion act on the protons, but they are travelling fast enough to overcome these
forces. The protons will get close enough for the strong nuclear force to take effect and they will fuse together. These
protons have overcome the energy barrier.
8 a Atomic number = 2 + 1 + 1 − 2 = 2, mass number = 4 + 1 + 1 − 3 = 3, particle X is 32He.
b E = 23 × 106 × 1.6 × 10−19 = 3.7 × 10−12 J
c E = mc2
E 3.7 × 10−12
∴m= =
c2 (3 × 108)2
m = 4.1 × 10−29 kg
9 When two hydrogen-2 nuclei are fused together to form a helium-4 nucleus, the binding energy per nucleon increases
and the nucleus becomes more stable.
10 The number of nucleons is conserved as there are five nucleons on each side of the reaction.
Section 7.3 Electromagnetic waves and synchrotron radiation

Section 7.3 Review
1 Electromagnetic radiation covers a wide range of frequencies (or wavelengths) of rapidly changing electric and
magnetic fields that can be created by accelerating charges and are travelling away from the source at the speed
of light.
2 The wavelength decreases when the frequency increases as these two quantities are inversely proportional.
3 The energy is proportional to the frequency of the radiation.
4 approximately 400−800 nm
5 from microwaves to X-rays
6 When electrons are accelerated around a curved path in a synchrotron they give out synchrotron radiation.
7 Since they are all examples of electromagnetic radiation, they all travel at the speed of light 3 × 108 m s−1 or
300 000 km s−1.
2.5 × 10−14
8 energy = = 1.6 × 105 eV
1.6 × 10−19
9 a linac—to accelerate electrons using powerful bursts of RF radiation
b booster ring—to accelerate electrons further as they pass through RF cavities until reaching an energy of 3 GeV
c storage ring—to accelerate electrons in a curved path steered by the strong magnetic fields of the dipole magnets
and insertion devices
d beamline—to carry synchrotron radiation from the storage ring to an experimental station
10 Synchrotron radiation travels faster (at the speed of light) than the electron beam.
Section 7.4 The production of light

ENERGY LEVELS
The energy levels for sodium gas are shown. Determine

the energy of the light that is produced as an electron ionisation
drops from the n = 4 to n = 3 state. 5.13 eV
many levels
n =5 3.75 eV
n =4 3.61 eV
Energy (eV)
n =3 3.19 eV
n =2 2.11 eV
ground state, n = 1 0 eV
Thinking Working
Using the graph, find the energy (in eV) of each level E4 = 3.61 eV
involved. E3 = 3.19 eV
Calculate the difference between these levels. ∆E = E4 − E3

= 3.61 − 3.19
= 0.42 eV
Section 7.4 Review

1 An emission spectrum for an element typically consists of a series of spaced coloured lines on a black background.
2 The different coloured lines in the emission spectrum of an atom correspond to the possible electron transitions
between energy levels within the atom.
3 The energy levels within an atom are commonly represented as horizontal lines on a graph.
4 The ground state
5 No. The photon energy will be exactly equal to the energy difference between the electron’s initial and final levels.
6 The light globe produces a continuous spectrum showing all the colours of the rainbow. The vapour lamp produces a
discrete spectrum showing just coloured lines.
7 Electron transitions between energy levels in sodium atoms produce photons of the correct wavelength (or frequency)
that correspond to orange light.
8 There are three possible ways the electron can return from the n = 3 level to the ground state: n = 3 direct to n = 1,
n = 3 to n = 2 and n = 2 to n = 1. A different amount of energy is released for each transition.
9 a n=1
b n=∞
c n = 2, n = 3 and n = 4
10 −3.39 − −13.6 = 10.2 eV
Chapter 7 Review
1 A nuclide that is able to split in two when hit by a neutron is fissile.
2 No, only a few nuclides (e.g. uranium-235 and plutonium-239) are fissile.
3 The strong nuclear force causes the proton to be attracted to all other nucleons. It will also experience a smaller
electrostatic force of repulsion between itself and other protons.
4 Neutrons are uncharged and are not repelled by the nucleus as alpha particles are.
5 a E = mc2
= 3.48 × 10−28 × (3.0 ×108)2
= 3.1 × 10−11 J
3.1 × 10−11
b E=
1.6 × 10−19
= 1.96 × 108
= 196 MeV
6 1 + x = 130 + 106 + 4 × 1
∴ x = 239
0 + 94 = 54 + y + 4 × 0
∴ y = 40
7 1 + 235 = 127 + 104 + x
∴x=5
8 The nuclei are all positively charged and so repel each other. They need a massively large amount of energy to
overcome these forces and get close enough for the strong nuclear force to take effect. 100 million degrees provides
the required energy for this to occur.
9 ∆E = ∆mc2
= 4.99 × 10−28 × (3.0 × 108)2
= 4.49 × 10−11 J
10 a The combined mass of the hydrogen and helium-3 nuclei is greater than the combined mass of the helium-4
nucleus, positron and neutrino.
b The energy has come from the lost mass (or mass defect) via E = mc2.
6 −19
c 21 MeV = 21 × 10 × 1.6 × 10 = 3.4 × 10−12 J
E 3.4 × 10−12
d E = mc2 ∴ m = 2 =
c (3 × 108)2
−29
m = 3.8 × 10 kg
11 Fission reactors create a great deal more waste. Fusion creates more energy per nucleon than fission.
12 The binding energy per nucleon increases and the nucleus becomes more stable.
13 The higher the binding energy, the more stable the nucleus. This is because higher binding energy means that it
takes more energy to completely separate particles in the nucleus. Iron therefore has the most stable nuclei of all the
elements.
14 The temperature of the light globe filament increases when it is switched on. This causes charged particles in the
filament to vibrate (or accelerate) and some visible light and a lot of infrared radiation are produced.
15 E = 5.0 × 104 × 1.6 × 10−19
= 8.0 × 10−15 J
16 gamma rays
17 beta rays
18 The synchrotron light travels at a tangent to the curved path of the electrons.
19 2.11 eV
20 3.61 eV
21 There are three different energies: 6.7 eV, 4.9 eV and 1.8 eV.
Chapter 8 Scalars and vectors
Section 8.1 Scalars and vectors

DESCRIBING VECTORS IN ONE DIMENSION
west east
– +
50 N
Describe the vector using:
a the direction convention shown
Thinking Working
Identify the direction convention being used in the vector. In this case the vector is pointing to the west according to
the direction convention.
Note the magnitude, unit and direction of the vector. In this example the vector is 50 N west.
b an appropriate sign convention
Thinking Working
Convert the physical direction to the corresponding The direction west is negative.
mathematical sign.
Represent the vector with a mathematical sign, This vector is −50 N.

magnitude and unit.

DESCRIBING TWO-DIMENSIONAL VECTORS
Describe the direction of the following vector using an appropriate method.

up
left right
50°
down
Thinking Working
Choose the appropriate points to reference the direction The vector can be referenced to the horizontal.
of the vector. In this case using the horizontal reference
makes more sense, as the angle is given from the
horizontal.
Determine the angle between the reference direction and There is 50° from the right direction to the vector.
the vector.
Determine the direction of the vector from the reference From the right direction the vector is clockwise.
direction.
Describe the vector using the sequence: angle, clockwise This vector is 50° clockwise from the right direction.
or anticlockwise from the reference direction.
Section 8.1 Review

1 Scalar measures require a magnitude (size) and units.
2 Vectors require a magnitude, units and a direction.
3
Scalar Vector
time force
distance acceleration
volume position
speed displacement
temperature momentum
velocity
4 If the shortest arrow is 2.7 N, the middle length arrow is twice the length of the shortest (5.4 N) and the longest is
three times the shortest (8.1 N). The 9.0 N magnitude is not required.
5 If the shortest arrow is −5.4 N, the middle length arrow is twice the length of the shortest (10.8 N) and the longest is
three times the shortest (16.2 N). The −2.7 N magnitude is not required.
6 a down
b south
c forwards
d up
e east
f positive
7 Terms like north and left cannot be used in a calculation. + and − can be used to do calculations with vectors.
8 The vector diagram shows −35 N.
9 a i) 225° T and ii) S 45° W
b i) 120° T and ii) S 60° E
10 40° clockwise from the left direction
Section 8.2 Adding vectors in one and two dimensions

ADDING VECTORS IN ONE DIMENSION USING ALGEBRA
Use the sign and direction conventions shown in Figure 8.2.2 to determine the resultant force on a box that has the
following forces acting on it: 16 N up, 22 N down, 4 N up and 17 N down.
Thinking Working
Apply the sign and direction conventions to change the 16 N up = +16 N

directions to signs. 22 N down = −22 N
4 N up = +4 N
17 N down = −17 N
Add the magnitudes and their signs together. Resultant force = (+16) + (−22) + (+4) + (−17)
= −19 N
Refer to the sign and direction convention to determine Negative is down.

the direction of the resultant force vector. ∴ Resultant force = 19 N down

ADDING VECTORS IN TWO DIMENSIONS USING GEOMETRY
Determine the resultant force when forces of 5.0 N east and 3.0 N north act on a tree. Refer to Figure 8.2.2 for sign
and direction conventions if required.
Thinking Working
Construct a vector diagram showing the vectors drawn

head to tail. Draw the resultant vector from the tail of the
first vector to the head of the last vector. R
3.0 N
north
θ
5.0 N east
As the two vectors to be added are at 90° to each other, R2 = 5.02 + 3.02
apply Pythagoras’ theorem to calculate the magnitude of = 25 + 9
the resultant vector.
R = √34
= 5.8 N
Using trigonometry, calculate the angle from the east 3.0

tan θ =
vector to the resultant vector. 5.0
θ = tan−1 0.6
= 31.0°
Determine the direction of the vector relative to north or 90° − 31° = 59°
south. The direction is N 59° E
State the magnitude and direction of the resultant vector. R = 5.8 N, N 59° E
Section 8.2 Review

1 Using sign conventions, resultant = −2 + 5 − 7 = −4. The resultant vector is 4 m west.
2 Using sign conventions, resultant = +3 − 2 − 3 = −2. The resultant vector is 2 m down.
3 Using sign conventions, resultant = +23 + (−16) + 7 + (−3) = +11. The resultant vector is 11 m forwards.
4 D. Adding vector B to vector A is equivalent to saying A + B. Therefore, draw vector A first, then draw vector B with its
tail at the head of A. The resultant is drawn from the tail of the first vector (A) to the head of the last vector (B).
5 R2 = 40.02 + 20.02 6 6000 N east 7 C

= 1600 + 400 R2 = 40.02 + 30.02
R = √2000 = 1600 + 900
2000 N north
= 44.7 m R R = √2500
40.0 = 50.0 m
tan θ = θ
20.0
θ = tan−1 2.00
R2 = 20002 + 60002
= 63.4°
= 4 000 000 + 36 000 000
R = 44.7 m, S 63.4° W
R = √40 000 000
= 6325 N
6000
tan θ =
2000
θ = tan−1 3.00
= 71.6°
R = 6325 N, N 71.6° E
Section 8.3 Subtracting vectors in on and two dimensions

SUBTRACTING VECTORS IN ONE DIMENSION USING ALGEBRA
Use the sign and direction conventions shown in Figure 8.3.5 to determine the change In velocity of a rocket as it
changes from 212 m s−1 up to 2200 m s−1 up.
Thinking Working
−1 −1
Apply the sign and direction convention to change the v1 = 212 m s up = +212 m s
directions to signs. v2= 2200 m s−1 up = +2200 m s−1
Reverse the direction of the initial velocity v1 by reversing −v1 = 212 m s−1 down
the sign. = −212 m s
−1
Use the formula for change in velocity to calculate the ∆v = v2 + (−v1)

magnitude and the sign of ∆v. = +2200 + (−212)
−1
= +1988 m s
Refer to the sign and direction convention to determine Positive is up

the direction of the change in velocity. ∴ ∆v = 1988 m s
−1
up

SUBTRACTING VECTORS IN TWO DIMENSIONS USING GEOMETRY
Determine the change in velocity of a ball as it bounces off a wall. The ball approaches at 7.0 m s−1 south and
rebounds at 6.0 m s−1 east.
Thinking Working
Draw the final velocity vector and the initial velocity 6.0 m s–1 east
vector separately. Then draw the initial velocity in the
opposite direction.
7.0 m s–1 south 7.0 m s–1 north
Construct a vector diagram drawing v2 first and then from

its head draw the opposite of v1. The change of velocity
vector is drawn from the tail of the final velocity to the
head of the opposite of the initial velocity.
∆v 7.0 m s–1 north
θ
6.0 m s–1 east
As the two vectors to be added are at 90° to each other, R2 = 7.02 + 6.02
apply Pythagoras’ theorem to calculate the magnitude of = 49 + 36
the change in velocity.
R = √85
−1
= 9.2 m s
Calculate the angle from the north vector to the change 7.0
tan θ =
in velocity vector. 6.0
θ = tan−1 1.17
= 49.40°
Direction from north vector is 90 − 49.40 = 40.60°
−1
State the magnitude and direction of the change in ∆v = 9.2 m s N 41° E
velocity.
Section 8.3 Review

7 ∆v2 = (v2)2 + (−v1)2
1 Change in velocity = final velocity − initial velocity
= (42.0)2 + (42.0)2
= 5 + (+3)
= 8 m s−1 east ∆v = √1764 + 1764
2 Change in velocity = final velocity − initial velocity = √3528
= 2 + (−4) = 59.4 m s−1
42.0
= 2 m s−1 left tan θ =
42.0
3 Change in velocity = final velocity − initial velocity θ = tan−1 (1.000)
= −3 + (−4) = 45.0°
= 7 m s−1 downwards ∆v = 59.4 m s−1 N 45.0° W
4 Change in velocity = final velocity − initial velocity 8 ∆v2 = (v2)2 + (−v1)2
= −32.5 + (−35.0) = (5.25)2 + (7.05)2
−1
= 67.5 m s south ∆v = √(27.56 + 49.70)
5 Change in velocity = final velocity − initial velocity
= √77.27
= 8.2 + (−22.2)
= 8.79 m s−1
= 14.0 m s−1 backwards 7.05
tan θ =
6 ∆v2 = (v2)2 + (−v1)2 5.25
7.05
= (406)2 + (345)2 θ = tan−1 ( )
5.25
∆v = √1648.36 + 1190.25 = 53.3°
= √2838.61 Angle measured from the north = 90° − 53.3° = 36.7°
= 533 m s−1 ∆v = 8.79 m s−1 N 36.7° W

345
tan θ =
406
345
θ = tan−1 ( )
406
= 40.4°
Angle measured from the north = 90° − 40.4° = 49.6°
∆v = 533 m s−1 N 49.6° W
Section 8.4 Vector components

CALCULATING THE PERPENDICULAR COMPONENTS OF A FORCE
Use the direction conventions to determine the perpendicular components of a 3540 N force acting on a trolley at a
direction of 26.5° anticlockwise from the left direction.
Thinking Working
Draw FL from the tail of the 3540 N force along the U

horizontal, then draw FD from the horizontal line to the
L R 26.5°
head of the 3540 N force.
D
F = 3540 N
Calculate the left component of the force FL using adjacent

adjacent
cos θ =
hypotenuse
cos θ = .
hypotenuse adj = hyp cos θ
FL = (3540)(cos 26.5°)
= 3168 N left
Calculate the downwards component of the force FD using opposite
opposite
sin θ =
hypotenuse
sin θ = .
hypotenuse opp = hyp sin θ
FD = (3540)(sin 26.5°)
= 1580 N downwards
Section 8.4 Review

opposite adjacent
1 a sin θ = b cos θ =
hypotenuse hypotenuse
opp = hyp sin θ adj = hyp cos θ
FD = (462)(sin 35.0°) FR = (462)(cos 35.0°)
= 265 N downwards = 378 N right
adjacent
2 cos θ =
hypotenuse
adj = hyp cos θ
FS = (25.9)(cos 40.0°)
= 19.8 N south
opposite
sin θ =
hypotenuse
opp = hyp sin θ
FE = (25.9)(sin 40.0°)
= 16.6 N east
Therefore, 19.8 N south and 16.6 N east.
adjacent
3 cos θ =
hypotenuse
adj = hyp cos θ
vN = (18.3)(cos 75.6°)
= 4.55 m s−1 north
opposite
sin θ =
hypotenuse
opp = hyp sin θ
vW = (18.3)(sin 75.6°)
= 17.7 m s−1 west
Therefore, 4.55 ms−1 north and 17.7 ms−1 west.
adjacent
4 cos θ =
hypotenuse
adj = hyp cos θ
sS = (47.0)(cos 66.3°)
= 18.9 m south
opposite
sin θ =
hypotenuse
opp = hyp sin θ
sS = (47.0)(sin 66.3°)
= 43.0 m east
Therefore, the student is 18.9 m south and 43 m east of his starting point.
adjacent
5 cos θ =
hypotenuse
adj = hyp cos θ
FN = (235 000)(cos 62.5°)
= 109 000 N north
opposite
sin θ =
hypotenuse
opp = hyp sin θ
FW = (235 000)(sin 62.5°)
= 208 000 N west
6 a FS = 100 cos 60° = 50 N south
FE = 100 sin 60° = 87 N east
b FN = 60 N north
c FS = 300 cos 20° = 280 N south
FE = 300 sin 20° = 103 N east
5 5
d Fv = 3.0 × 10 sin 30° = 1.5 × 10 N up
Fh = 3.0 × 105 cos 30° = 2.6 × 105 N horizontal
7 horizontal component Fh = 300 cos 60° = 150 N
vertical component Fv = 300 sin 60° = 260 N
Section 8.5 Mass and weight

Section 8.5 Review
1 50 kg. The mass of an object does not depend on its environment.
2 60 kg is the student’s mass, not her weight. Weight is a force and so it is measured in newtons. On Earth, her weight
will be 9.8 times larger than her mass.
3 Fg = mg = 75 × 9.8 = 735 N
Fg
4 m=
g
34.3
=
9.8
= 3.5 kg
5 Fg = mg
= 3.5 × 1.6
= 5.6 N
6 The mass of the hammer remains constant at 1.5 kg.
The weight of the hammer on Mars is Fg = mg = 1.5 × 3.6 = 5.4 N.
7 The weight of any object will be less on the Moon compared with its weight on the Earth as gravity is weaker on the
Moon, due to its smaller mass.
Chapter 8 Review
1 B and D are both scalars. These do not require a magnitude and direction to be fully described.
2 A and D are vectors. These require a magnitude and direction to be fully described.
3 The vector must be drawn as an arrow with its tail at the point of contact between the hand and the ball. The arrow
points in the direction of the ‘push’ of the hand.
4 Vector A is drawn twice the length of vector B, so it has twice the magnitude of B.
5 Signs are useful in mathematical calculations, as the words north and south cannot be used in an equation.
6 34.0 m s−1 north and 12.5 m s−1 east. This is because the change in velocity is the final velocity plus the opposite of
the initial velocity. The opposite of 34.0 m s−1 south is 34.0 m s−1 north.
7 + 80 N or just 80 N
8 70° anticlockwise from the left
9
−5 −4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Force (N)
The resultant vector is 5 N right.

10 The vectors are (+45.0) + (−70.5) + (+34.5) + (−30.0). This equals −21.0. Backwards is negative, therefore the answer
is 21.0 m backwards.
11
θ
R
36 m south
55 m west
R2 = 362 + 552
= 1296 + 3025
R = √4321
= 65.7 m
tan θ = 55 ÷ 36
θ = tan−1 1.5278
= 56.8°
Therefore, the addition of 36 m south and 55 m west gives a resultant vector to three significant figures of
65.7 m S 56.8° W.
12 655 N east
481 N north R
R2 = 4812 + 6552
= 231 361 + 429 025
R = √660 386
= 813 N
tan θ = 655 ÷ 481
θ = tan−1 1.3617
= 53.7°
Therefore, the resultant vector is R = 813 N, N 53.7° E.
13 Taking right as positive:

∆v = v − u
= −3 + (−3)
= −6
= 6 m s−1 left.
14 ∆v2 = (v2)2 + (−v2)2
= 18.72 + 13.02
∆v = √349.69 + 169
= √518.69
= 22.8 m s−1
18.7
tan θ =
13.0
θ = tan−1 1.4385
= 55.2°
∆v = 22.8 m s−1 N 55.2° W
15 ∆v2 = (v2)2 + (−v2)2
= 55.52 + 38.82
∆v = √3080.25 + 1505.4416
= √4585.69
= 67.7 m s−1
38.8
tan θ =
55.5
θ = tan−1 0.6991
= 35.0°
∆v = 67.7 m s−1 N 35.0° W
opposite
16 sin θ =
hypotenuse
opp = hyp × sin θ
FE = (45.5)(sin 60.0°)
= 39.4 N east
adjacent
cos θ =
hypotenuse
adj = hyp × cos θ
FS = (45.5)(cos 60.0°)
= 22.8 N south
17 Fg = mg = 10 × 9.8 = 98 N
Fg
18 m =
g
20.6
=
9.8
= 2.1 kg
19 a mass = 85 kg
b mass = 85 kg
c Fg = mg = 85 × 3.6 = 306 N down
20 The object’s greatest weight is when it is on Earth. The second greatest weight is on Mars, and its least weight is when
it is on the Moon.
Chapter 9 Linear motion
Section 9.1 Displacement, speed and velocity

AVERAGE VELOCITY AND CONVERTING UNITS
Sally is an athlete performing a training routine by running back and forth along a straight stretch of running track. She
jogs 100 m west in a time of 20 s, then turns and walks 160 m east in a further 45 s before stopping.
a What is Sally’s average velocity in m s−1?
Thinking Working
Calculate the displacement. Remember total s = sum of displacements

displacement is the sum of individual displacements. = 100 m west + 160 m east
Sally’s total journey consists of two displacements:
= −100 + 160
100 m west and 160 m east. Take east to be the positive
direction. = + 60 m or 60 m east
Work out the total time taken for the journey. Time taken = 20 + 45 = 65 s
s
Substitute the values into the velocity equation. average velocity vav =
∆t
60
=
65
= 0.92 m s−1
Velocity is a vector, so a direction must be given. 0.92 m s−1 east
b What is the magnitude of Sally’s average velocity in km h−1?
Thinking Working
−1 −1
Convert from m s to km h by multiplying by 3.6. 0.92 × 3.6 = 3.3 km h−1 east
−1
As the magnitude of velocity is needed, direction is not Magnitude of vav = 3.3 km h
required in this answer.
c What is Sally’s average speed in m s−1?
Thinking Working
Calculate the distance. Remember, distance is the length d = 100 +160

of the path covered in the entire journey. Sally travels = 260 m
100 m in one direction and then 160 m the other way.
Work out the total time taken for the journey. 20 + 45 = 65 s
Substitute the values into the speed equation. Distance is 260 m.

Time taken is 65 s.
d
average speed vav =
∆t
260
=
65
= 4.0 m s−1
d What is Sally’s average speed in km h−1?
Thinking Working
−1
Convert from m s to km h−1 by multiplying by 3.6. average speed vav = 4.0 m s−1
= 14.4 km h−1
Section 9.1 Review

1 B and C. The distance travelled is 25 × 10 = 250 m, but the displacement is zero because the swimmer starts and
ends at the same place.
2 a Displacement = final position − initial position
= 40 − 0
= +40 cm
Distance travelled = 40 cm
b Displacement = final position − initial position
= 40 − 50
= −10 cm
c Displacement = final position − initial position
= 70 − 50
= 20 cm
d Displacement = final position − initial position
= 70 − 50
= 20 cm
Distance covered = 50 + 30
= 80 cm
3 a d = 50 + 30 = 80 km
b s = 50 km north + 30 km south
= 50 + (−30)
= 50 − 30
= +20 km or 20 km north
4 a The basement is 10 m downwards from the starting position on the ground floor. This can be calculated using the
following equation:
s = final position − initial position
= −10 − 0
= −10 m or 10 m downwards
b The total displacement from the basement to the top floor is 60 m upwards. This can be calculated using the
following equation:
= +50 − (−10)
= 50 + 10
= +60 m or 60 m upwards
c The total distance travelled is 70 m.
10 + 10 + 50 = 70 m
d The top floor is 50 m upward from the starting position on the ground floor. This can be calculated using the
following equation:
= 50 − 0
= 50 m or 50 m upward
distance travelled
5 a average speed vav = b The car travelled 25 m. This can be calculated using
time taken
400 the following method:
= distance travelled
12 average speed vav =
= 33 m s−1 time taken
d = vav × t
= 33 × 0.75
= 25 m
90
6 a 90 min =
60
= 1.5 h
distance travelled
average speed vav =
time taken
25
=
1.5
= 17 km h−1
b To convert from km h−1 to m s−1, you need to divide by 3.6. So:
17
average speed vav =
3.6
= 4.7 m s−1
distance travelled
7 a average speed vav =
time taken
d
=
∆t
9
=
10
= 0.9 m s−1
b Displacement is 1 m east of the starting position.

displacement
average velocity vav =
time taken
s
=
∆t
1
=
10
= 0.1 m s−1 east
distance travelled
8 a average speed vav =
time taken
2.5
=
0.25
= 10 km h−1
10 km h−1
b = 2.8 m s−1 south
3.6
9 a Distance travelled = 10 km north + 3 km south + x km north to finish 15 km north of the start.
x = 8 km north.
Total distance covered = 10 + 3 + 8
= 21 km
b She finishes 15 km north of her starting point. This is her displacement.
distance travelled
c average speed vav =
time taken
21
=
1.5
= 14 km h−1
displacement
d average velocity vav =
time taken
15
=
1.5
Section 9.2 Acceleration

CHANGE IN SPEED AND VELOCITY PART 1
A golf ball is dropped onto a concrete floor and strikes the floor at 9.0 m s−1. It then rebounds at 7.0 m s−1.
a What is the change in speed of the ball?
Thinking Working
−1
Find the values for the initial speed and the final speed of u = 9.0 m s
the ball. v = 7.0 m s −1
Substitute the values into the change in speed equation: ∆v = v − u Note that speed is a scalar so
∆v = v − u = 7.0 − 9.0 the negative value indicates
−1 a decrease in magnitude, as
= −2.0 m s
opposed to a negative direction.
b What is the change in velocity of the ball?
Thinking Working
−1
Apply the sign convention to replace the directions. u = 9.0 m s down
−1
= −9.0 m s
v = 7.0 m s−1 up
−1
= +7.0 m s
Reverse the direction of u to get −u. u = −9.0 m s−1

−u = 9.0 m s−1
Substitute the values into the change in velocity equation: ∆v = v + (−u)

∆v = v + (−u) = 7.0 + (+9.0)
−1
= 16.0 m s
Apply the sign convention to describe the direction. ∆v = 16 m s−1 up

CHANGE IN SPEED AND VELOCITY PART 2
A golf ball is dropped onto a concrete floor and strikes the floor at 9.0 m s−1. It then rebounds at 7.0 m s−1. The contact
time with the floor is 35 ms.
What is the average acceleration of the ball during its contact with the floor?
Thinking Working
Note the values you will need in order to find the average u = −9.0 m s−1
acceleration (initial velocity, final velocity and time). −u = 9.0 m s−1
Convert ms into s by dividing by 1000. (Note that ∆v v = 7.0 m s−1
was calculated for this situation in the previous Worked
∆v = 16 m s−1 up
example.)
∆t = 35 ms
= 0.035 s
Substitute the values into the average acceleration change in velocity

aav =
equation. time taken
∆v
=
∆t
16
=
0.035
= 457 m s−2 , which approximates to 460 m s−2
Acceleration is a vector, so you must include a direction aav = 460 m s−2 up

in your answer.
Section 9.2 Review

1 ∆v = v − u
= 3 − 10
= −7
So the change in speed is −7 km h−1.
Note that speed is a scalar so the negative value indicates a decrease in magnitude, as opposed to a negative
direction.
2 ∆v = v − u
= 0 + (+5)
= +5 m s−1 or 5 m s−1 up
3 Down is negative, so the initial velocity is −5.0 m s−1.
∆v = v − u = (+3.0) ± (±5.0)
= +8 m s−1
= 8 m s−1 up
change in velocity
4 aav =
time taken
∆v
=
∆t
0 − 7.5
=
1.5
= −5.0 m s−2
= 5.0 m s−2 south
change in velocity
5 aav =
time taken
∆v
=
∆t
150 − 0
=
3.5
= 43 km h−1 s−1
6 a ∆v = v − u
= 15 − 25
= −10 m s−1
Note that speed is a scalar so the negative value indicates a decrease in magnitude, as opposed to a negative
direction.
b ∆v = v − u
= −15 ± (−25)
= −40 m s−1
= 40 m s−1 west
change in velocity
c aav =
time taken
∆v
=
∆t
40
=
0.050
= 800 m s−2
Magnitude only so direction not required.
7 a ∆v = v − u b ∆v = v − u change in velocity
c aav =
= 8.0 − 0 = −8.0 − 0 ∆v time taken
=
−1 −1 ∆t
= 8.0 m s = −8.0 m s 8.0
=
= 8.0 m s−1 south 1.2
= 6.7 m s−2
Section 9.3 Graphing position, velocity and acceleration over time

ANALYSING A POSITION−TIME GRAPH
Use the graph shown in Worked example 9.3.1 to answer the following questions.
a What is the velocity of the cyclist between E and F?
Thinking Working
Determine the change in position (displacement) of the At E, x = 300 m.

cyclist between E and F using: At F, x = 0 m.
s = final position − initial position s = 0 − 300
= −300 m or 300 m backwards (that is, back
towards the starting point)
Determine the time taken to travel from E to F. = 100 − 80

= 20 s
Calculate the gradient of the graph between E and F −300

Gradient =
using: 20
rise ∆x = −15
gradient of x−t graph = =
run ∆t
Remember that ∆x = s.
State the velocity, using: Since the gradient is −15, the velocity is −15 m s−1 or
gradient of x−t graph = velocity 15 m s−1 backwards (towards the starting point).
Velocity is a vector so direction must be given.
b Describe the motion of the cyclist between D and E.
Thinking Working
Interpret the shape of the graph between D and E. The graph is flat between D and E, indicating that the
cyclist’s position is not changing for this time. So the
cyclist is not moving. If the cyclist is not moving, the
velocity is 0 m s−1.
You may confirm the result by calculating the gradient of 0

Gradient =
the graph between D and E using: 20
rise ∆x =0
gradient of x−t graph = =
run ∆t
Remember that ∆x = s.

ANALYSING A VELOCITY−TIME GRAPH
a What is the displacement of the car from 4 to 6 seconds?
Thinking Working
Displacement is the area under the graph. So, calculate

the area under the graph for the time period for which 8
you want to find the displacement.

6
Use displacement = b × h for squares and rectangles. gradient = –2 m s–2
Velocity (m s–1)
1 4
Use displacement = b × h for triangles.
2
2
Area = +16 m Area = –4 m
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Time (s)
–2
gradient = –2 m s–2 Area = –12 m
–4
Area is triangular:
1
area = × 2 × −4
2
= −4 m
Displacement is a vector quantity, so a direction is displacement = 4 m west

needed.
b What is the average velocity of the car from 4 to 6 seconds?
Thinking Working
Identify the equation and variables, and apply the sign s

v=
convention. ∆t
s = −4 m
∆t = 2 s
Substitute values into the equation: s

s
v=
∆t
v= −4
∆t
=
2
= −2 m s−1
Velocity is a vector quantity, so a direction is needed. vav = 2 m s−1 west

FINDING ACCELERATION USING A V−T GRAPH
What is the acceleration of the car during the period from 4 to 6 seconds?
Thinking Working
Acceleration is the gradient of a v−t graph. Calculate the

gradient using: 8
rise
gradient = 6
run gradient = –2 m s–2
Velocity (m s–1)
4
2
Area = +16 m Area = –4 m
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Time (s)
–2
gradient = –2 m s–2 Area = –12 m
–4
rise
Gradient from 4 to 6 =
run
−4
=
2
= −2 m s−1
Acceleration is a vector quantity, so a direction is needed. Acceleration = 2 m s−2 west.

Note: In this case, the car is moving in the negative
direction and speeding up.
Section 9.3 Review

1 D. The gradient is the displacement over the time taken, hence velocity.
2 The car initially moves in a positive direction and travels 8 m in 2 s. It then stops for 2 s. The car then reverses
direction for 5 s, passing back through its starting point after 8 s. It travels a further 2 m in a negative direction before
stopping after 9 s.
3 Reading from graph:
a +8 m
b +8 m
c +4 m
d −2 m
4 The car returns to its starting point when the position is zero again, which occurs at t = 8 s.
5 a The velocity during the first 2 s is equal to the gradient of the graph during this interval.
rise 8−0
velocity = = = +4 m s−1
run 2
b After 3 s the velocity is zero, since the gradient of the graph = 0.
rise 8−0
c velocity = gradient of graph = = = −2 m s−1
run 2
d The velocity at 8 s is = −2 m s−1, since the car is travelling at a constant velocity of −2 m s−1 between 4 s and 9 s.
−1 −1
e The velocity from 8 s to 9 s = −2 m s , since the car is travelling at a constant velocity of −2 m s between 4 s
and 9 s.
6 a Distance = 8 + 8 + 2 = 18 m
b Displacement = ∆x = (−2) − 0 = −2 m
7 a Average speed = gradient of the line segment
rise
=
run
150
=
30
= 5 m s−1
b Average velocity = gradient of the line segment plus direction

rise
=
run
200
=
10
= 20 m s−1 north
The velocity is positive so the direction of the cyclist is north.
c Average velocity = displacement over time
rise
=
run
500
=
50
= 10 m s−1 north
8 a Acceleration = gradient
rise
=
run
= 0 m s−2
b Acceleration = gradient
rise
=
run
−3
=
3
= −1 or just 1 m s−2
Magnitude only so direction is not required.
c Split the area up into shapes and add the values together to get the full area under the graph.
Displacement = area under
1 1
= (b × h) + ( 2
×b×h + ) ( 2
×b×h )
1 1
= (4 × 1) + ( × 2 × 2) + ( × 3 × 3)
2 2
= 4 + 2 + 4.5
= 10.5 m
displacement
d average velocity =
time
10.5
=
7
−1
= 1.5 m s
9 a instantaneous velocity = gradient of the line b instantaneous velocity = gradient of the line
rise rise
= =
run run
300 −600
= =
15 15
−1
= 20 m s north = −40 or 40 m s−1 south
10 a Reading from the graph, the curve flattens out after 80 s.
b Draw a tangent to the graph at 10 s and determine the gradient of the tangent.
rise
gradient =
run
35 53
= approx. or
30 40
= 1.2 or 1.3 m s−2 (answers may vary slightly)
c Draw a tangent to the graph at 40 s and determine the gradient of the tangent.
rise
gradient =
run
34 35
= approx. or
90 85
= 0.38 or 0.41 m s−2 (answers may vary slightly)
d displacement = area under the graph
There are various methods for calculating this, but counting squares gives 49 squares, each of area 10 × 10.
49 × 10 × 10 = 4900 m or 4.9 km
11 a acceleration = gradient
rise
=
run
8
=
4
= 2 m s−1
b The bus will overtake the bike when they have both travelled the same distance, given by the areas under the two
graphs. After 8 s, the bus has travelled 56 m and the bike 64 m. After 10 s, the bus has travelled 80 m and the
bike 80 m.
Algebraically, this could be determined by:
The displacement for the bus = 56 + 12 (t − 8)
The displacement for the bike = 8t
Equating these two displacements gives:
8t = 56 + 12t − 96
12t − 8t = 96 − 56
4t = 40
t = 10 s
c After 10 s the bike has travelled 10 × 8 = 80 m.
displacement
d average velocity vav=
time taken
1 1
= ( 2
)
× 4 × 8 + (4 × 8) + ( 2
)
×4×4
= 16 + 32 + 8
= 56 m
So
56
vav =
8
= 7 m s−1
12 a
2
Acceleration (m s–2)
0
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Time (s)
b The change in velocity of the bus over the first 8 s is determined by calculating the area under the acceleration−
time graph from t = 0 to t = 8 s, i.e. +12 m s−1.
Section 9.4 Equations for uniform acceleration

USING THE EQUATIONS OF MOTION
A snowboarder in a race is travelling 15 m s−1 east as she crosses the finishing line. She then decelerates uniformly until
coming to a stop over a distance of 30 m.
a What is her acceleration as she comes to a stop?
Thinking Working
Write down the known quantities as well as the quantity s = +30 m

that you are finding.
Apply the sign convention that east is positive and west is
negative.
2 2
Identify the correct equation to use. v = u + 2as
2 2
Substitute known values into the equation and solve for a. v = u + 2as
2 2
Include units with the answer. 0 = 15 + 2 × a × 30
0 − 225
a=
60
= −3.8 m s−2
Use the sign convention to state the answer with its a = 3.8 m s−2 west
direction.
b How long does she take to come to a stop?
Thinking Working
Write down the known quantities as well as the quantity s = 30 m

that you are finding. u = 15 m s
−1
Apply the sign convention that east is positive and west is v=0ms −1
negative.
a = −3.8 m s−2
t=?
Identify the correct equation to use. Since you now know v = u + at

four values, any equation involving t will work.
Substitute known values into the equation and solve for t. 0 − 15

t=
−3.8
Include units with the answer.
= 3.9 s
c What is the average velocity of the snowboarder as she comes to a stop?
Thinking Working
−1
Write down the known quantities as well as the quantity u = +15 m s
that you are finding. v=0ms −1
Apply the sign convention that east is positive and west is vav = ?
negative.
Identify the correct equation to use. 1

vav = (u + v)
2
Substitute known quantities into the equation and solve 1

vav = (u + v)
for vav. 2
1
Include units with the answer. = (15 + 0)
2
= 7.5 m s−1
Use the sign convention to state the answer with its vav = 7.5 m s−1 east
direction.
Section 9.4 Review

−1 −1
1 E. The chosen equation must contain s, u, v and a. c 160 m s × 3.6 = 576 or 580 km h
2 a u = 0, s = 400, t = 16, a = ? d u = 0, v = 160
1 u+v
s = ut + at2 vav =
2 2
1 2 0 + 160
400 = 0 + a ×16 =
2 2
a=
400
×2 = 80 m s−1
256 s
−2 e vav =
= 3.1 m s t
b u = 0, s = 400, t = 16, a = 3.1, v = ? =
1120
9
v = u + at
= 124.4 or 120 m s−1
= 0 + 3.1 × 16
5 a u = 4.2, t = 0.5, v = 6.7, a = ?
= 50 m s−1
v = u + at
c 50 m s−1 × 3.6 = 180 km h−1
6.7 = 4.2 + a × 0.50
3 a u = 0, t = 8.0, v = 16, a = ? 6.7 − 4.2
a=
v = u + at 0.50
16 = 0 + a × 8.0 = 5.0 m s−1
16 b u = 4.2, t = 0.5, v = 6.7, a = 5.0, s = ?
a=
8.0 1
= 2.0 m s−2 s= (u + v)t
2
u+v 1
b vav = = (4.2 + 6.7) × 0.50
2 2
0 + 16
= = 2.725 or 2.7 m
2
= 8 m s−1 c vav =
u+v
2
c u = 0, t = 8.0, v = 16, a = 2.0, s = ?
4.2 + 6.7
1 =
s= (u + v)t 2
2
1 = 5.45 or 5.5 m s−1
= (0 + 16) × 8.0
2 6 D. The stone is travelling downwards, so the velocity is
= 64 m downwards. As the stone strikes the water, it quickly
4 a u = 0, v = 160, t = 4.0, a = ? decelerates, so the acceleration is upwards.
v = u + at 7 a u = −28, v = 0, s = −4.0, a = ?
160 = 0 + a × 4.0 v2 = u2 + 2as
a = 40 m s−2 0 = (−28)2 + 2 × a × −4.0
b In the first 4.0 s: u = 0, t = 4.0, v = 160, a = 40, s = ? −784
a=
1 −80
s= (u + v)t
2 = 98 m s−2
=
1
(0 + 160) × 4.0 b u = −28, v = 0, s = −4.0, a = 98, t = ?
2
v = u + at
= 80 × 4.0
0 = −28 + 98t
= 320 m 28
t=
In the last 5.0 seconds: 98
u = 160, t = 5.0, v = 160, a = 0, s = ? = 0.29 s

1 c What is the speed of the diver after she has dived
s= (u + v)t
2 through 2.0 m of water?
1
= (160 + 160) × 5.0 u = −28, s = −2.0, a = 98, v = ?
2
= 160 × 5.0 v2 = u2 + 2as
= (−28)2 + 2 × 98 × −2.0
= 800 m
= 784 − 392
Total distance in 9.0 s:
v = 19.8 or 20 m s−1
= 320 + 800
= 1120 m
= 1.12 or 1.1 km
−1
75 km h
8 a = 20.83 or 21 m s−1 10 a v = u + at
3.6
b u = 21, a = 0, t = 0.25, s = ? 12 = 0 + 1.5t
1
s = ut + at2 t = 8.0 s
2
= 21 × 0.25 b The bus will catch up with the cyclist when they have
= 5.25 or 5.3 m each travelled the same distance from the point at which
the cyclist first passes the bus.
c u = 21, a = −6.0, v = 0, t = ?
Cyclist: constant velocity, so s =12 × t
v2 = u2 + 2as
2 Bus: uniform acceleration u = 0, a = 1.5 m s−2, s = ?, t = ?
0 = (21) + 2 × −6.0 × s 1
(21)2 s = ut + at2
s= 2
12
= 0.75t2
= 36.75 or 37 m
When the bus catches up with the cyclist, their
d 5.3 + 37 = 42.3 or 42 m
2 2
displacements are equal, so:
9 a v = u + 2as
12t = 0.75t2
= 0 + 2(2.0 × 4.0)
t = 16 s
v = 4.0 m s−1
c s = 12 × 16 = 192 m
b v2 = u2 + 2as
= 0 + 2(2.0 × 8.0)
v = 5.7 m s−1
c v = u + at
4.0 = 0 + 2.0t
t = 2.0 s
d v = u + at
5.7 = 0 + 2.0t
t = 2.85 s
The time taken to travel the final 4.0 m is
2.85 s − 2.0 s = 0.85 s.
Section 9.5 Vertical motion

VERTICAL MOTION
A construction worker accidentally knocks a hammer from a building so that it falls vertically a distance of 60 m to the
ground. Use g = −9.8 m s−2 and ignore air resistance when answering these questions.
a How long does the hammer take to fall halfway, to 30 m?
Thinking Working
Write down the values of the quantities that are known s = −30 m
and what you are finding. u=0ms
−1
Apply the sign convention that up is positive and down is a = −9.8 m s−2
negative.
t=?

s = ut + at2
2
Substitute known values into the equation and solve for t. 1

−30 = 0 × t + × −9.8 × t2
2
Think about whether the value seems reasonable.
−30 = −4.9t2
−30
t =�−4.9
= 2.5 s
b How long does it take the hammer to fall all the way to the ground?
Thinking Working
−1
Apply the sign convention that up is positive and down is a = −9.8 m s−2
negative.
t=?

s = ut + at2
2
Substitute known values into the equation and solve for t. 1

−60 = 0 × t + × −9.8 × t2
2
Think about whether the value seems reasonable.
−60 = −4.9t2
−60
t =�−4.9
= 3.5 s
c What is the velocity of the hammer as it hits the ground?
Thinking Working
−1
Apply the sign convention that up is positive and down is v=?

negative. −1
a = −9.8 m s
t = 3.5 s
Identify the correct equation to use. Since you now know v = u + at

four values, any equation involving v will work.
Substitute known values into the equation and solve for v. v = 0 + (−9.8) × 3.5
−1
Think about whether the value seems reasonable. = −34 m s
Use the sign and direction convention to describe the v = −34 m s−1 or 34 m s−1 downwards
direction of the final velocity.

MAXIMUM HEIGHT PROBLEMS
On winning a cricket match, a fielder throws a cricket ball vertically into the air at 15 m s−1. In this example, air resistance
can be ignored and the acceleration due to gravity will be taken as 9.8 m s−2.
a Determine the maximum height reached by the ball.
Thinking Working
Write down the values of the quantities that are known u = 15 m s−1
and what you are finding. At the maximum height the v=0
velocity is zero. −2
a = −9.8 m s
Apply the sign convention that up is positive and down is
s=?
negative.
2 2
Select an appropriate formula. v = u + 2as
2
Substitute known values into the equation and solve for s. 0 = (15) + 2 × (−9.8) × s
−225
s=
−19.6
∴ s = + 11.5 m, i.e. the ball reaches a height of 11.5 m.
b Calculate the time that the ball takes to return to its starting position.
Thinking Working
To work out the time for which the ball is in the air, it is u = 15 m s−1
often necessary to first calculate the time that it takes to v = 0 m s−1
reach its maximum height.
a = −9.8 m s−2
Write down the values of the quantities that are known
s = 11.5 m
and what you are finding.
t=?
Select an appropriate formula. v = u + at
Substitute known values into the equation and solve for t. 0 = 15 + (−9.8 × t)
9.8t = 15
∴ t = 1.5 s
The ball takes 1.5 s to reach its maximum height. It will
therefore take 1.5 s to fall from this height back to its
starting point and so the whole trip will last for 3.0 s.
Section 9.5 Review

1 B. The acceleration of a falling object is due to gravity, so it is constant.
2 A and D. Acceleration due to gravity is constant (down), however, velocity changes throughout the journey as it is zero
at the top of the flight.
3 a u = 0 m s−1
v=?
a = −9.8 m s−2
t=3s
v = u + at
= 0 + (−9.8) × 3.0
= 29 m s−1 (no direction required for speed)
b s = −30 m
u = 0 m s−1
v=?
a = −9.8 m s−2
v2 = u2 + 2as
= 0 + 2 × (−9.8) × (−30)
v = √588
= 24 m s−1
1
c vav = (u + v)
2
1
= (0 + 24)
2
= 12 m s−1 (down)
4 a C. The acceleration of a falling object is due to gravity, so it is constant no matter the direction of vertical travel
(upwards or downwards).
b D. The flight is symmetrical, so the starting and landing speeds are the same, but in opposite directions.
5 a v = 0 m s−1, a = −9.8 m s−2, t = 1.5 s, u = ?
v = u + at
0 = u − 9.8 × 1.5
u = 14.7 or 15 m s−1
b u = 15 m s−1, v = 0 m s−1, a = −9.8 m s−2, t = 1.5 s, s = ?
1
s= (u + v)t
2
1
= (15+0) × 1.5
2
= 11.25 or 11 m
6 a u = 0 m s−1, a = −9.8 m s−2, t = 0.40 s, v = ?

v = u + at
= 0 − 9.8 × 0.40
= −3.92 or −3.9 m s−1
b u = 0 m s−1, a = −9.8 m s−2, t = 0.40 s, v = −3.9 m s−1, s = ?
1
s= (u + v)t
2
1
= (0 + 3.9) × 0.40
2
= −0.78 or 0.78 m
c u = 0, a = −9.8, t = 0.20, s = ?
1
s = ut + at2
2
1
=0+ × −9.8 × (0.20)2
2
= −0.20 or 0.20 m
d Distance in last 0.20 s = 0.78 − 0.20
= 0.58 m
7 a The time to the top is half of the total time, i.e. 2.0 s. c v = 0, a = −9.8, t = 2, u = 19.6, s = ?
1
b v = 0, a = −9.8, t = 2, u = ? s = vt + at2
2
v = u + at 1
=0+ × −9.8 × (0.2)2
0 = u + −9.8 × 2 2
= 19.6 or 20 m
u = 9.8 × 2
d The lid returns to its starting position, so the final
= 19.6 or 20 m s−1 velocity will be same as the launch velocity, but in
the opposite direction, i.e. 20 m s−1 downwards.
8 a Shot-put: u = 0, a = −9.8, s = −60.0, t = ?
1
s = ut + at2
2
1
−60.0 = 0 + × −9.8 × t2
2
60
t2 = 1
× 9.8
2
t = 3.5 s
b 100 g mass: u = −10.0, a = −9.8, s = −70.0, v = ?, t = ?
v2 = u2 + 2as
= (10.0)2 + 2 × (−9.8) × (−70.0)
= 1472
v = ±38.4 m s−1
Because the mass has a downwards velocity, we use the negative value.
v = −38.4 m s−1
v = u + at
−38.4 = −10.0 − 9.8t
9.8t = −10.0 + 38.4
t = 2.9 s
1
You can also solve this using the formula s = ut + at2 and the quadratic formula.
1 2
9 a s = vt − at2
2
15.0 = 0 −0.5 × 9.8 × t2
t = 1.7 s
b From maximum height of 15.0 m, the ball will fall by 11.0 m. Find how long it takes to travel this 15.0 m.
1
s = ut − at2
2
−11.0 = 0 + 0.5 × (−9.8) × t2
t = 1.5 s
Total time from bounce = 1.7 + 1.5 = 3.2 s
Chapter 9 Review
95 km h−1
1 = 26 m s−1
3.6
2 15 m s−1 × 3.6 = 54 km h−1
distance
3 average speed =
time
15 km + 5 km + 5 km + 5 km
=
2.0
= 15 km h−1
displacement −1 10 km h−1 north
4 a average velocity = b 10 km h north =
time 3.6
20
= = 2.8 m s−1 north
2.0
= 10 km h−1 north
5 ∆v = 4.0 − 6.0
= −2.0 m s−1
The change in speed is −2.0 m s−1. That is, it has decreased by 2.0 m s−1. Speed is a scalar and has no direction.
6 B. The car is moving in a positive direction so its velocity is positive. The car is slowing down so its acceleration
is negative.
v−u
7 aav =
t
−15
=
2.5
= −6 m s−2
or
u = 15, v = 0, t = 2.5, a = ?
v = u + at
0 = 15 + a × 2.5
−15
a=
2.5
= −6 m s−2
8 a The only positive gradient section is from 10 to 25 s.
b The only negative gradient section is from 30 to 45 s.
c The motorbike is stationary when the sections on the position−time graph are horizontal. The horizontal sections
are from 0 to 10 s, from 25 to 30 s and from 45 to 60 s.
d The zero position is at 42.5 s or 43 s.
9 a Graph B is the correct answer as it shows speed decreasing to zero to show the car stopping.
b Graph A is the correct graph because it shows a constant value for speed. This is indicated by a straight horizontal
line on a velocity−time graph.
c Graph C is the correct graph because it shows velocity increasing from zero in a straight line, indicating uniform
acceleration.
10 a Displacement is the area under a velocity−time graph. Area can be determined by counting squares under the
graph, then multiplying by the area of each square. This gives approximately 57 squares × (2 × 1) = 114 m.
Alternatively, you can break the area into various shapes and find the sum of their areas:
72 + 14 + 18 + 10 = 114 m.
The result is positive, which means the displacement is north of the starting point.
The cyclist’s displacement is 114 m north.
displacement
b Average velocity =
time
114
=
11.0
= 10.4 m s−1
c Acceleration is the gradient of the graph. At t = 1 s, the gradient is flat and therefore zero. This could also be
calculated:
rise
gradient =
run
= 0 m s−2
d Acceleration at t = 10 s is:
rise
gradient =
run
14
=−
2
= −7 or 7 m s−2 south
e A. The velocity is always positive (or zero) indicating that the cyclist only travelled in one direction.
11 u = 0, a = 3.5, t = 4.5, v = ?
v = u + at
= 0 + 3.5 × 4.5
= 15.75 or 16 m s−1
12 a u = 0, s = 2, t = 1, a = ?
1
s = ut + at2
2
1
2.0 = 0 + × a × (1.0)2
2
a = 4.0 m s−2
b u = 0, t = 2, a = 4, v = ?
v = u + at
= 0 + 4.0 × 1.0
= 4.0 m s−1
c After 2.0 s the total distance travelled:
u = 0, t = 2, a = 4, s = ?
1
s = ut + at2
2
= 0 + 0.5 × 4.0 × (2.0)2
= 8.0 m
Distance travelled during the second second = 8.0 m − 2.0 m = 6.0 m.
13 a u = 10, v = 0, s = 10, a = ?
v2 = u2 + 2as
0 = 102 + 2 × a × 10
100
a=−
20
= −5.0 m s−2
b u = 10, v = 0, s = 10, a = −5, t = ?
v = u + at
0 = 10 − 5t
t = 2.0 s
14 a She starts at + 4 m.
b She is at rest during section A and C.
c She is moving in a positive direction during section B with a velocity +0.8 m s−1.
−1
d She is moving in the negative direction at 2.4 m s during section D.
e d = 8 + 12
= 20 m
∆t = 25 s
d
vav =
∆t
20
=
25
= 0.8 m s−1
15 The marble slows down by 9.8 m s−1 each second so it will take 4 seconds to stop momentarily at the top of its
motion. It has a positive velocity that changes to zero on the way up. Its acceleration is constant at −9.8 m s−2 due
to gravity.
16 D. The acceleration of a falling object is due to gravity, so it is constant.
17 B. Initial velocity is upwards, it is zero at the top and downwards on the way back down. Acceleration is always
downwards.
18 a The area under the v−t graph up to 3 s gives:

1
s= × 3 × 30
2
= 45 m
or
u = 30, v = 0, t = 3, s = ?
1
s= (u + v)t
2
1
= (30 + 0) × 3
2
= 45 m
b From the graph, the ball goes up for 3 s then down for 3 s, giving a total time of 6 s, or:
u = 30, v = −30, a = −10, t = ?
v = u + at
−30 = 30 − 10t
60
t=
10
=6s
c From the v−t graph, the velocity at t = 5 s is −20 or 20 m s−1 down, or:
u = 30, a = −10, t = 5, v = ?
v = u + at
= 30 + (−10) × 5
= 30 − 50
= −20 m s−1
A negative value indicates down, therefore the correct answer is 20 m s−1 down.
−2
d Acceleration is always 10 m s down.
19 a Balloon: u = −8.0, a = 0, s = −80, t = ?
s
The balloon has constant speed. Use v = so:
s t
t=
v
80
=
8.0
= 10 s
b Coin: u = −8.0, a = −9.8, s = −80, v = ?
v2 = u2 + 2as
= (−8)2 + 2 × −9.8 × −80
= 64 + 1568
v = 40.4 or 40 m s−1
c Coin: u = −8.0, a = −9.8, s = −80, v = −40.4, t = ?
v = u + at
−40.4 = −8.0 − 9.8t
9.8t = −8.0 + 40.4
t = 3.3 s
Balloon takes 10 s to land, coin takes 3.3 s, so 10 − 3.3 = 6.7 s difference.
The following information relates to questions 20 and 21.
During a game of minigolf, Renee putts a ball so that it hits an obstacle and travels straight up into the air, reaching its
highest point after 1.5 s.
20 t = 1.5, v = 0, a = −9.8, u = ?
v = u + at
0 = u + (−9.8 × 1.5)
u = 15 m s−1 up
21 t = 1.5, v = 0, a = −9.8, u = 15, s = ?
v2 = u2 + 2as
0 = (14.7)2 + 2 × −9.8 × s
s = 11 m
Chapter 10 Momentum and force
Section 10.1 Newton’s first law

Section 10.1 Review
1 The box has changed its velocity so the student can use Newton’s first law to conclude that an unbalanced force must
have acted on the box to slow it down.
2 Even though the car has maintained its speed, the direction has changed, which means the velocity has changed.
Using Newton’s first law, it can be concluded that an unbalanced force has acted on the car to change its direction.
3 B. Since the ball maintains a constant velocity, according to Newton’s first law there must not be an unbalanced force.
There is no forwards force, friction or air resistance acting on the ball.
4 No horizontal force acts on the person. In accordance with Newton’s first law of motion, the bus slows, but the
standing passenger will continue to move with constant velocity unless acted on by an unbalanced force; usually the
passenger will lose his or her footing and fall forwards.
5 Constant speed, so Fnet = 0, then frictional force = applied force = 20 N.
6 a Constant speed, so Fnet = 0, then frictional force = applied force = 25 N.
b 25 N
c F cos 30° = 25 N
F = 29 N at an angle of 30° to the horizontal.
7 The plane slows down as it travels along the runway because of the large retarding forces acting on it. The passengers
wearing seatbelts would have retarding forces provided by the seatbelt and would slow down at the same rate as
the plane. A passenger standing in the aisle, if they were not hanging on to anything, would have no retarding forces
acting and so would tend to maintain their original velocity and move towards the front of the plane.
8 a Gravitational force of attraction between the two masses.
b Electrical force of attraction between the negative electron and the positive nucleus.
c Friction between the tyres and the road.
d Tension in the wire.
9 a If the cloth is pulled quickly, the force on the glass acts for a short time only. This force does not overcome the
tendency of the glass to stay where they is, i.e. its inertia.
b Using a full glass makes the trick easier because the force will have less effect on the glass due to its greater mass.
The inertia of the full glass is greater than that of an empty glass.
10 The fully laden semitrailer will find it most difficult to stop. Its large mass means that more force is required to bring it
to a stop.
11 Constant speed, so Fnet = 0 in both vertical and horizontal directions. To exactly balance the other forces, lift = 50 kN
up, and drag = 12 kN west.
Section 10.2 Newton’s second law

CALCULATING THE FORCE THAT CAUSES AN ACCELERATION
Calculate the net force causing a 75.8 kg runner to accelerate at 4.05 m s−2 south.
Thinking Working
Ensure that the variables are in their standard units. m = 75.8 kg

−2
a = 4.05 m s south
Apply the equation for force from Newton’s second law. Fnet = ma
= 75.8 × 4.05
= 307 N
Give the direction of the net force, which is the same as Fnet = 307 N south
the direction of the acceleration.

CALCULATING THE FINAL VELOCITY OF AN ACCELERATING MASS
Calculate the final velocity of a 307 g fish that accelerates for 5.20 seconds from rest due to a force of 0.250 N left.
Thinking Working

t = 5.20 s
−1
u=0ms
Fnet = 0.250 N left
Apply one of the variations of the equation for force from (v − u)

Fnet =
Newton’s second law. t
(Fnet − t)
(v − u) =
m
(Fnet − t)
v= +u
m
0.250 × 5.20
= +0
0.307
−1
= 4.23 m s
Give the direction of the final velocity as the same as the v = 4.23 m s−1 left
direction of the force.

CALCULATING THE ACCELERATION OF AN OBJECT WITH MORE THAN ONE FORCE ACTING ON IT
A car with a mass of 900 kg applies a driving force of 3000 N as it starts moving. Friction and air resistance oppose
the motion of the car with a force of 750 N. What is the car’s initial acceleration?
Thinking Working
Determine the individual forces acting on the car, and F1 = 3000 N forwards
apply the vector sign convention. = 3000 N
F2 = 750 N backwards
= −750 N
Determine the net force acting on the car. Fnet = F1 + F2

= 3000 + (−750)
= + 2250 N or 2250 N forwards
Use Newton’s second law to determine acceleration. Fnet 2250

a= =
m 900
= 2.50 m s−2 forwards

CALCULATING THE ACCELERATION OF A CONNECTED BODY
A 0.6 kg trolley cart is connected by a cord to a 1.5 kg mass. The cord is placed over a pulley and allowed to fall under
the influence of gravity.
a Assuming that the cart can move over the table unhindered by friction, determine the acceleration of the cart.
Thinking Working
Recognise that the cart and the falling mass are As the mass falls, the cart will move forwards. Therefore,
connected, and determine a sign convention for the both downwards movement of the mass and forwards
motion. movement of the cart will be considered positive motion.
Write down the data that is given. Apply the sign m1 = 1.5 kg
convention to vectors. m2 = 0.6 kg
−2
g = 9.8 m s down
−2
= +9.8 m s
Determine the forces acting on the system. The only force acting on the combined system of the cart
and mass is the weight of the falling mass.
Fnet = Fg
= m1g
= 1.5 × 9.8
= 14.7 N in the positive direction
Calculate the mass being accelerated. This net force has to accelerate not only the cart but also
the falling mass.
m = m1 + m2
= 1.5 + 0.6
= 2.1 kg
Use Newton’s second law to determine acceleration. Fnet

a=
m
14.7
=
2.1
b If a frictional force of 4.2 N acts against the cart, what is the acceleration now?
Thinking Working
Write down the data that is given. Apply the sign m1 = 1.5 kg
convention to vectors. m2 = 0.6 kg
−2
g = 9.8 m s down
−2
= +9.8 m s
Ffr = 4.2 N backwards
= −4.2 N
Determine the forces acting on the system. There are now two forces acting on the combined system of
the cart and mass: the weight of the falling mass and friction.
Fnet = Fg + Ffr
= 14.7+ (−4.2)
= 10.5 N
= 10.5 N in the positive direction
Use Newton’s second law to determine acceleration. Fnet
a=
m
10.5
=
2.1
Section 10.2 Review

Fnet (v − u)
1 a= 6 Fnet = m
m t
158 Fnet t
= (v − u) =
23.9 m
−2 Fnet t
= 6.61 m s north v= +u
m
Fnet
2 m= −45.5 × 2.80
a = + 2.67
60.0
352 −1
= = 0.547 m s east
9.20
Fnet
= 38.3 kg 7 a=
m
(v − u) 95.0
3 Fnet = =
t 0.0609
Fnet t
(v − u) = = 1560 m s−2 south
m Fnet
Fnet t 8 m=
v= +u a
m 565 000
56.8 × 3.50 56.8 × 3.50 =
7.20
= +0=
55.9 55.9
= 78 500 kg
= 3.56 m s−2 north (v − u)
Fnet 9 Fnet = m
4 a= t
m Fnet t
441 (v − u) =
= m
45.0 Fnet t
v= +u
= 9.80 m s−2 down m
Fnet 0.0823 × 0.0105
5 a= = +0
m 0.003
−1
882 = 0.288 m s north
=
90.0
= 9.8 m s−2 down
10 a 50 kg
b Fg = mg = 50 × 9.8 = 490 N
c ∑Fh = 45 N south + 25 N north
= −45 + 25
= −20
= 20 N south
d Fnet = ma
20 = 65a
a = 0.31 m s−2
11 a Fnet = Fg = mg = 0.50 × 9.8 = 4.9 N
Fnet 4.9
a= = = 1.6 m s−2
m (2.5 + 0.5)
b v = u + at = 0 + 1.6 × 0.5 = 0.8 m s−1
c Fnet = ma = Fg − Ff
so Fnet = 4.9 − 4.3 = 0.6 N
Fnet 0.6
and a = = = 0.2 m s−2
m 3
12 Determine the driving force provided by the truck based on the information for when it is empty.
Fnet = ma
= 2000 × 2.0
= 4000 N
Calculate the total mass of the truck for the new acceleration.
Fnet
m=
a
4000
=
1.25
= 3200 kg
So the mass of the boxes must be:
3200 − 2000 = 1200 kg.
1200
Number of boxes =
300
= 4 boxes
13 Fnet = thrust − weight of rocket
= 1 000 000 − 50 000 × 9.8
= 510 000 N
Fnet
a=
m
510 000
=
50 000
= 10.2 m s−2
Section 10.3 Newton’s third law

APPLYING NEWTON’S THIRD LAW
In the diagram below, a bowling ball is resting on the floor and

one of the forces is given. Copy the diagram into your book and
complete the following:
a Label the given force using the system ‘F on
by ’.
b Label the reaction force to the given force using
the system ‘F on by ’.
c Draw the reaction force on the diagram, showing its size and location.
Thinking Working
Identify the two objects involved in the action−reaction pair. The bowling ball and the floor.
Identify which object is applying the force and which object The force vector shown is a force from the bowling
is experiencing the force, for the force vector shown. ball on the floor.
Use the system of labelling action and reaction forces to Fon floor by bowling ball
label the action force.
Use the system of labelling action and reaction forces to Fon bowling ball by floor
label the reaction force.
Use a ruler to measure the length of the action force and

construct a vector arrow in the opposite direction with its tail
on the point of application of the reaction force.
Section 10.3 Review

1 There is a force on the hammer by the nail, and a force on the nail by the hammer. These two forces are equal in
magnitude and opposite in direction.
2 a The force arrow shown is the Fon the astronaut by the Earth.
b The reaction force must act on the other object, so in this case it is the Fon the Earth by the astronaut.
3 The force on the hand by the water. The swimmer creates the action force by pushing on the water, but the reaction
force acts on the swimmer which moves him in the direction of his motion.
4 The force on the balloon by the escaping air. The balloon’s elasticity compresses the air inside and pushes it out of
the mouth of the balloon. This is the action force. The air must therefore exert an equal and opposite forwards force
on the balloon, which in turn moves the balloon around the room.
5 The reaction force is on the racquet by the ball, resulting in a force of 100 N east.
6 a The boat exerts an equal and opposite reaction force, i.e. 140 N in the opposite direction to the leaping fisherman.
Fnet 140
b a= = = 3.5 m s−2 in the opposite direction to the fisherman
m 40 Fnet 140
c Acceleration of the fisherman: a = = = 2.0 m s−2
m 70
Speed of the fisherman: v = 0 + 2 × 0.5 = 1.0 m s−1
Speed of the boat: v = 0 + 3.5 × 0.5 = 1.8 m s−1
7 The astronaut should throw the tool kit in the opposite direction from the ship. By throwing the tool kit, there is an
action force on the tool kit by the astronaut which is directed away from the ship. According to Newton’s third law,
there will be a reaction force on the astronaut by the tool kit that will be in the opposite direction, i.e. towards the ship.
8 Tania is correct. For an action−reaction pair, the action force is a force on object A by object B, and the reaction force
is a force on object B by object A. That is, the two forces act on different objects. In this case, both the weight force
and the normal force are acting on the same object: the lunch box.
Section 10.4 Momentum and conservation of momentum

MOMENTUM
Calculate the momentum of a 1230 kg car driving at 16.7 m s−1 north.
Thinking Working
Ensure that the variables are in their standard units. m = 1230 kg

−1
v = 16.7 m s north
Apply the equation for momentum. p = mv

= 1230 × 16.7
= 20 541
−1
= 20 500 kg m s north

CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM
A 1200 kg wrecking ball is moving at 2.50 m s−1 north towards a 1500 kg wrecking ball moving at 4.00 m s−1 south.
Calculate the final velocity of the 1500 kg ball if the 1200 kg ball rebounds at 3.50 m s−1 south.
Thinking Working
Identify the variables using subscripts. Ensure that the m1 = 1200 kg

variables are in their standard units. −1
u1 = 2.50 m s north
−1
v1 = 3.50 m s south
m2 = 1500 kg
−1
u2 = 4.00 m s south
v2 = ?
Apply the sign convention to the variables. m1 = 1200 kg

−1
u1 = +2.50 m s
−1
v1 = −3.50 m s
m2 = 1500 kg
−1
u2 = −4.00 m s
v2 = ?
Apply the equation for conservation of momentum. ∑pbefore = ∑pafter

m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v1 + m2v2
(1200 × 2.50) + (1500 × −4.00) = (1200 × −3.50) + 1500v2
1500v2 = 3000 + −6000 − (−4200)
1200
v2 =
1500
= 0.800 m s−1
Apply the sign convention to describe the direction of v2 = 0.80 m s−1 north
the final velocity.

CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM WHEN MASSES COMBINE
An 80.0 kg rugby player is moving at 1.50 m s−1 north when he tackles an opponent with a mass of 50.0 kg who is
moving at 5.00 m s−1 south. Calculate the final velocity of the two players.
Thinking Working
Identify the variables using subscripts and ensure that m1 = 80.0 kg

the variables are in their standard units. Add m1 and m2 −1
u1 = 1.50 m s north
to get m3.
m2 = 50.0 kg
−1
u2 = 5.00 m s south
m3 = 130 kg
v3 = ?
Apply the sign convention to the variables. m1 = 80.0 kg

−1
u1 = +1.50 m s
m2 = 50.0 kg
−1
u2 = −5.00 m s
m3 = 130 kg
v3 = ?
Apply the equation for conservation of momentum. ∑pbefore = ∑pafter

m1u1 + m2u2 = m3v3
(80 × 1.50) + (50 × −5.00) = 130v3
120 + −250
v3 =
130
= −1.00 m s−1
Apply the sign to describe the direction of the final v3 = 1.00 m s−1 south
velocity.

CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM FOR EXPLOSIVE COLLISIONS
A 2000 kg cannon fires a 10 kg cannonball. The cannon and the cannonball are initially stationary. After firing, the
cannon recoils with a velocity of 8.15 m s−1 north. Calculate the velocity of the cannonball just after it is fired.
Thinking Working
Identify the variables using subscripts and ensure that m1 = 2010 kg
the variables are in their standard units. Note that m1 is u1 = 0 m s
−1
the sum of the bodies i.e. the cannon and the cannonball.
m2 = 2000 kg
−1
u2 = 8.15 m s north
m3 = 10 kg
v3 = ?
Apply the sign convention to the variables. m1 = 2010 kg
−1
u1 = 0 m s
m2 = 2000 kg
−1
u2 = +8.15 m s
m3 = 10 kg
v3 = ?
Apply the equation for conservation of momentum for ∑pbefore = ∑pafter
explosive collisions. m1u1 = m2u2 + m3v3
2010 × 0 = (2000 × 8.15) + 10v3
0 − 16 300
v3 =
10
−16 300
10
= −1630 m s−1
Apply the sign to describe the direction of the final v3 = 1630 m s−1 south
velocity.
Section 10.4 Review

1 p = mv
= 3.50 × 2.50
= 8.75 kg m s−1 south
2 p = mv
= 433 × 22.2
= 9612.6
= 9610 kg m s−1 west
3 p = mv
= 0.065 × 61.0
= 3.97 kg m s−1 south
4 First ball: p = mv = 4.5 × 3.5 = 15.75 kg m s−1
Second ball: p = mv = 2.5 × 6.8 = 17 kg m s−1
The second ball has the greater momentum.
5 ∑pbefore = ∑pafter
m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v1 + m2v2
(70.0 × 0) + (400 × 0) = (70.0 × 2.50) + 400v2
400v2 = 0 + −175
−175
v2 =
400
= −0.438 m s−1
The boat moves backwards at 0.438 m s−1.
m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v1 + m2v2
(0.070 × 0) + (0.545 × 80) = (0.070 × 75.0) + 0.545v2
0.545v2 = 0 + 43.6 − 5.25
38.35
v2 =
0.545
= 70.4 m s−1
m1u1 + m2u2 = m3v3
(2500 × 2.00) + (m2 × 0) = (2500 + m2) × 0.300
5000 = 0.300 × 2500 + 0.300m2
0.300m2 = 5000 − 750
4250
m2 =
0.300
= 14 167
= 14 200 kg (to three significant figures)
m1u1 = m2v2 + m3v3
0 = (9995)v2 + (5.0)(6000)
v2 = velocity of space shuttle = 3.0 m s−1 in the direction opposite to that of the exhaust gases.
9 a The rocket loses 50 kg over the 2 s period, so the average mass of the rocket/fuel in this time can be used in this
calculation. The average mass is 225 kg.
∑pbefore = ∑pafter
m1u1 = m2v2 + m3v3
0 = 225v2 + (50)(−180)
v2 = 40 m s−1
(v − u)
b Fnet = ma = m ×
t
40
= 225 × ( )
2
= 4.5 × 103 N
resultant force
c Net upwards acceleration =
mass
4.5 × 103 − (225 × 10)
=
225
= 10 m s−2
Section 10.5 Momentum transfer

IMPULSE OR CHANGE IN MOMENTUM
A student hurries to class after lunch, moving at 4.55 m s−1 north. Suddenly the student remembers that she has
forgotten her laptop and goes back to her locker at 6.15 m s−1 south. If her mass is 75.0 kg, calculate the impulse of
the student during the time it takes to turn around.
Thinking Working

−1
u = 4.55 m s north
−1
v = 6.15 m s south
Apply the sign convention to the velocity vectors. m = 75.0 kg

−1
u = 4.55 m s
v = −6.15 m s−1
Apply the equation for impulse or change in momentum. I = mv − mu

= (75.0 × −6.15) − (75.0 × 4.55)
= −461.25 − 341.25
−1
= −802.5 kg m s
= −803 kg m s−1
Apply the sign convention to describe the direction of the I = 803 kg m s−1 south
impulse.

IMPULSE OR CHANGE IN MOMENTUM IN TWO DIMENSIONS
A 65.0 g pool ball is moving at 0.250 m s−1 south towards a cushion and bounces off at 0.200 m s−1 east. Calculate
the impulse on the ball during the change in velocity.
Thinking Working
Identify the formula for calculating a change in velocity, ∆v = final velocity − initial velocity
∆v.
Draw the final velocity, v, and the initial velocity, u,

separately. Then draw the initial velocity in the opposite
direction, −u.
∆v
0.250 m s‒1 north
0.200 m s‒1 east
Construct a vector diagram, drawing first v and then from 0.200 m s‒1 east
its head draw the opposite of u. The change of velocity
vector is drawn from the tail of the final velocity to the
head of the opposite of the initial velocity.
0.250 m s‒1 south 0.250 m s‒1 north
As the two vectors to be added are at 90° to each other, ∆v2 = 0.22 + 0.252
apply Pythagoras’ theorem to calculate the magnitude of = 0.0400 + 0.0625
the change in velocity.
∆v = √0.1025
= 0.320 m s−1
Calculate the angle from the north vector to the change 0.200
tan θ =
in velocity vector. 0.250
θ = tan−1 0.800
= 38.7°
−1
State the magnitude and direction of the change in ∆v = 0.320 m s N 38.7° E
velocity.
Identify the variables using subscripts and ensure that m1 = 0.0650 kg

the variables are in their standard units. ∆v = 0.320 m s−1 N 38.7° E
Apply the equation for impulse or change in momentum. ∆p = mv − mu

= m(v − u)
= m∆v
= 0.065 × 0.320
−1
= 0.0208 kg m s
Apply the direction convention to describe the direction ∆p = 0.0208 kg m s−1 N 38.7° E
of the change in momentum.
Section 10.5 Review

1 I = mv − mu 7 ∆v = final velocity − initial velocity
= (9.50 × −6.25) − (9.50 × 2.50) =v−u
= −59.375 − 23.75 = v + (−u)
= −83.1 kg m s −1
= 3.60 m s−1 west + 4.00 m s−1 south
= 83.1 kg m s−1 south The magnitude of the change in velocity is calculated
2 I = mv − mu using Pythagoras’ theorem:
= (6050 × 16.7) − (6050 × −22.2) ∆v2 = 3.602 + 4.002
= 101 035 + 134 310 = 12.96 + 16.0
∆v = √28.96
−1
= 235 000 kg m s east
3 ∆p = mv − mu = 5.38 m s−1
= (8.00 × 8.00) − (8.00 × 3.00) Use trigonometry to calculate the angle of the change
= 64.0 − 24.0 in momentum.
3.60
= 40.0 kg m s−1 east tan θ =
4.00
4 ∆p = mv − mu
θ = tan−1 (0.9)
= (0.250 × −9.80) − (0.250 × 0)
= 42°
= −2.45 kg m s−1
∆v = 5.38 m s−1 S 42° W
= 2.45 kg m s−1 down
The magnitude of the change in momentum is
5 ∆p = mv − mu
calculated using:
mv = ∆p + mu
∆p = mv − mu
∆p + mu
v= = m(v − u)
m
−0.075 + 0.125 × 3.00 = m∆v
=
0.125
= 70.0 × 5.38
−1
= 2.4 m s north = 377 kg m s−1
6 ∆v = final velocity − initial velocity ∆p = 377 kg m s−1 S 42° W
=v−u
= v + (−u)
= 45.0 m s−1 north + 45.0 m s−1 east
The magnitude of the change in velocity is calculated
using Pythagoras’ theorem:
∆v2 = 45.02 + 45.02
= 2025 + 2025
∆v = √4050
= 63.6 m s−1
Use trigonometry to calculate the angle of the change
in momentum.
45.0
tan θ =
45.0
θ = tan−1(1)
= 45°
∆v = 63.6 m s−1 N 45° E
The magnitude of the change in momentum is
calculated using:
∆p = mv − mu
= m(v − u)
= m∆v
= 45.0 × 63.6
= 2862
= 2860 kg m s−1
∆p = 2860 kg m s−1 N 45° E
Section 10.6 Momentum and net force

CALCULATING THE FORCE AND IMPULSE
A student drops a 56.0 g egg onto a table from a height of 60 cm. Just before the egg hits the table, the velocity of the
egg is 3.43 m s−1 down. The egg’s final velocity is zero as it smashes on the table. The time it takes for the egg to change
its velocity to zero is 3.55 milliseconds.
a Calculate the change in momentum of the egg.
Thinking Working

−1
u = 3.43 m s down
−1
v=0ms
Apply the sign and direction convention for motion in one m = 0.0560 kg
dimension. Up is positive and down is negative. u = −3.43 m s
−1
−1
v=0ms
Apply the equation for change in momentum. ∆p = m(v − u)

= 0.0560 × (0 − (−3.43))
−1
= 0.192 kg m s
Refer to the sign and direction convention to determine ∆p = 0.192 kg m s−1 up

the direction of the change in momentum.
b Calculate the impulse of the egg.
Thinking Working
Using the answer to part (a), apply the equation for I = ∆p

impulse. = 0.192 kg m s
−1
Refer to the sign and direction convention to determine I = 0.192 kg m s−1 up

the direction of the impulse.
c Calculate the average force that acts to cause the impulse.
Thinking Working
−1
Use the answer to part (b). Ensure that the variables are I = 0.192 kg m s
in their standard units. ∆t = 3.55 × 10−3 s
Apply the equation for force. F∆t = I

I
F=
∆t
0.192
=
3.55 × 10−3
= 54.1 N
Refer to the sign and direction convention to determine F = 54.1 N up

the direction of the force.

CALCULATING THE FORCE AND IMPULSE (SOFT LANDING)
A student drops a 56.0 g egg into a mound of flour from a height of 60 cm. Just before the egg hits the mound of flour,
the velocity of the egg is 3.43 m s−1 down. The egg’s final velocity is zero as it sinks into the mound of flour. The time it
takes for the egg to change its velocity to zero is 0.325 seconds.
a Calculate the change in momentum of the egg.
Thinking Working

−1
u = 3.43 m s down
−1
v=0ms
dimension. Up is positive and down is negative. u = −3.43 m s
−1
v = 0 m s−1
Apply the equation for change in momentum. ∆p = m(v − u)

= 0.0560 × (0 − (−3.43))
−1
= 0.192 kg m s
Refer to the sign and direction convention to determine ∆p = 0.192 kg m s−1 up

the direction of the change in momentum.
b Calculate the impulse of the egg.
Thinking Working
Using the answer to part (a), apply the equation for I = ∆p

impulse. = 0.192 kg m s
−1
Refer to the sign and direction convention to determine I = 0.192 kg m s−1 up

the direction of the impulse.
c Calculate the average force that acts to cause the impulse.
Thinking Working
−1
Using the answer to part (b), ensure that the variables are I = 0.192 kg m s
in their standard units. ∆t = 0.325 s
Apply the equation for force. F∆t = I

I
F=
∆t
0.192
=
0.325
= 0.591 N
Refer to the sign and direction convention to determine F = 0.591 N up

the direction of the force.

CALCULATING THE TOTAL IMPULSE FROM A CHANGING FORCE
A student records the force acting on a tennis ball as it bounces off a hard concrete floor over a period of time. The
graph shows the forces acting on a ball during its collision with the concrete floor.
60
50
Force (N)
40
30
20
10
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
Time (ms)
a Determine the force acting on the ball at a time of 4.0 milliseconds.
Thinking Working
From the 4.0 millisecond point on the x-axis go up to the 80

line of the graph, then across to the y-axis.
70
60
50
Force (N)
40
30
20
10
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
Time (ms)
The force is estimated by reading the intercept of the F = 32 N

y-axis
b Calculate the total impulse of the ball over the 13 millisecond period of time.
Thinking Working
Break the area under the graph into sections for

which you can calculate the area: A, B and C. 80
70
60
50
Force (N)
40
30
20
A B C
10
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
Time (ms)
Calculate the area of the three sections A, B and Area = A + B + C

C using the equations for the area of a triangle 1 1
and the area of a rectangle.
=( 2
)
b × h + (b × h) + ( b × h)
2
1 1
=[ × (5 × 10−3 ) × 40] + [(5 × 10 [ ]
−3
) × 40] + × (3 × 10−3) × 40
2 2
= 0.1 + 0.2 + 0.06
= 0.36
The total impulse is equal to the area. I = area

−1
= 0.36 kg m s
Apply the sign and direction convention for I = 0.36 kg m s−1 up

motion in one dimension vertically.
Section 10.6 Review

1 a ∆p = m(v − u)
= 45.0 × (12.5 − 2.45)
= 450 kg m s−1 east
b I = ∆p
= 450 kg m s−1 east
c Fav∆t = I
I
Fav =
∆t
450
=
3.50
= 129 N east
2 Airbags are designed to increase the duration of the collision, which changes the momentum of a person’s head
during a car accident. Increasing the duration of the collision decreases the force, which reduces the severity of injury.
3 a ∆p = m(v − u)
= 0.075 × (0 − (−15.6))
= 1.17 kg m s−1 east
b I = ∆p
c Fav∆t = I
I
Fav =
∆t
1.17
=
0.100
= 11.7 N east
4 Fav∆t = I
I
Fav =
∆t
1.17
=
0.300
= 3.90 N east
5 a Impulse = F∆t = ∆p
= 0.200 × 45
= 9.0 kg m−1
9.0 kg m−1
b F=
0.05 s
= 180 N in the direction of the ball’s travel
c 180 N in the opposite direction to the ball’s travel.
6 a Maximum force = 1200 N
b Impulse = F∆t = area under force−time graph = 63 N s
7 a ∆p = m(v−u)
= (0.025)(0 − 50)
= 1.25 kg m s−1 opposite in direction to its initial velocity
b Impulse = F∆t = ∆p
= 1.25 kg m s−1 opposite in direction to its initial velocity
2 2
c v = u + 2as
0 = 502 + 2a(2.0 × 10−2)
a = −6.25 × 104 m s−2
F = ma
= 0.025(−6.25 × 104)
= 1.6 × 103 N in the opposite direction to the initial velocity of the arrow
8 a The crash helmet is designed so that the stopping time is increased by the collapsing shell during impact. This will
reduce the force, as impulse = F∆t = ∆p.
b No. A rigid shell would reduce the stopping time, therefore increasing the force.
Chapter 10 Review
1 No, a force has not pushed the passengers backwards. Since the passengers have inertia, as the train has started
moving forwards the passengers’ masses resist the change in motion. According to Newton’s first law, their bodies are
simply maintaining their original state of being motionless until an unbalanced force acts to accelerate them.
2 D. An object travelling at a constant velocity will do so without any force acting.
Fnet
3 m=
a
352
=
9.20
= 38.3 kg
Fnet
4 a=
m
3550
=
657
= 5.40 m s−2 north
Fnet
5 a=
m
150
=
100
= 1.5 m s−2
6 Fnet = 150 − 45
= 105 N
Fnet
a=
m
105
=
100
= 1.05 m s−2
7 Using Newton’s second law:

Fnet = ma
= 100 × 0.6
= 60.0 N
Net force is also given by the sum of individual forces:
Fnet = 150 − Ffr
Ffr = 150 − Fnet
= 150 − 60
= 90 N
8 Using Newton’s second law:
Fnet = ma
= 125 × 0.800
= 100 N
Net force is also given by the sum of individual forces:
Fnet = Fforwards − 30
Fforwards = Fnet + 30
= 100 + 30
= 130 N
(v − u)
9 F=m
∆t
F∆t
(v − u) =
m
F∆t
v= +u
m
−62.0 × 2.00
= + 3.75
4.0
−1
= −5.11 m s
∴ v = 5.11 m s−1 west
10 Newton’s third law states that every action has an equal and opposite reaction. Therefore, the reaction of the board
acting on the student results in a force of 75.0 N north.
11 ∆p = m(v − u)
= 155 × (3.25 − 6.50)
= 504 kg m s−1 west
12 ∆p = mv − mu
= (25.5 × −2.25) − (25.5 × 6.40)
= −221 kg m s−1
= 221 kg m s−1 backwards
m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v1 + m2v2
(40.0 × 0) + (154 × 0) = (40.0 × 2.15) + 154v2
154v2 = 0 + −86
−86
v2 =
154
= −0.558 m s−1
The astronaut moves backwards at 0.558 m s−1.
14 ∆v = final velocity − initial velocity
=v−u
= v + (−u)
= 5.00 m s−1 north + 4.00 m s−1 east
The magnitude of the change in velocity is calculated using Pythagoras’ theorem:
∆v2 = 5.002 + 4.002
= 25.0 + 16.0
∆v = √41.0
= 6.40 m s−1
Use trigonometry to calculate the angle of the change in momentum.

4.00
tan θ =
5.00
θ = tan−1 (0.9)
= 38.7°
∆v = 6.40 m s−1 N 38.7° E
The magnitude of the change in momentum is calculated using:
∆p = mv − mu
= m(v − u)
= m∆v
= 75.0 × 6.40
= 480 kg m s−1
= 480 kg m s−1 N 38.7° E
15 ∆p = m(v − u)
= 0.300 × (0 − (−5.60))
Fav∆t = ∆p
∆p
Fav =
∆t
1.68
=
1.00
= 1.68 N east
16 ∆p = impulse = area under F−t graph = 0.5 × 0.04 × 500 = 10 kg m s−1
17 As the bat and ball form an isolated system, momentum is conserved. The gain in momentum of the ball is equal to
the loss of momentum of the bat. Hence:
∆p = 10 kg m s−1
18 ∆p = m∆v
Therefore:
∆p
∆v =
m
10
=
0.170
= 58.8
= 59 m s−1
Chapter 11 Equilibrium of forces
Section 11.1 Torque

CALCULATING TORQUE
A force of 255 N is required to apply a torque on a sports car steering wheel as it turns left. The force is applied at 90°
to the 15.5 cm radius of the steering wheel. Calculate the torque on the steering wheel.
Thinking Working
Identify the variables involved and state them in their T=?

standard form. r⊥ = 0.155 m
F = 255 N
Apply the equation for torque. Rearrange if necessary. τ = r⊥F

T = 0.155 × 255
= 39.5 N m
State the answer with the appropriate direction. T = 39.5 N m anticlockwise

CALCULATING PERPENDICULAR DISTANCE
A truck driver can apply a maximum force of 1022 N on a large truck wheelnut spanner that has a length of 80.0 cm.
The force is applied at 90° to the spanner. If the truck’s wheelnuts need a torque of 635 N m to make them secure,
work out whether the spanner is long enough for the job.
Thinking Working
Identify the variables involved and state them in their T = 635 N m

standard form. r⊥ = ?
F = 1022 N
Apply the equation for torque. Rearrange if necessary. τ = r⊥F

r⊥ =
τ
F
635
= 1022
= 0.621 m
State the answer with the appropriate units. r⊥ = 62.1 cm
Compare the answer with the length of the spanner and As the spanner is 80 cm, this is long enough to provide
state whether it is or isn’t appropriate for this task. the minimum perpendicular distance of 62.1 cm. So the
spanner is long enough.

CALCULATING TORQUE FROM THE PERPENDICULAR COMPONENT OF FORCE
A mechanic uses a 17.0 cm long spanner to tighten a nut

on a winch. He applies a force of 104 N at an angle of 75.0°
to the spanner.
Calculate the magnitude of the torque that the mechanic
applies to the nut.
104 N
75.0°
Give your answers to three significant figures.
Thinking Working
Use the trigonometric relationship F⊥ = F sin θ to determine the F⊥ = F sin θ

force perpendicular to the spanner. = 104 sin 75.0°
= 100.5 N
Convert variables to their standard units. r = 17.0 cm

= 0.170 m
Apply the equation for torque. τ = rF⊥

τ = rF⊥ = 0.170 × 100.5
= 17.1
State the answer with the appropriate units. τ = 17.1 N m

CALCULATING TORQUE FROM THE PERPENDICULAR COMPONENT OF DISTANCE
A mechanic uses a 17.0 cm long spanner to tighten a nut

on a winch. He applies a force of 104 N at an angle of 75.0°
to the spanner.
Using the perpendicular distance, calculate the magnitude
of the torque that the mechanic applies to the nut.
104 N
75.0°
Thinking Working
Convert variables to their standard units. r = 17.0 cm

= 0.170 m
Use the trigonometric relationship r⊥ = r sin θ to determine the r⊥ = r sin θ

perpendicular distance from the pivot point to the line of action = 0.170 sin 75.0°
of the force.
= 0.164 m
Apply the equation for torque. τ = r⊥F

τ = r⊥F = 0.164 × 104
= 17.1
State the answer with the appropriate units. Note that this is the τ = 17.1 N m
same answer as in the Worked example: Try Yourself ‘Calculating
torque from the perpendicular component of force’.
Section 11.1 Review

1 a The magnitude of the torque produced by a given force is proportional to the length of the force arm. By pushing
the door at the handle, rather than the middle, the length to the force arm is increased.
b A crowbar can be used to generate a large torque because the force can be applied at a large distance from the
pivot.
2 a τ = r⊥F
= 2 × 100
= 200 N m anticlockwise
b The torque is zero because the line of action passes through the pivot point.
τ
3 r⊥ =
F
= 15 ÷ 30
= 0.5 m
τ
4 F=
r⊥
9
=
0.50
= 18 N
5 τ = r⊥F
= 0.40 × 225
= 90 N m
6 a T = r × F = 0.5 × 1.0 × 9.8 = 4.9 N m
b T = r × F = 1.0 × 1.0 × 9.8 = 9.8 N m
c T = r × F sin θ = 1.0 × 1.0 × 9.8 × sin 30° = 4.9 N m
7 T = rF sin θ
= 0.30 × 300 × sin 30
= 0.30 × 300 × 0.5
= 45 N m
8 a Weight of skip: Fg = mg = 3500 × 9.80 = 3.4 × 104 N
b The effective force arm remains at 15 m throughout, so the torque does not change.
c τ = r × F sin θ = 25 × 3.43 × 10 × sin 37° = 5.2 × 10 N m clockwise about the pivot.
4 5
(Or simply find: τ = r × F = 15 × 3.43 × 104 = 5.2 × 105 N m clockwise about the pivot.)
11.2 Translational equilibrium

CALCULATING TRANSLATIONAL EQUILIBRIUM IN ONE DIMENSION
Three cars are parked on a beam bridge that has a 1000 kg 1500 kg 2000 kg
mass of 500 kg. The left pillar (labelled X) applies a
force of 2.00 × 104 N upwards. If the situation is in
translational equilibrium then calculate the force
provided by the right-hand pillar (labelled Y).
Use g = 9.80 N kg−1 when answering this question.
X Y
Thinking Working
Identify the variables involved and state them with m1 = 1000 kg

their directions in their standard form. m2 = 1500 kg
m3 = 2000 kg
mB = 500 kg
FX = 20 000 N up
−1
g = 9.80 N kg down
Apply a sign convention to the vector data. FX = +20 000 N

−1
g = −9.80 N kg
Identify the object that is in translational equilibrium. The object experiencing translational equilibrium is the
This is the object on which all the forces are acting. bridge.
Apply the equation for translational equilibrium in F(net,y) = 0

one dimension.
Expand the equation to include each of the forces F1 + F2 + F3 + FB + FX + FY = 0

acting on the beam. m1g + m2g + m3g + mBg + FX + FY = 0
Substitute the data into 1000 × −9.80 + 1500 × −9.80 + 2000 × −9.80 + 500 × −9.80 + 20 000 + FY = 0
the equation and solve −9800 + −14 700 + −19 600 + −4900 + +20 000 + FY = 0
for the unknown.
−29 000 + FY = 0
FY = 29 000 N
State the answer with the appropriate direction. FY = 29 000 N up

CALCULATING TRANSLATIONAL EQUILIBRIUM IN TWO DIMENSIONS
A concrete beam of mass 1500 kg is being lifted by cables labelled 1 and 2,

as shown in the diagram. The beam is moving upwards with a constant velocity
of 2.0 m s−1. Calculate the tension in cable 1 and cable 2. Ignore the mass of the
cable and use g = 9.80 N kg−1 when answering this question.
60°
cable 1 cable 2
60° 60°
1500 kg
Thinking Working
Construct a vector diagram adding all of the forces

together. 60°
Fnet= 0
FT2
FgB
FT1
60°
Apply horizontal components and vertical components. Fnet= 0

F2H
60°
FT2 F2V
FgB
FT1 F1V
60°
F1H
Recognise that, in the horizontal dimension, F2H is in Fnet= 0

equilibrium with F1H.
F2H
F1H
Recognise that, in the vertical dimension, FgB is in Fnet= 0

equilibrium with FRV and FLV.
F2V
FgB
F1V
Apply the equation for translational equilibrium in the F(net,V) = 0

vertical dimension. Recognise that F1V and F2V are equal F1V = F2V
in magnitude and therefore each is half of FgB.
Expand the equation to include each of the vertical forces FgB + F1V + F2V = 0
acting on the sign. mBg + F1V + F2V = 0
Substitute the data into the equation and solve for the 1500 × −9.80 + F1V + F2V = 0
unknown. −14 700 + F1V + F2V = 0
F1V + F2V = 14 700
F1V = F2V = 7350 N
Draw the right triangle with one of the vertical

components of the tension and the angle. 60°
FT2 F2V
Use trigonometry to solve for the tension in one of the FT2 =

7350
cables, which will equal the tension in the other cable as sin 60°
well. = 8487 N
FT2 = FT1 = 8487 N
Section 11.2 Review

1 D. As the net force is zero the translational acceleration must also be zero. A and B are incorrect, as both conditions
(stationary and moving at constant velocity) are possible.
2 For a body to be in translational equilibrium, the vector sum of the forces acting on it must be zero. This situation
applies to any stationary body or to one moving with constant velocity. Options A, B and D are therefore examples of
translational equilibrium.
3 a 150 N up b 40 N west d ∑F= √(1022 + 102) = 14 N north west
50 N 65 N 10 N
25 N 40 N west
ΣF
200 N 150 N up
10 N
c zero
10 N
10 N ΣF = 0
4 Fnet = 0
Fg + FT = 0
mBFg + FT = 0
0.355 × −9.80 + FT = 0
−3.479 + FT = 0
FT = 3.479 N up
5 Fnet = 0
FgT + FFJ + FgP + 4FT = 0
mTg + mJg + mPg + 4FT = 0
79 × −9.80 + 68 × −9.80 + 225 × −9.80 + 4FT = 0
−774.2 + −666.4 + −2205 + 4FT = 0
−3645.6 + 4FT = 0
4FT = 3645.6
3645.6
FT =
4
FT = 911 N
6 a In the x-direction:
F(net,x) = 400 cos 40° + 400 cos 40°
F(net,x) = 613 N
In the y-direction:
F(net,y) = 400 sin 40° + −400 sin 40°
F(net,y) = 0
So the net force is 613 N to the right.
b Translational equilibrium equation:
Fnet = 0
613 + Ffr = 0
Ffr = −613 N
So the friction force is 613 N to the left.
7 Downwards force on sign = 5.0 × 9.80 = 49 N
Each vertical component of the tension forces in the wires is equal to 24.5 N to balance the downward force on the
sign due to gravity.
24.5
cos 40° =
Ft
24.5
Ft = = 32 N
cos 40°
Section 11.3 Static equilibrium

CALCULATING STATIC EQUILIBRIUM
A set of scales (with one longer arm) is used to measure the mass
of gold. A lump of gold with a mass of 150 g is placed on the
short arm, which is 10.0 cm long, and a standard set of masses
are placed on the long arm.
Use g = 9.80 N kg−1 when answering these questions. 150
150

gra
grams
ms
a Calculate the force applied to the scale’s arm due to the pivot point if a standard mass of 50.0 g exactly balances
the gold.
Thinking Working
Identify the variables involved and state them in their mg = 0.150 kg

standard form. mm = 0.050 kg
−1
g = 9.80 N kg down
−1
Apply a sign convention to the vector data g = −9.80 N kg
Identify the object that is in translational equilibrium. This The object experiencing translational equilibrium is the
is the object on which all the forces are acting. scale arm.
Apply the equation for translational equilibrium in the F(net,y) = 0

vertical dimension.
Expand the equation to include each of the forces acting Fg + Fm + FP = 0

on the scales arm. mgg + mmg + FP = 0
Substitute the data into the equation and solve for the (0.150 × −9.80) + (0.050 × −9.80) + FP = 0
unknown. (−1.47) + (−0.49) + FP = 0
−1.96 + FP = 0
FP = 1.96 N
State the answer with the appropriate direction. FP = 1.96 N up
b Calculate how long the long arm should be in order to balance the gold.
Thinking Working
Identify the variables involved and state them in their mg = 0.150 kg

standard form. mm = 0.050 kg
r⊥g = 0.10 m
−1
g = 9.80 N kg down
Identify the object that is in rotational equilibrium. This The object experiencing rotational equilibrium is the scale
is the object on which all the torques are acting. arm.
Decide the reference point about which the torques will The reference point is the pivot.
be calculated.
Decide which force causes the clockwise torque and The force of the standard mass on the scale arm provides
which force causes the anticlockwise torque around the the clockwise torque.
chosen reference point. The force of the gold on the scale arm provides the
anticlockwise torque.
Apply the equation for rotational equilibrium. ∑τclockwise = ∑τanticlockwise
Expand the equation to include each of the torques r⊥mFm = r⊥gFg

acting on the balance.
Substitute the data into the equation and solve for the Fm r⊥m = Fg r⊥g
unknown. mm gr⊥m = mg gr⊥g
0.050 × 9.80 × r⊥m = 0.150 × 9.80 × 0.10
0.150 × 9.80 × 0.10
r⊥m =
0.050 × 9.80
= 0.30 m

CALCULATING STATIC EQUILIBRIUM USING A DIFFERENT REFERENCE POINT
Verify that the see-saw plank in the figure below is also in rotational equilibrium about the reference point where the
boy is sitting, at point Y. The weight of the boy and girl are 196 N and 294 N, respectively, and the force of the pivot
on the plank is 490 N upwards. Assume that the plank’s mass is negligible.
FP = 490 N
1.5 m
1.0 m
Y X
pivot point
Fboy = 196 N Fgirl = 294 N
Thinking Working
Decide the reference point about which the torques will The reference point is the position of the boy.
be calculated.
Identify the variables involved and state them in their FP = 490 N

standard form. Fg = 294 N
Fb = 196 N
r⊥g = 2.50 m
r⊥P = 1.50 m
Identify the object that is in rotational equilibrium. This is The object experiencing rotational equilibrium is the see-
the object on which all the torques are acting. saw.
Decide which forces cause the clockwise torques and The force of the girl on the see-saw provides the
which force causes the anticlockwise torques around the clockwise torque.
chosen reference point. The force of the pivot on the see-saw provides the
anticlockwise torque.
Expand the equation to include each of the torques Fg r⊥g = FP r⊥P

acting on the see-saw
Substitute the data into the equation and solve for the Fg r⊥g = FP r⊥P
unknown. 294 × 2.50 = 490 × 1.50
735 = 735
Identify the magnitude of the clockwise torque compared Around reference point Y (the position of the boy), the
to the magnitude of the anticlockwise torque. clockwise torque due to the girl on the plank is equal to
the anticlockwise torque due to the pivot point on the
plank. So the plank is in rotational equilibrium.

CALCULATING STATIC EQUILIBRIUM WITH TWO UNKNOWNS
For the painter on the plank scenario above, determine the tension on the right-hand rope (Ft2).
Thinking Working
Decide the reference point about which the torques will The reference point is the point at which the rope
be calculated. providing the tension force Ft1 is attached to the plank.
Note that this must be the point at which the other
unknown force acts.
Identify the variables involved and state them in their mpl = 20.0 kg
standard form. mpa = 70.0 kg
r⊥Ft2 = 6.00 m
r⊥c = 3.00 m
r⊥pa = 4.00 m
−1
g = 9.80 N kg
Identify the object that is in rotational equilibrium. This is The object experiencing rotational equilibrium is the
the object on which all the torques are acting. plank.
Decide which forces cause the clockwise torques and The force of the painter on the plank provides a clockwise
which force causes the anticlockwise torque around the torque.
chosen reference point. The force of gravity on the plank provides another
clockwise torque.
The tension force of the right hand rope on the plank
provides the anticlockwise torque.
Expand the equation to include each of the torques r⊥Ft2 Ft2 = r⊥c Fpl + r⊥pa Fpa
acting on the plank.
Substitute the data into the equation and solve for the Ft2 × 6.00 = 20.0 × 9.80 × 3.00 + 70.0 × 9.80 × 4.00
unknown. Ft2 =
20.0 × 9.80 × 3.00 + 70.0 × 9.80 × 4.00
6.00
588 + 274
=
6.00
= 555 N

USING STATIC EQUILIBRIUM TO CALCULATE THE FORCE ON A CANTILEVER
Determine the magnitude and (a) (b) F2

8.0 m 10.0 m
direction of the force that the
left-hand support must supply
so that the beam is in
r2 = 8.0 m
static equilibrium (F1).
rcm = 9.0 m mb = 300.0 kg
F1
Fb = 2940 N
Thinking Working
Decide the reference point about which the torques will The reference point is the point at which the right-hand
be calculated. support is attached to the beam.
unknown force acts.
Identify the variables involved and state them in their mb = 30.0 kg

standard form. r⊥F1 = 8.00 m
r⊥c = 1.00 m
−1
g = 9.80 N kg
the object on which all the torques are acting. beam.
Decide which force causes the clockwise torque and The force of gravity on the beam provides the clockwise
chosen reference point. The force of the left-hand support on the beam provides
the anticlockwise torque.
Expand the equation to include each of the torques Fbr⊥c = F1r⊥F1

acting on the plank.
Substitute the data into the equation and solve for the 30.0 × 9.80 × 1.00 = F1 × 8.00
unknown. 30.0 × 9.80 × 1.00
F1 =
8.00
= 36.8 N
State the direction of the force acting on the object in The force is downwards on the beam.
equilibrium.

USING STATIC EQUILIBRIUM TO CALCULATE THE TENSION IN A TIE THAT IS SUPPORTING A BEAM
A uniform 5.00 kg beam, 1.80 m long, extends from the 45°

side of a building and is supported by a wire tie which
is attached to the beam 1.20 m from a hinge (h)
at an angle of 45°. Calculate the tension (Ft) in the
wire that is supporting the beam.
Give your answers to three significant figures. h
1.2 m
1.8 m
Thinking Working
Decide the reference point about which the torques will The reference point is the point at which the hinge (h) is
be calculated. attached to the beam.
unknown force acts.
Identify the variables involved and state them in their mb = 5.00 kg

standard form. r⊥c = 0.90 m
Here the subscripts used are: b = beam, c = centre of rw = 1.20 m
mass of the beam and w = wire −1
g = 9.80 N kg
the object on which all the torques are acting. beam.
Decide which force causes the clockwise torque and The force of gravity on the beam provides the clockwise
chosen reference point. The force of tension in the wire tie on the beam provides
the anticlockwise torque.
Expand the equation to include each of the torques Fb r⊥c = Ft r⊥w

acting on the beam.
Solve for the perpendicular distances from the force arm r⊥w = rw sin 45°
to the line of action of the force. = 1.20 × sin 45°
= 0.849 m
Substitute the data into the equation and solve for the 5.00 × 9.80 × 0.90 = Ft × 1.20 × sin 45°
unknown force. Ft =
5.00 × 9.80 × 0.90
1.20 × sin 45°
= 52.0 N
Section 11.3 Review

1 The bench will not work successfully. It is not balanced and will topple over because the weight vector from the centre
of gravity is outside the base provided by the two supports. To improve the design the student needs to move the
supports apart so the centre of gravity is between the two supports.
2 D. As the net torque is zero then rotational equilibrium must be established by having equal clockwise and
anticlockwise torques.
3 C. The front cog is not rotating and the cyclist is travelling at constant velocity. A, B and D are incorrect as the wheels
must be turning in order for the bike to be moving.
4 r⊥a Fc = r⊥a Fc
r⊥a 75.0 × 9.80 = 2.25 × 25.0 × 9.80
2.25 × 25.0 × 9.80
r⊥a =
75.0 × 9.80
r⊥a = 0.750 m
5 Let the right-hand side support be the reference point, then:

r⊥L FL = r⊥100 F100 + r⊥150 F150 + r⊥200 F200
r⊥L−R FL = r⊥100−R F100 + r⊥150−R F150 + r⊥200−R F200 + r⊥shelf Fshelf
10.0 × FL = (7.00 × 100 × 9.80) + (3.00 × 150 × 9.80) + (1.50 × 200 × 9.80) + (5.0 × 50.0 × 9.80)
6860 + 4410 + 2940 + 2450
FL =
10.0
= 1666 N
Let the left-hand support be the reference point, then:
r⊥R FR = r⊥100 F100 + r⊥150 F150 + r⊥200 F200 + r⊥shelf Fshelf
FR × 10.0 = (3.0 × 100 × 9.80) + (7.0 × 150 × 9.80) + (8.5 × 200 × 9.80) + (5.0 × 50.0 × 9.8)
FR = 3234 N
6 a FX acts downwards so that torques balance.
b Let X be the reference point. The weight force acting at the awning’s centre of gravity provides the clockwise torque,
and the force of the support at Y provides the anticlockwise torque.
∑τclockwise = ∑τanticlockwise
r⊥c Fc = r⊥Y FY
2.0 × 900 × 9.80 = 1.8 × FY
FY = 9800 N
c Let Y be the reference point. The weight force acting at the awning’s centre of gravity provides the clockwise torque,
and the force of the support at X provides the anticlockwise torque.
∑τclockwise = ∑τanticlockwise
r⊥c Fc = r⊥X FX
0.2 × 900 × 9.80 = 1.8 × FX
FX = 980 N
7 r⊥aFa = r⊥c1Fc1+ r⊥c2Fc2
(1.50 × 20.0 × 9.80) + (2.50 × 20.0 × 9.80)
r⊥a =
90.0 × 9.80
294 + 490
=
882
= 0.889 m
8 a Fh = 800 cos 30° = 400 N
Fv = 800 sin 60° = 693 N
b Taking torques around the base of the post:
(Ft × 1.0) − (400 × 0.85) = 0
Ft = 340 N
Chapter 11 Review
1 B. As the force or the force arm (lever arm length) increases, or both increase, then the torque will increase.
2 τ = r⊥F
= 0.200 × 25.0
= 5.00 N m
τ
3 r⊥ =
F
3.47
=
12.0
= 0.289 m
4 D. The combination of force and the force arm length provides a greater torque than the other options.
5 τ = r⊥F
= 3.00 × 5000
= 15 000 N m
τ
6 r⊥ =
F
32.1
=
24.0
= 1.34 m
7 C. The maximum effect is achieved if the force applied is perpendicular (at 90°) to the surface of the object.
8 τ = rF⊥
= rF sin θ
= 2.00 × 30 sin 40.0°
= 38.6 N m
9 τ = rF⊥
= rF sin θ
= 0.450 × 62.0 sin 65.0°
25.3 N m
10 A. Either of the perpendicular components can be used and not only one or the other. Both aren’t necessary.
11 a r⊥ = r sin θ
= 1.50 × sin 30.0°
= 0.750 m
b τ = r⊥F
T = 0.750 × 12.5
= 9.375 N m
12 τ = r⊥F
= 0.0700 × 8.50
= 0.595 N m
13 τ = rF sin θ
= 0.900 × 82.0 sin 50.0°
= 56.5 N m
14 Consider the left-hand side, then:
Fv = FT sin θ
= 40 sin 40°
= 25.7 N
The vertical component of the tension on the right hand side is also 25.7 N.
Total forces upwards (vertically) = 25.7 + 25.7 = 51.4 N.
The mass of the picture cannot exceed:
Fg = mg
51.4 = m × 9.8
m = 5.25 kg
15 Fnet,Y = 0
FgP + FLV + FRV = 0
75.0 × −9.80 + FLV + FRV = 0
−735 + FLV + FRV = 0
735
FLV = FRV =
2
= FRV = 367.5 N
FRV
sin θ =
FTR
FRV
FTR =
sin θ
367.5
=
sin 10°
= 2116 N
FTR = FTL = 2116 N
16 Fnet,Y = 0
Fg = FT
mg = 7.50
7.50
m=
9.80
= 0.765 kg
17 Fnet,Y = 0
FgBB + FTAV = 0
mBBg + FTAV = 0
100 × −9.80 + FTAV = 0
FTAV = 980 N
FTAV
sin 60° =
FTA
980
FTA =
sin 60°
= 1132 N
∑Fx = 0
FTB + FTAH = 0
FTB + FTA cos 60° = 0
FTB + 1132 × cos 60° = 0
FTB = −566 N (566 N opposing A)
18 C. Because there is no net torque about the reference point and therefore rotation does not occur when the object is
in rotational equilibrium.
19 B. For an object to experience static equilibrium it must experience both rotational equilibrium and translational
equilibrium.
20 A. As Tom’s velocity is not changing the translational acceleration must also be zero.
21 a In this solution, we have used a negative sign to denote anticlockwise torques.
F1 = m1g
25 × 9.80 = 245 N
τ1 = r1F1
= −0.6 × 245
= −147 N m
= 147 N m anticlockwise
b F2 = m2g
= 20 × 9.80
= 196 N
τ2 = r2F2
= 1.0 × 196
= 196 N m
= 196 N m clockwise
c τnet = τ1 + τ2
= −147 + 196
= 49 N m
= 49 N m clockwise
22 τnet = τ1 + τ2
= r1W1 + r2W2
= −1.5 × 50 + 1.5 × 100
= −75 + 150
= +75 N m
= 75 N m clockwise
23 τ = r⊥F
= 0.120 × 30
= 3.60 N m
24 τ = rF sin θ
= 1.35 × 64.0 sin 60.0°
= 74.8 N m
25 τ = rF sin θ
= 1.05 × 50.0 × sin 78.0°
= 51.4 N m
26 Fnet = 0
FW + FT = 0
mc g + FT = 0
(86.5 × −9.80) + FT = 0
−847.7 + FT = 0
FT = 847.7 N
27 Fnet = 0
Fgt + Fgf + 4FL = 0
mtg + mfg + 4FL = 0
40.0 × −9.80 + 4.50 × −9.80 + 4FL = 0
−392 + −44.1 + 4FL = 0
−436.1 + 4FL = 0
4FL = 436.1
436.1
FL =
4
= 109 N
28 Fnet,Y = 0
FLy + FRy + msg = 0
FL sin 35° + FR cos 70° + 12.5 × −9.80 = 0
0.5736FL + 0.3420FR + −122.5 = 0
0.5736FL + 0.3420FR = 122.5
Fnet,X = 0
−FLx + FRx = 0
−FL cos 35° + FR sin 70° = 0
−0.8191FL + 0.9397FR = 0
0.9397FR = 0.8191FL
0.8191FL
FR =
0.9397
= 0.8717FL
0.5736FL + 0.3420FR = 122.5

0.5736FL + 0.3420 × 0.8717FL = 122.5
0.5736FL + 0.2981FL = 122.5
0.8717FL = 122.5
122.5
FL =
0.8717
= 140.5 N
FR = 0.8717FL
= 0.8717 × 140.5
= 122.5 N
29 Fnet,Y = 0
msg + mbg + meg + FT = 0
(0.145 × −9.80 + 0.0100 × −9.80 + 0.0225 × −9.80) + FT = 0
−1.421 + −0.0980 + −0.2205 + FT = 0
FT = 1.7395 N
With the rod in static equilibrium and the Sun as the reference point:
∑Tcw = ∑Tacw
r⊥rFr + r⊥EFE = r⊥TFT
(0.500 × 0.01 × 9.8 ) + (1.00 × 0.0225 × 9.8 ) = (rT × 1.7395)
(0.500 × 0.0980) + (1.00 × 0.2205) = (r⊥T × 1.7395)
0.0490 + 0.2205 = (r⊥T × 1.7395)
0.2695
r⊥T =
1.7395
= 0.1549 m
= 15.5 cm from the Sun
30 a i The three forces acting on the left-hand cantilever are the weight of the beam (3920 N), the force from pillar A
(FA) acting downwards and the force from pillar B (FB) acting upwards:
FA + 3920 = FB
Taking torques around the left-hand end of the left cantilever:
(FB × 1.2) − (3920 × 1.5) = 0
5880
FB = = 4.9 kN up
1.2
So: FA = 980 N down
By symmetry: FC = 4.9 kN up and FD = 980 N down
ii The force that the pedestrian F exerts on the end of the cantilever is 35 × 9.8 = 343 N down.
P
FA + 3920 + 343 = FB
Taking torques around the left-hand end of the left cantilever:
(FB × 1.2) − (3920 × 1.5) − (343 × 3.0) = 0
6909
FB = = 5758 = 5.8 kN up
1.2
So: FA = 1495 N = 1.5 kN down
By symmetry: FC = 5.8 kN up and FD = 1.5 kN down
b As the woman walks from A to B, the force acting in pillar A decreases and the force acting in B increases. When
the woman passes point B and continues on to point P, the forces in both A and B increase in order to produce a
greater torque to counterbalance the increase in torque as she moves to point P.
Chapter 12 Energy, work and power
Section 12.1 Work

CALCULATING WORK
A person pushes a heavy wardrobe from one room to another by applying a force of 50 N for a distance of 5 m.
Calculate the amount of work done.
Thinking Working
Recall the definition of work. W = Fs
Substitute in the values for this situation. W = 50 × 5
Solve the problem, giving an answer with appropriate units. W = 250 J

WORK WITH FORCE AND DISPLACEMENT AT AN ANGLE
A girl pulls her brother along in a trolley for a distance

of 30 m as shown. Calculate the work done on the box.
Give your answer correct to three significant figures.
50 N
40°
Direction of motion
Thinking Working
Determine values for F, s and θ. F = 50 N

s = 30 m
θ = 40°
Recall the work equation. W = Fs cos θ
Substitute values into the work equation. W = 50 × 30 × cos 40°
State the answer with the correct units. W = 1150 J

WORK FROM THE AREA UNDER A FORCE−DISPLACEMENT GRAPH
While jogging, a person’s shoes stretch by an average of 3 mm with each step. Use the force−displacement graph for
a sports shoe to estimate how much work is done on the shoe with each step. Give your answer to the nearest 0.01 J.
100
90
80
70
Force (N)
60
50
40
30
20
10
0.001 0.002 0.003 0.004 0.005 0.006 0.007 0.008

Displacement (m)
Thinking Working
Calculate the work value of each grid square. Force: 10 N, Displacement: 0.001 m
Area of 1 square = 10 × 0.001 = 0.01 J
Count the number of grid squares under the curve up to Number of squares = 5
a distance of 3 mm or 0.003 m.
Multiply the number of grid squares under the curve by W = 5 × 0.01 = 0.05 J
the work value of each grid square.
Section 12.1 Review

1 W = Fs = 500 × 20 = 10 000 J
2 The person exerts a force on the wall but the wall has no displacement (s = 0), so no work is done.
1 1
3 A= ×b×h= × 0.015 × 200 = 1.5 J
2 2
4 W = Fs
2700 = F × 150
F = 18 N
5 W = Fs cos θ
= 80 × 5.0 × cos 40°
= 310 J
6 The equation W = Fs applies to situations where the applied force is constant. Since a spring obeys Hooke’s law,
the force required to compress a spring is not constant.
7 Since the box does not move, no work is done.
8 The area under the graph is a triangle.
1 1
A= ×b×h= × 6 × 10−3 × 1200 = 3.6 J
2 2
9 Work done is the area under the force-displacement graph. This can be calculated by approximating the area to a
geometrical shape or by counting squares.
1 square = 20 N × 10 mm = 20 N × 0.01 m = 0.2 J
WA is approximately 15 squares × 0.2 = 3.0 J
WB is approximately 12 squares × 0.2 = 2.4 J
WC is approximately 5 squares × 0.2 = 1.0 J
1 1
10 a A = bh = × 0.04 × 400 = 8 J
2 2
1 1
b A = bh = × 0.03 × 300 = 4.5 J
2 2
c As the basketball bounces, some energy is lost as heat and sound so the work when the ball rebounds is less than
the work done when the ball compresses.
Section 12.2 Mechanical energy

CALCULATING KINETIC ENERGY
A person crossing the street is walking at 5.0 km h−1. If the person has a mass of 80 kg, calculate their kinetic energy.
Give all answers correct to two significant figures.
Thinking Working
−1 5 km 5000 m
Convert the person’s speed to m s . 5 km h
−1
= = = 1.4 m s−1
1h 3600 s
1
Recall the equation for kinetic energy. Ek = mv2
2
1
Substitute the values for this situation into the equation. Ek = × 80 × 1.42
2
State the answer with appropriate units. Ek = 78 J

CALCULATING KINETIC ENERGY CHANGES
As a bus with a mass of 10 tonnes approaches a school it slows from 60 km h−1 to 40 km h−1.
a Calculate the work done by the brakes in the bus. Give answers to two significant figures.
Thinking Working
−1
Convert the values into SI units. u = 60 km h
60 km
=
1h
60 000 m
=
3600 s
= 17 m s−1
v = 40 kmh−1
40 km
=
1h
40 000 m
=
3600 s
= 11 m s−1
m = 10 tonne
= 10 000 kg
Recall the work−energy theorem. 1 1

W= × mv2 − × mu2
2 2
Substitute the values for this situation into the equation. 1 1

W= (10 000 × 112) − (10 000 × 172)
2 2
State the answer with appropriate units. W = −840 000 J = −840 kJ
b The bus travels 40 m as it decelerates. Calculate the average force applied by the truck’s brakes.
Thinking Working
Recall the definition of work. W = Fs
Substitute the values for this situation into the equation. 840 000 J = F × 40 m
Note: Enter all values as positives.
Transpose the equation to find the answer. 840 000 J

F= = 21 000 N
40 m

CALCULATING SPEED FROM KINETIC ENERGY
A 300 kg motorbike has 150 kJ of kinetic energy. Calculate the speed of the motorbike in km h−1. Give your answer
correct to three significant figures.
Thinking Working
Recall the equation for kinetic energy. 1

2
Ek = mv
2
Transpose the equation to make v the subject. 2Ek

v =�
m
Substitute the values for this situation into the equation. 2 × 150 000
v =� = 31.6 m s−1
300
State the answer with appropriate units. v = 31.6 × 3.6 = 114 km h−1

CALCULATING GRAVITATIONAL POTENTIAL ENERGY
A person doing their grocery shopping lifts a 5 kg grocery bag to a height of 30 cm. Calculate the gravitational
potential energy of the grocery bag at this height. Give your answer correct to two significant figures.
Thinking Working
Recall the formula for gravitational potential energy. Eg = mg∆h
Substitute the values for this situation into the equation. Eg = 5 × 9.8 × 0.3
State the answer with appropriate units and significant Eg = 15 J

figures.

CALCULATING GRAVITATIONAL POTENTIAL ENERGY RELATIVE TO A REFERENCE LEVEL
A father picks up his baby from its bed. The baby has a mass of 6.0 kg and the mattress of the bed is 70 cm above
the ground. When the father holds the baby in his arms, it is 125 cm off the ground. Calculate the increase in
gravitational potential energy of the baby, taking g as 9.8 N kg−1 and giving your answer correct to two significant
figures.
Thinking Working
Recall the formula for gravitational potential energy. Eg = mg∆h
Identify the relevant values for this situation. Subtract m = 6 kg

the baby’s original position off the ground from its final g = 9.8 N kg
−1
position.
∆h = 55 cm = 0.55 m
Substitute the values for this situation into the equation. Eg = 6 × 9.8 × 0.55
State the answer with appropriate units and significant Eg = 32 J

figures.

CALCULATING ELASTIC POTENTIAL ENERGY
A spring with a spring constant of 2050 N m−1 is stretched from its original length of 45.0 cm to 54.0 cm. Calculate
the elastic potential energy stored in this spring.
Thinking Working
−1
Identify the variables involved and state them with their k = 2050 N m
directions in their standard form. xf = 0.540 m
xi = 0.450 m
Determine the extension of the spring ∆x = xf − xi

= 0.540 − 0.450
= 0.090 m
2 1 1
Use the equation for elastic potential energy Es = k∆x Es = k∆x2
2 2
1
= (2050)(0.090)2
2
= 8.30 J
Section 12.2 Review

−1
1 80 km h = 22.22 m s−1
1
Ek = mv2
2
1
= 230 × 22.222 = 56 779 J or 57 kJ
2
21 2 1 1 1
2 W = mv − mu = × 1500 × 282 − 1500 × 172 = 370 000 J
2 2 2 2
2Ek 2 × 5000
3 v =� =� = 11 m s−1 = 40 km h−1
m (72 + 9)
1
4 Ek = mv2 ∴ Ek ∝ m
2
So doubling the mass causes Ek to increase by a factor of 2 as well.
5 a Eg = mg∆h = 0.057 × 9.8 × 8.2 = 4.6 J
b Eg = mg∆h = 0.057 × 9.8 × 4.1 = 2.3 J
6 Eg = mg∆h
= 65 × 9.8 × (8848 − 5150)
= 2.36 × 106 J
= 2360 kJ
7 F = −k∆x
F
∆x =
−k
−25.0
=
−625
= 0.004 m
L = 0.300 + 0.004
= 0.304 m
1 1
8 Es = k∆x2 = × 320 × 0.072 = 0.78 J
2 2
2 1 1
9 Spring A: Es = k∆x = × 4000 × (0.025 × 10−3)2 = 1.25 × 10−6 J
2 2
2 1 1
Spring B: Es = k∆x = × 1330 × (0.075 × 10−3)2 = 3.74 × 10−6 J
2 2
2 1 1
Spring C: Es = k∆x = × 500 × (0.20 × 10−3)2 = 1.00 × 10−5 J
2 2
10 Spring A is stiffer than spring B.
Section 12.3 Using energy: Power and efficiency

MECHANICAL ENERGY OF A FALLING OBJECT
A 6.8 kg bowling ball is dropped from a height of 0.75 m. Calculate its kinetic energy as it hits the ground.
Thinking Working
Since the ball is dropped, its initial kinetic energy is zero. (Ek)initial = 0 J
Calculate the initial gravitational potential energy of the (Eg)initial = mgh

ball. = 6.8 × 9.8 × 0.75
= 50 J
Calculate the initial mechanical energy. (Em)initial = (Ek)initial + (Eg)initial

= 0 + 50
= 50 J
At the instant the ball hits the ground, its gravitational (Eg)final = 0 J
potential energy is zero.
Mechanical energy is conserved in this situation. ∴ (Em)initial = (Em)final = 50

= (Ek)final + 0
(Ek)final = 50 J

FINAL VELOCITY OF A FALLING OBJECT
A 6.8 kg bowling ball is dropped from a height of 0.75 m. Calculate the speed of the bowling ball just before it hits the
ground.
Thinking Working
Recall the velocity of the falling object formula. v = √2gh
Substitute the relevant values into the formula and solve. v = √2 × 9.8 × 0.75
−1
= 3.8 m s
Interpret the answer. The bowling ball will be falling at 3.8 m s−1 just before it
hits the ground.

USING MECHANICAL ENERGY TO ANALYSE PROJECTILE MOTION
An arrow with a mass of 35 g is fired into the air at 80 m s−1 from a height of 1.4 m. Calculate the speed of the arrow
when it has reached a height of 30 m.
Thinking Working
Recall the formula for mechanical energy. 2 1

Em = Ek + Eg = mv + mgh
2
Substitute in the values for the arrow as it is fired. (Em) initial = (Ek) initial + (Eg) initial
1
= mv2 + mgh
2
1 2
= (0.035 × 80 ) + (0.035 × 9.8 × 1.4)
2
= 112.5 J
Use conservation of mechanical energy to find an (Em) final = (Ek) final + (Eg) final
equation for the final speed. 1
= mv2 + mgh
2
1
112.5 = (0.035)v2 + (0.035 × 9.8 × 30)
2
Solve the equation algebraically to find the final speed. 112.5 = 0.0175v2 + 10.3
2
102.2 = 0.0175v
102.2
v2 =
0.0175
v = √5840
−1
= 76 m s

ENERGY EFFICIENCY
An electric kettle uses 23.3 kJ of electrical energy as it boils a quantity of water. The efficiency of the kettle is 18%.
How much electrical energy is expended in actually boiling the water?
Thinking Working
Recall the equation for efficiency. Substitute the given Efficiency = 18%
values into the equation. Input = 23.3 kJ
Output = ?
energy output
Efficiency (η) = × 100%
energy input
energy output
18 = × 100%
23.3
Solve the equation. Output = 4.19 kJ

CALCULATING POWER
Calculate the power used by a weightlifter to lift a barbell which has a total mass of 50 kg from the floor to a height of
2.0 m above the ground in 1.4 s. (Use g = 9.8 m s−2.)
Thinking Working
Calculate the force applied. Fg = mg

= 50 × 9.8
= 490 N
Calculate the work done. W = Fs

= 490 × 2.0
= 980 J
Recall the formula for power. P=

W
or P =
∆E
∆t ∆t
Substitute the appropriate values into the formula. P=

980
1.4
Solve. P = 700 W

FORCE−VELOCITY FORMULATION OF POWER
Calculate the power required to keep a car moving at an average speed of 22 m s−1 if the force of friction (including
air resistance) is 1200 N. Give your answer correct to three significant figures.
Thinking Working
Recall the force−velocity formulation of the power equation. P = Fvav
Substitute the appropriate values into the formula. P = 1200 × 22
Solve. P = 26 400 W
Section 12.3 Review

1 a (Ek)final = (Eg)initial = mg∆h = 180 × 9.8 × 15 = 26 460 J
To two significant figures: 26 000 J
b (Eg)initial = +(Ek)final
26 460 = (Ek)final + mg∆h
26 460 = (Ek)final + (180 × 9.8 × 5)
26 460 − 8820 = (Ek)final
(Ek)final = 17 640 J
2 a Einitial = Efinal
1
m v2 = mg∆h
2
v = √2gh = √2 × 9.8 × 15 = 17 m s
−1
b v = √2gh = √2 × 9.8 × 10 = 14 m s−1

3 v = √2gh
V2 5.42
h= = = 1.5 m
2g 2 × 9.8
4 a Em = Ek + Eg b Em = Ek + Eg
2 1
= mv + mgh 336 = 0.800 × v2 + 0
1 2 2
= 0.800 × 28.5 + 0.800 × 9.8 × 1.45 336
2 v=�
= 336 J 0.400
= 29.0 m s−1
efficiency
5 Energy output = × energy input
100
30
= × 2000 = 600 J
100
6 80% of its Eg is retained so 80% of its height is retained. 80% of 1.5 m = 1.2 m.
7 100 km h−1 ÷ 3.6 = 27.8 m s−1
∆E
P=
∆t
1
(1610 × 27.82)
2
=
5.50
= 113 115 W or 113 kW
8 P = 4000 × 20
= 80 000 W
= 80 kW
9 80 km h−1 ÷ 3.6 = 22.2 m s−1
P = Fvav
P
∴F=
vav
40 000
=
22
= 1800 N
10 P = Fvav
P
∴ vav =
F
F = mg = 500 × 9.8 = 4900 N
P 25 000
vav = = = 5.1 m s−1
F 4900
Chapter 12 Review
1 W = Fs = 2000 × 80 = 160 000 J
2 Approximately 31 squares, so 31 J.
3 W = Fs
= mg × h
= 200 × 9.8 × 30
= 58 800 J
4 For each step: W = Fs = 60 × 9.8 × 0.165 = 97 J
For all 12 steps: W = 12 × 97 = 1200 J
5 F = mg = 50 × 9.8 = 490 N
W 4000
s= = = 8.2 m
F 490
6 W = Fs cos θ
1200 = F × 20 cos 35°
F = 73.25 N
7 150 km h−1 = 42 m s−1
160 g = 0.16 kg
21
Ek = mv
2
1
= × 0.16 × 422 = 140 J
2
2Ek 2 × 70 000
8 v=� =� = 11 m s−1
m 1200
1
9 Ek = mv2 ∴ Ek ∝ v2
2
So doubling the velocity causes Ek to change by a factor of 22 or 4.
10 Eg = mg∆h = 88 × 9.8 × 0.40 = 340 J
(300 − 0)
11 kA =
(0.075 × 10−3 − 0)
−1
= 4000 N m
(200 − 0)
kB =
(0.20 × 10−3 − 0)
= 1000 N m−1
(100 − 0)
kC =
(0.20 × 10−3 − 0)
= 500 N m−1
12 Em = Ek + Eg
1
= mv2 + mgh
2
1 2
= (0.43 × 16 ) + (0.43 × 9.8 × 0)
2
= 55 J
Em = Ek + Eg
1
55 = (0.43 × v2) + (0.43 × 9.8 × 2.44)
2
2
= 0.215v + 10.3
44.7
v=�
0.215
= 14.4 m s−1
13 a Eg = mgh
= 1.51 × 9.8 × 0.15 = 2.2 J
b The gain in gravitational potential energy of the pendulum (2.2 J) is equal to the kinetic energy of the pendulum as
it starts to swing upwards, so the pendulum had 2.2 J of kinetic energy.
2Ek
c v=�
m
= √(2 × 2.2 ÷ 1.51)
= 1.7 m s−1
W
14 Remember: P = and 1 kW = 1000 W
mgh ∆t
P=
∆t
5000 × 9.8 × 20
=
5
= 196 000 W
= 196 kW ≈ 200 kW
1 1
15 ∆Ek = mv2 − mu2
2 2
1
= (650 × 27.82) − 0
2
= 251 000 J
= 251 kJ
∆E
P=
t
251
=
7.2
= 35 kW
P 25 000
16 F = = = 1500 N
vav 17
2 1 1
17 a W = −Ek = mv = × 60 × 82 = 1920 J
2 2
W 1920
b F= = = 96 N
s 20
18 Eg = mg∆h = 120 × 1.6 × 0.1 = 19.2 J
energy output
19 Efficiency (η) = × 100%
energy input
1250
80 = × 100
input
1250
input = × 100
80
= 1562.5 J
Chapter 13 Stars
Section 13.1 Astronomical measurements

CALCULATING THE FREQUENCY AND PERIOD OF LIGHT
The speed of light in a vacuum is approximately 3.0 × 108 m s−1. The wavelength of red light is 650 nm.
a What is the corresponding frequency for this wavelength?
Thinking Working
8 −1
Determine what is known and unknown from the c = 3.0 × 10 m s
question and convert the quantities to SI units. λ = 650 nm = 650 × 10−9 m
f=?
Rearrange the wave equation for light to make the c = fλ

unknown the subject. c
f=
λ
Substitute the known values and calculate f. Round the f=

c
answer to two significant figures to match the least- λ
accurate figure supplied. (3.0 × 108 m s−1)
=
(650 × 10−9 m)
= 461 × 1012
= 4.6 × 1014 Hz
b What is the period of the red light wave, i.e. the time for one complete wave to pass a given point?
Thinking Working
Refer to the relationship between period and frequency. T=

1
f
Substitute the value for the frequency and solve for T, T=

1
taking care to use standard form correctly. f
1
=
4.6 × 1014
= 2.2 × 10−15 s

CALCULATING THE WAVELENGTH
The frequency of a particular radio wave is 3 × 108 Hz. What is the wavelength of this light?
Thinking Working
Write the wave equation in terms of λ. c = fλ

c
λ=
f
Substitute the value for frequency and the speed of light. 3 × 108
λ=
Solve for λ. 3 × 108
=1m

FINDING DISTANCE FROM PARALLAX ANGLE
Proxima Centauri is about 0.77″ from Earth.
a Convert this parallax angle into parsec.
Thinking Working
Recall the rule for converting from parallax angle to d=

1
parsec. p
Apply the rule to find the distance. d=

1
0.77
= 1.3 pc
b Given that 1 pc is approximately 3 × 1016 m, how far from Earth is Proxima Centauri, in metres?
Thinking Working
Use the relationship 1.3 pc = 1.3 × 3 × 1016 m = 3.9 × 1016 m

16
1 pc = 3 × 10 m

FINDING DISTANCE FROM ABSOLUTE AND APPARENT MAGNITUDE
A large distant galaxy has an apparent magnitude of 15 and an absolute magnitude of −20. How far away is it?
Thinking Working
Recall the rule connecting the apparent and absolute M = m + 5 − 5 log D

magnitude.
Apply the rule to find the distance. −20 = 15 + 5 − 5 log D

log D = 8
8
D = 10 pc
= 100 Mpc
Section 13.1 Review

1 c = fλ
c
f=
λ
3 × 108
=
350 × 10−9
= 8.6 × 1014 Hz
2 c = fλ
c
f=
λ
3 × 108
=
8 × 10−9
= 3.75 × 1016 Hz
1
3 T=
f
1
=
3.8 × 1016
= 2.6 × 10−17 s
4 The shift toward the red end of the spectrum in light from distant galaxies.
5 There are 3600 arc seconds in a degree: 60 minutes in a degree, and 60 seconds in a minute:
1° = 60′ × 60″ = 3600″.
1 1
6 d= = = 2.27 pc
p 0.44
16
2.27 × 3 × 10 = 6.81 × 1016 m
1
7 d=
p
1
=
1.56
= 0.641 pc
8 61-Cygni is much closer to Earth than 10 pc. If 61-Cygni was 10 pc away it would have a magnitude of +7.49, which
is dimmer than it actually appears (+5.21) so it must be much closer than 10 pc.
9 If Betelgeuse was 10 pc away it would have a magnitude of −7.2, which is much brighter than it actually appears
(+0.5) so it must be much further away than 10 pc.
10 C. Rigel’s apparent magnitude (m) is a little brighter than Betelgeuse even though the distances are the same and so
the absolute magnitude (M) will also be a little higher (more negative). This rules out options A and B.
Working:
For Rigel: m = 0.12
For Betelgeuse m = 0.5 and M = −7.2, rearranging and putting this into the equation:
M = m + 5 − 5 log D
5 log D = m + 5 − M
= 0.5 + 5 − (−7.2)
= 12.7
Rigel is about the same distance away, so the value for 5 log D can be re-used in the equation for Rigel:
M = 0.12 + 5 − 12.7
= −7.58
which is closest to C, −8.1
11 M = m + 5 − 5 log D
4.83 = 14.83 + 5 − 5 log D
log D = 3
D = 103
= 1000 pc or 1 kpc
Section 13.2 Classifying stars

DETERMINING THE BRIGHTNESS OF A STAR
If it is found that two stars have the same radius and are the same distance from Earth. One looks blue and the other
yellow. Which one will be brighter?
Thinking Working
The colour is an indication of the surface temperature of The blue star must be hotter.
the star, hotter stars being bluer.
Because it is hotter, the blue star will be radiating The blue star will appear significantly brighter.
considerably more energy.
Section 13.2 Review

1 The H−R diagram plots the luminosity of a star (which is derived from the absolute magnitude) against the spectral
type of stars (from which the temperature of the star is derived).
2 Along the main sequence, luminosity increases with the surface temperature.
3 The continuous spectrum provides information about the surface temperature of the star. The absorption spectrum
gives information about the elements present.
4 By determining what type of star it is from its spectrum, it can then be placed on the diagram according to its spectral
type (OBAFGKM). This enables the luminosity (or absolute magnitude) to be found. The distance can be determined
from a comparison of the luminosity with the apparent magnitude.
5 Less-broad spectral patterns indicate a large star. A peak in the red section of the visible spectrum coincides with a
cooler star. A red giant would best fit these observations.
6 Betelgeuse; Vega; Sirius A; the Sun; Sirius B; Proxima Centauri
7 The size of a star cannot be seen even using the best telescopes and so must be determined indirectly. Once the
temperature is known, the amount of power given off per square metre can be calculated. This is compared with the
total luminosity of the star to find the total surface area and hence the radius.
8 C. Luminosity is approximately proportional to the cube of the mass. 23 = 8.
9 D. The H−R diagram plots the luminosity of a star (which is derived from the absolute magnitude) against the spectral
type of stars (from which the temperature of the star is derived).
10 A. Luminosity (vertical axis) does increase with temperature (horizontal axis) but not in a straight line, so option A is
the best answer.
Section 13.3 The life and death of stars

MASS−ENERGY
The visible portion of the energy the Sun is producing each second is approximately equal to 5.0 × 1025 J s−1. At what
rate is the Sun losing mass due to this energy loss?
(Use c = 3.0 × 108 m s−1.)
Thinking Working
The energy comes from the fusion of hydrogen into E = mc2

helium with a corresponding loss in the potential energy = 5.0 × 1025 J
of the nuclei. This loss of energy will correspond to a 8 −1
c = 3.0 × 10 m s
mass loss given by Einstein’s equation E = mc2.
m=?
2
Rearrange E = mc in terms of mass and solve. E = mc2
E
m=
c2
5.0 × 1025
=
(3.0 × 108)2
= 5.6 × 108 kg s−1
So the Sun is losing mass due to visible radiation at a
rate of 5.6 × 108 kg s−1.

SCHWARZSCHILD RADIUS
A star 30 times the mass of the Sun collapses into a black hole. What would its Schwarzschild radius be in kilometres?
−11
(Use G = 6.7 × 10 N m2 kg−2, M⨀ = 2.0 × 1030 kg and c = 3.0 × 108 m s−1.)
Thinking Working
Use the equation for calculating the rs =

2GM
Schwarzschild radius. c2
Substitute the known values into the equation rs =

2GM
for the Schwarzschild radius and solve for rs. c2
2 × 6.7 × 10−11 × 2 × 1030
= × 30
(3.0 × 108)2
= 89333 m
= 89 km
Section 13.3 Review

1 Nuclear fusion reactions in the Sun involve fusing hydrogen nuclei to produce helium nuclei. In contrast, hydrogen
burning in oxygen involves only the electrons in the outer shell of the atoms. The energy involved in nuclear reactions
is about 100 million times greater than chemical reactions.
2 C. The photosphere is where the rising convection gases radiate their energy and cool, emitting visible light which is
detected as sunlight.
3 E = mc2
= 6 × 109 × (3.0 × 108 )2
= 5.4 × 1026 J
4 protostar → main sequence star → red giant → white dwarf → black dwarf
5 planetary nebulae
6 The Sun is most likely to initially expand into a red giant before collapsing and becoming a white dwarf.
7 the Schwarzschild radius
2GM
8 r1 =
c2
2 × 6.7 × 10−11 × 25 × 2.0 × 1030
=
(3 × 108)2
= 74 400 m
= 74 km
2GM
9 r1 =
c2
2 × 6.7 × 10−11 × 1.9 × 1027
=
(3 × 108)2
= 2.8 m
10 a red sequence
b blue cloud
c green valley
Chapter 13 Review
1 c = fλ
c
f=
λ
3.0 × 108
=
0.001869
= 1.6 × 1011 Hz
1
2 T=
f
1
=
1.6 × 1011
= 6.2 × 10−12 s
3 B. Earth’s change in position causes a change in apparent position of closer stars due to parallax. Stellar parallax is
the term used as applied to using parallax in determining the distance to stars.
4 Canopus is many times further away from Earth than Sirius, which means that when viewed from Earth is will not
appear as bright.
5 D. As Deneb is further away than Rigel, the apparent magnitude of Deneb will be less. Lower magnitudes have higher
positive numbers.
6 a continuous
b emission
c continuous
d absorption
e emission
7 spectral class, surface temperature and chemical composition
8 Their spectra show just the same lines as our Sun and these lines correspond to the 98 known elements in our
periodic table.
9 Barnard’s Star, Tau Ceti, Vega, Aldebaran, Rigel

10 a white dwarfs
b main sequence
c supergiant stars
d giant stars
11 Like all stars Rigel would have started from a dust and gas cloud collapsing to form a protostar.
As Rigel starts to convert silicon to iron as the main fusion process, less energy will be produced than needed for the
fusion process. It will begin to collapse.
As a giant star, the core of Rigel can then be expected to heat to billions of degrees in a fraction of second. An
explosive supernova results.
The final stage will be either a neutron star or a black hole.
12 Stars are born into the middle (approximately) of the main sequence, after rapidly igniting once the protostar
collapses.
13 The Sun is close to the centre of the H−R diagram; that is, in terms of the overall range, it is of average temperature
and average brightness. However, most stars are actually cooler and duller than the Sun.
2GM
14 rs =
c2
2 × 6.7 × 10−11 × 20 × 1.989 × 1030
=
(3.0 × 105)2
= 59 228 m
= 5.9 × 104 m
15 A black hole is also known as a singularity.
16 The observer will see light near the black hole slow down, theoretically to the point where an object falling past the
event horizon of a black hole would appear frozen at the black hole’s edge.
17 A, B and C. Star production will be low or will have ceased, a supermassive back hole will lie at its centre and it is the
product of one or more merges of smaller galaxies. While astronomers would be inferring each of the conclusions,
they are based on many observations of similar galaxies.
18 E = mc2
= 4 × 109 × (3 × 108)2
= 3.6 × 1026 J
2GM
19 r1 =
c2
2 × 6.7 × 10−11 × 6.0 × 1024
=
(3.0 × 108)2
= 8.9 × 10−3 m
= 8.9 mm
2GM
20 r1 =
c2
r1c2
M=
2G
100 000 × (3.0 × 108)2
=
2 × 6.7 × 10−11
= 6.7 × 1031 kg
This is approximately 34 M⨀
Chapter 14 Forces and the human body
Section 14.1 Forces acting on the human body

CALCULATING CENTRE OF MASS
Find the best position to support the object below given the values in the figure.
Take the origin on the left as shown and give all responses correct to two significant figures.
m1 = 5.5 kg m2 = 2.4 kg m3 = 4.8 kg
x=0
d1 = 0.40 m d2 = 1.20 m d3 = 0.30 m
Thinking Working
Find the centre of mass of each component part, using m1 has centre at x1 = 0.20 m
the symmetry of the body. m2 has centre of mass halfway down its length:
Remember that while you have been asked to report x2 = d1 + d2
your answers to two significant figures, you should retain
= 1.0 m
at least one extra significant figure throughout your
calculations to avoid rounding errors in your subsequent m3 has centre
calculations. x3 = d1 + d2 + d3
= 1.75 m
Now substitute into the centre of mass equation: xcm =

m1x1 + m2x2 + m3x3
m1x1 + m2x2 + … mnxn m1 + m2 + m3
xcm =
m1 + m2 + … mn 5.5 × 0.20 + 2.4 × 1.0 + 4.8 × 1.75
=
5.5 + 2.4 + 4.8
= 0.94 m
The object is best supported at the centre of mass. The object is best supported at the centre of mass,
0.94 m from the origin.
Always check if your answer is reasonable. Because there is more mass concentrated on the left-
hand side, one would expect the centre of mass to be left
of the physical middle. Since this object has more mass
on the right than for the object in the worked example
above, it would be expected that the centre of mass
would be closer to the physical middle of the object at
x = 0.95 m.
Section 14.1 Review

1 a B
b B
c A
d E
2 B and D. The normal reaction force is less than on Earth as a consequence of gravity being less. When standing on
the ground, the normal reaction force and gravity are compressive forces, and so it must be true that the compressive
forces are smaller.
3 A. When a person is stationary or moving with constant speed in a straight line, they are in translational equilibrium.
The motorist is changing direction and so there is an unbalanced force acting on her.
4 B. The two forces applied generate a resultant force that is pulling along the line of the bone. The femur is therefore
under tension.
5 C. The vertical components of the elbow and tension forces cancel the weight. The horizontal components of the
forces are directed along the bone inwards and so the fracture is under compression.
6 Depending on body position, the centre of mass can vary significantly and may fall outside the body. The centre of
mass is only roughly above the navel when the person is standing upright with their arms by their sides.
7 You could lower your centre of mass for maximum stability, and broaden your base of support by standing with your
feet slightly further apart.
8 The bone bends as a result of the applied force in such a way that the side closest to the applied force is under
compression and the side opposite the force is under tension. Bone is weaker under tension than compression, so
that is where the fracture starts.
9 A heavy impact from the side would cause bending such that the side of the impact would be under compression
and the opposite side would be under tension. Since this material is weaker under compression, it is likely to fail on
the side of the impact first.
10 The centre of mass of each body part must be found.
1
x1 = d1
2
= 4.0 cm
1
x2 = d1 + d2
2
= 8.0 cm + 21 cm
= 29 cm
1
x3 = d1 + d2 + d3
2
= 8.0 cm + 42 cm + 20 cm
= 70 cm
1
x4 = d1 + d2 + d3 + d4
2
= 8.0 cm + 42 cm + 40 cm + 30 cm
= 120 cm
1
x5 = d1 + d2 + d3 + d4 + d5
2
= 8.0 cm + 42 cm + 40 cm + 60 cm + 15 cm
= 165 cm
Use the formula for calculating the position of the centre of mass for multiple masses:
m1x1 + m2x2 + m3x3 + m4x4 + m5x5
xcm =
m1 + m2 + m3 + m4 + m5
2.0 × 4.0 + 6.0 × 29 + 14 × 70 + 50 × 120 + 8 × 165
=
2.0 + 6.0 + 14 + 50 + 8
8 + 174 + 980 + 6000 + 1320
=
80
8482
=
80
= 1.1 × 102 cm (to one decimal place)
11 The centre of mass of each of the parts—head, torso, arms and legs—would lie within that body part.
Since there is considerable mass from legs and arms below the torso, this moves the centre of mass lower.
The overall centre of mass is outside her body (in the same way that the centre of mass of a ring donut is in the
middle of the hole).
Her weight can be considered to act downwards from the centre of mass.
The weight creates a torque causing her to fall forwards.
Her feet cannot provide a balancing force because her weight acts beyond the base of support.
Section 14.2 Forces cause rotation

Worked Example: Try yourself 14.2.1
CALCULATING TORQUE
Following on from the previous Worked example situation, the person gets tired and decides to reduce the mass
to 4.0 kg. It is still placed 40 cm below the knee, and the leg is at right angles to the vertical. Calculate the torque
generated by the weight. (For all your calculations, report your answers correct to two significant figures.)
Thinking Working
Convert to SI units. r = 40 cm = 0.40 m

−2
Calculate the weight using g = 9.8 m s . F = mg
Remember that while you have been asked to report = 4.0 kg × 9.8 m s−2
your answers to two significant figures, you should retain = 39.2 N
at least one extra significant figure throughout your
calculations to avoid rounding errors in your subsequent
calculations.
Draw a force diagram. 0.40 m
39 N
Check if the forces acting are perpendicular to the body In this case F is perpendicular to the leg.
being rotated. If not, you need to find the perpendicular
component.
Identify the distance from the pivot point to the point of The force is applied 0.40 m from the pivot.
application of the force.
Calculate the torque. τ = rF sin 90°

= 0.40 m × 39.2 N × sin 90°
= 16 N m

CALCULATING TORQUE FROM A SPECIFIC ANGLE
The weight attached to the ankle has mass 4.0 kg, and it is placed 40 cm from the knee joint. The lower leg is at 45°
to the vertical. Calculate the torque generated by the weight.
Thinking Working
Convert to SI units and calculate the weight. r = 40 cm = 0.40 m

F = mg
−2
= 4.0 kg × 9.8 m s
= 39.2 N
Draw a schematic diagram of the forces.
0.40 m
45 º
F cos (45 º)
45 º
F sin (45 º)
39 N
Check if the forces acting are perpendicular to the body F sin θ is the component of the force perpendicular to the
being rotated. If not, you need to find the perpendicular lever arm.
component.
Find the distance from the pivot point to the point of The force is applied 0.40 m from the pivot.
application of the force.
Calculate torque and report to two significant figures. τ = rF sin θ

= 0.40 m × 39.2 N × sin 45°
= 11 N m
Section 14.2 Review

1 A and C. It creates the greatest torque, as the force and r are the greatest of all four options. The force for D passes
through the pivot, and thus does not create torque. The torque for B will be half that of A and C because the distance,
r, is halved.
2 Head: F2 is the effort and F1 is the load.
Arm: F4 is the effort and F3 is the load.
Leg: F5 is the effort and F6 is the load.
3 The skull−neck joint is a class 1 lever which, in this case, acts as a speed multiplier because the effort force is closer
to the pivot point than the load. The elbow joint is a class 3 lever which functions as a speed multiplier. The toe joint is
a class 2 lever which functions as a force multiplier because the load force is closer to the pivot than the effort force.
4 The force or component that determines the torque is Fy, where Fy = F sin θ. The torque depends on the distance d2.
The torque is calculated using τ = d2F sin θ.
5 B and C. Since τ = rF sin θ, the torque is greatest when F is applied perpendicular to the lever arm and when r is as
large as possible.
6 a Because the force for the training weight alone is required, the weight of the arm itself may be neglected, and the
force from the training weight is perpendicular to the lever arm, so Fθ = F.
τweight = rweightFweight
= 0.38 × 12 × 9.8
= 45 N m
b If there is no rotation, τnet = 0.
That is, the torques provided by the muscle and the weight are equal in magnitude and in opposing directions:
τmuscle = τweight
0.050 × F = 0.38 × 12 × 9.8
F = 890 N
7 τ = rF⊥
F sin θ = τ
r
τ
F=
r sin θ
1.34 N m
=
(0.05 m)(sin 80°)
= 27.21 N
= 27 N (to two significant figures)
8 TY is the only component of force that provides an anticlockwise torque about the sacrum. In order to lift an object, it
must overcome the clockwise torque created by the weight of the head, torso and load. Since the tension, T, is at such
1
as small angle from the horizontal (12°), TX will be significantly larger than TY (by a factor of = 4.7).
tan 12
RX must be equal in magnitude to TX to maintain a balance of horizontal forces. Therefore, TX and RX put the back
under considerable compressive stress, which can cause injuries such as slipped discs.
9 θ net = 0
anticlockwise torque = sum of clockwise torques
0.05 × FB = 2.7 × 9.8 × 0.17 + 6.0 × 9.8 × 0.39
0.05 × FB = 4.5 + 23
FB = 5.5 × 102 N
Section 14.3 Tissue under load: Stress and strain

CALCULATING STRESS
Calculate the stress in a thicker elastic band of cross-sectional area 5 mm2 which is subject to a 5 N force.
Thinking Working
Convert the area to SI units. 1 mm = 0.001 m, hence

2 −6 2
1 mm = 1 × 10 m
5 mm2 = 5 × 10−6 m2
Use the formula σ=

5N
F 5 × 10−6 m2
σ=
A = 1 × 106 N m−2

CALCULATING STRAIN
While training, the athlete contracts her hamstrings. Her hamstrings are usually 25 cm in length, but contract to a
length of 23 cm while being contracted. Calculate the strain.
Thinking Working
Calculate the change in length, ∆l. ∆l = 25 cm − 23 cm

Remember that all strains are reported as positive, so the = 2.0 cm
change in length will be positive regardless of whether
the material extends or compresses.
Use the formula ε = ∆l ε = 2.0

l 25
Note that you do not need to convert to SI units, as long = 0.080
as both length measurements use the same unit.

CALCULATING STRAINED LENGTH
While running, the same athlete’s calf muscle undergoes a compressive strain of 0.040. The original length of the
muscle is 30 cm. Calculate the length of the muscle while it is being strained. Give answer to two significant figures.
Thinking Working
Rearrange the following formula to make εl the subject: εl = ∆l

∆l
ε=
l
Substitute the given values to calculate εl. ∆l = 0.040 × 30

Note that you do not need to convert to SI units. The = 1.2 cm
answer will be in the same units as the length.
Calculate the strained length, remembering that the calf Strained length = 30 − 1.2
is undergoing compressive strain which means the new = 28.8 cm
length will be shorter than its original length.
= 29 cm (to two significant figures)
Section 14.3 Review

1 C. Strength is a measure or maximum stress, which 5 ε = ∆I
I
is force per unit area, so the thickness of the bone is 0.15 mm
already factored in. Bone 2 can withstand the greatest =
450 mm
force, but the force per unit area is the same for each = 3.3 × 10−4
bone. 6 F = mg
2 The infant bone has half the cross-sectional area, which = 85 × 9.8
means the stress will be twice that for the adult bone.
= 833 N
That is, the stress will be 2σ.
3
2.2 × 10 N Calculate the area of the tendon
3 a σ= 0.035 2
57 × 10−6 m2 A=π× ( 2
)
= 3.9 × 107 N m−2
= 9.621 × 10−4 m2
b F = σA 833 N
σ=
= 1.1 × 108 N m−2 × 57 × 10−6 m2 9.62 × 10−4 m2
5 −2
= 6.3 × 103 N = 8.7 × 10 N m
4 l = 112% of 180 mm 7 D
F
=
112
× 180 mm 8 σ=
A
100
30N
2
= 2.0 × 10 mm =
9.0 × 10−6 m2
= 3.4 MPa
ε = ∆I
I
= 0.04
9 A, B and E. Since the force and the cross-sectional area 10 σ =

F
are the same for both samples, the stress must be A
1.8 × 103 N
the same. Since the stress and the material properties =
25 × 10−6 m2
are the same, the strain must also be the same, which = 7.2 × 107 N m−2
implies that the two samples will deform by the same
ε = ∆I
relative amount. I
= 0.05
Section 14.4 Properties of human tissues

CALCULATING YOUNG’S MODULUS
Find the Young’s modulus of bone from the graph below and also find the strength of bone (answer correct to two
significant figures).
400
300
Stress (MPa)
bone
200
100
0
0.000 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.010
Strain
Thinking Working
Firstly find the elastic region. It is the linear portion of the graph.
The Young’s modulus is the slope of the linear section

of the graph. Choose two points on a line that passes 400
through the linear section for calculating the gradient. (x,y)
300
Stress (MPa)
bone
200
100
0
0.000 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.010
Strain
Two points that can be used to calculate the gradient of

the linear section are (0, 0) and (0.002, 350).
Calculate Young’s modulus. Note that stress is measured E=

change in stress
in MPa on this graph. change in strain
350 − 0
= MPa
0.002 − 0
= 0.18 MPa
The strength is read from the graph. Strength is approximately 270 MPa.

CALCULATION OF ENERGY PER UNIT VOLUME STORED IN A MATERIAL
When the kangaroo hops more strenuously, the tendon stretches by 5% of its rest length. Calculate the strain energy
per m3.
Thinking Working
Convert the strain value to a decimal, rather than a ε = 5%

percentage.
= 0.05
Remember that the strain energy can be calculated from

the area under the stress−strain curve. 10
Calculate the stress corresponding to the given strain.

8
Stress (× 107 N m−2)

oung s odulus = stress/strain
6
= 2 × 107 N m−2
= slope of graph
use new strain

value to nd area
2
0
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1
Strain (ɛ)
σ = Eε
= 2.0 × 109 Pa × 0.05
8
= 1 × 10 Pa
The strain energy per cubic metre is the area under the U=
1
εσ
curve: 2
1 1
U= εσ = × 1 × 108 Pa × 0.05
2 2
= 2.5 × 106 J m−3
= 2.5 MJ m−3

CALCULATING STRAIN ENERGY
An identical sample (20 cm × 5 cm2) of the same material was stressed until it fractured at a strain of 8.5 × 10−3. Use
the same stress-strain curve from Worked example 14.4.3 to calculate the total energy needed to fracture the sample.
Thinking Working
Recall how to calculate strain energy per unit volume from The strain energy per unit volume is given by the area
a stress−strain curve. under the stress−strain curve.
Find the energy per unit volume represented by each Each square represents
square. 8 −3
(2.0 × 10 )(1.0 × 10 )
5 −3
= 2.0 × 10 J m
The total strain energy per unit volume is found by Strain energy per unit volume
counting squares in this case. 5
= 26 squares × 2.0 × 10 J m
−3
= 5.2 × 106 J m−3
To find the actual energy stored in the sample, the strain Energy = strain energy per unit volume × volume
energy per unit volume is multiplied by the actual volume. 6 −3 −4
= 5.2 × 10 J m × 1 × 10 m
3
Remember to convert centimetres to metres. = 5.2 × 10 J

2
−2
Since: 1 cm = 10 m
2 −4
1 cm = 10 m2
Section 14.4 Review

1 A. Strength is a measure of the maximum force (and therefore stress) a material can experience before failing.
2 a Strength is the maximum stress before failure, which c Toughness corresponds to the area under the
corresponds to the greatest Y value on the stress− stress−strain graph until failure. The order from
strain graph. The order from highest to lowest is: highest to lowest is is: hair, resilin, bone.
bone, hair, resilin. d Plasticity corresponds to the size of the nonlinear
b Stiffness corresponds to the gradient of the stress− region on a stress−strain graph. Hair has the
strain graph. The order from highest to lowest is: greatest plasticity, whereas both bone and resilin are
bone, hair, resilin. brittle with no plastic region.
3 C, E, F and G. From the graph it is clear that the degenerative bone fails at lower stress and strain values. The healthy
bone thus has a greater strength. The stiffness is the slope of the linear portion of the graph, which is the same for
both bone types. The elastic behaviour is dictated by the linear region and both bones show similar characteristics.
4 Stress–strain curve for tendon (100 × 106 − 0) N m−2

5 E=
0.1 − 0
= 1.0 × 109 N m−2
120
100
80
Stress (MPa)
60
40
20
0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25
Strain
8 −2
6 a Find stress where nonlinear behaviour starts: 4.0 × 10 Pa (or N m )
−3
b Find strain where nonlinear behaviour begins: 2.0 × 10
rise 4.0 × 108
c gradient = = = 2.0 × 1011 N m−2
run 0.0020
d The gradient of a stress−strain graph is Young’s modulus.
8 −2
e Strength = maximum stress = 6.0 × 10 Pa (or N m )
7 a Strain at breaking point = 0.0050 b Strain at elastic limit = 0.0020
∆I
Strain ε= Strain ε = ∆I
I I
∆l = εl ∆l = εl
= 0.0050 × 1.0 = 0.0020 × 1.0
= 0.0050 m = 0.0020 m
= 5.0 mm = 2.0 mm
2 2 −6 2
8 a Area A = π r = π × (0.0010) = 3.1 × 10 m b Zero; the wire has not been stressed beyond the
F 1000 elastic limit, so will return to its original length once
Stress σ = = Pa
A 3.2 × 108 the force has stopped acting.
−3
From graph, strain = 1.6 × 10
Strain ε = ∆I
I
εl = ∆l
= 1.6 × 10−3 × 1.0
= 1.6 mm
9 a ductile c No, since the material does not behave elastically
b Ft = mg = 153 × 9.80 = 1500 N under this tensile stress.
F 1500
Stress σ = = = 4.8 × 108 Pa
A 3.2 × 10−6
−3
From graph, strain = 3.0 × 10
∆I
Strain ε=
I
∆I
3.0 × 10−3 =
1.0
εl = 3.0 × 10−3
= 3.0 mm
10 a Strain = 0.20% = 2.0 × 10−3

Work done per cubic metre = area under stress−strain graph = 0.5 × 2.0 × 10−3 × 4.0 × 108 = 4.0 × 105 J m−3
b Strain energy = area under graph × volume of material = 4.0 × 105 × 4.0 × 10−5 = 16 J
c It is in the elastic region of the graph, so will resume its original length and no energy will be transformed into heat.
11 a Area under graph up to strain of 4.0 × 10−3 = (1.0 × 108 × 1.0 × 10−3) × 13.5 squares = 1.35 × 106 J m−3
b Strain energy = area under graph × volume of material = 1.35 × 106 × 4.0 × 10−5 = 54 J
c It is past the elastic limit, so the alloy will be permanently deformed and will heat up as it is stretched.
12 a Point X is the fracture point, so the alloy will break.
−3 8 −3 6 −3
b Area under graph up to strain of 5.0 × 10 = (1.0 × 10 × 1.0 × 10 ) × 19 squares = 1.9 × 10 J m
c Strain energy = area under graph × volume of material = 1.9 × 106 × 4.0 × 10−5 = 76 J
Section 14.5 The future: Materials for use in prosthetics

Section 14.5 Review
1 a Prostheses should not corrode or be brittle.
b Prostheses should be able to sustain high stress without failure.
c Prostheses should give under load to some extent to avoid jarring.
d Prostheses should not deform excessively under stress.
e Prostheses should be lightweight in order not to overload muscles.
f Prostheses should absorb energy and return it in a similar way to the structure being replaced (e.g. tendons).
2 a During systole, neither collagen nor elastin Is very stiff. During diastole, both materials become stiffer, but collagen
becomes stiffer than elastin.
b Elastin is more flexible as it undergoes more strain for a smaller value of stress.
c Collagen offers greater strength during diastole.
3 E. All the statements are true.
4 D. This is a highly undesirable feature for any material intended to be used for fabrication of prostheses.
5 Internal prostheses are more difficult. Both types need to mimic the properties of the biological tissues they replace
but internal prostheses must not shed particles into the bloodstream, must not be toxic, must not corrode, and need
to be utterly reliable because they are harder to replace.
Chapter 14 Review
1 B. The astronaut experiences neither weight nor the normal reaction force, so his bones are not under compression.
2 A and B. The boy is subject to the unbalanced force of gravity.
The girl on the swing is not stationary or travelling at constant speed in a straight line, so she is experiencing
unbalanced forces.
The skater is effectively stationary and so, although she is spinning, the net force on her is zero.
3 Tendons are essentially fibres that buckle under compression. The collagen that they are made from straightens out
and then becomes stiff under tension. When stretched, tendons can absorb large amounts of energy without failing.
4 Toughness is the strain energy up to the failure point.
5 They are brittle materials as they fail abruptly at the yield point.
6 B and D. The toughness is gained from the area under the stress−strain curve all the way to the failure point, which
includes the area up to the yield point. The stress−strain curve departs from linearity after the yield point.
7 A and B. Toughness depends on the area under the stress−strain curve. Elastic materials are not necessarily tough.
Materials that undergo large plastic deformations are frequently tougher. Ductility is a property of plastic behaviour,
because the material does not return to its original shape when drawn into a wire. Perfectly elastic materials are
brittle, rather than ductile.
8 A, B and D. Because the loading and unloading curves differ, viscoelastic materials absorb energy when they stretch
and relax. Hysteresis and time-dependent stiffness are properties of viscoelastic materials.
9 A, B, C, E and G. Plastic deformation is irreversible and energy is absorbed by the material, which undergoes structural
change as well as heating.
10 The first diagram shows compressive stress; the second diagram shows bending; the third diagram shows shear
stress; and the fourth diagram shows tensile stress.
11 At A the fibres fail and rupture.
At B the fibres are stretching in proportion to the applied stress and becoming stiff. At C the fibres are uncrimping
and experiencing a large strain with little applied stress.
12 a Longitudinal direction—the longitudinal curve demonstrates the greatest stress value under tension.
b Longitudinal direction—the longitudinal curve demonstrates the greatest stress value under compression.
c Transverse direction—the transverse curve demonstrates no significant plastic behaviour under tension.
d Longitudinal direction—the longitudinal curve has a greater area under the curve up to failure under tension.
e Longitudinal direction—the longitudinal curve has a greater area under the curve up to failure under compression.
f Longitudinal direction—the longitudinal curve has a steeper gradient under tension.
g Longitudinal direction—the transverse curve does not have a plastic region under tension, whereas the longitudinal
direction has a plastic region for both tension and compression.
13 ‘Anisotropic’ means that a substance is not uniform in all directions. It is clear that bone has significantly superior
material properties for load-bearing in the longitudinal direction. This is the direction in which bone is routinely
stressed, and so these superior properties permit bones to perform their function of load-bearing. Bones are rarely
stressed in the transverse direction.
When a bone experiences as transverse force it tends to bend. It is then under tension on one side and under
compression on the other. Bone is weaker under tension in the transverse direction as may be seen from the graph.
The bone is likely to fracture on the convex side of the bone.
14 a Material A is the only material with an entirely linear graph for both loading and unloading.
b Materials B and C both demonstrate plastic behaviour.
c Materials B and C both have non-zero strain values when the stress is removed.
d Material A is the only material for which the unloading curve is identical to the loading curve, so that the area
under the unloading curve is the same as the area under the loading curve, which means all of the energy used in
deforming the material is returned when the material returns to its original shape.
15 Tensile strength is the stress at which the tendon fails, which occurs at a strain of 9.0% = 0.090.
σ = Eε
Stress–strain curve for horse tendon
= 890 × 106 N m−2 × 0.09
= 80 × 106 N m−2 or 80 MPa 90
80
70
60
Stress (MPa)
50
40
30
20
10
0
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10
Strain %
16 Toughness = area under curve up to failure

1
= × 0.09 × 80 × 106 J m−3
2
= 3.6 × 106 J m−3
17 Pack fits snugly against the back so that the centre of mass of the body is not moved too far backwards, leading to
instability.
Chest straps should be fastened to keep the pack close to the body, again to keep the centre of mass closer. The
hip belt is firmly fastened so that most of the load is transferred from the pack via the internal frame directly onto
the pelvis. This prevents compression of the spinal column, which would occur if the weight were carried on the
shoulders. Heavier objects are packed closer to the back and lighter objects further from the body, keeping the centre
of mass of the pack close to the body.
18 a The carbon fibres themselves are very strong under tension when stressed in the longitudinal direction (i.e. along
the length of the fibre). This is what gives tensile strength to the composite material.
b The matrix, or binding material, which is usually a polymer or epoxy resin, provides the compressive strength.
Carbon fibres themselves do not have rigidity and therefore do not offer compressive strength.
c High tensile strength can be achieve in multiple directions by using a composite laminate, which means layers of
the carbon fibre composite are stacked on top of each other in different directions.
19 Strain ε = 0.010
E=σ
ε
Stress σ = E × ε = 7.0 × 1010 × 0.010 = 7.0 × 108 Pa
F
= 7.0 × 108
A
F = 7.0 × 108 × (ε × 0.00502) = 5.5 × 104 N
20 a Stress at elastic limit is: σ = 1.0 × 108 Pa
E=σ
ε
1.0 × 108
ε=σ= = 6.25 × 10−3
E 1.6 × 1010
∆I
Strain ε=
I
−3 ∆I
6.25 × 10 =
0.40
∆l = 0.0025 m = 2.5 mm
b Tension, since the tensile strength for bone is lower than the compressive strength for bone (from the table).
c As we age, calcium loss causes the cross-sectional area of our bones to decrease. For any given load, therefore,
the stress that the bones will experience will be greater and they will be more likely to fracture (so eat your dairy
products!)
21 Strain ε = ∆I = 0.00030 = 0.00075
I 0.40
E=σ
ε
Stress σ = E × ε = 1.6 × 1010 × 0.00075 = 1.2 × 107 Pa (or N m−2)
22 a C, D. They break at the elastic limit.
b A. It has the steepest gradient.
c D. It has the smallest gradient.
d B. It withstands the greatest stress before failing.
e A. It has the greatest plastic region.
f A. It has the greatest ability to deform without breaking.
23 In elastic deformation, all the strain energy is returned by a material as it regains its initial dimensions after the strain
is removed. For plastic deformation, some of the strain energy will be transformed into heat energy in altering the
atomic structure of the material. Consequently, the material in this situation never regains its original dimensions.
F 1200
24 a Stress σ = = = 9.55 × 107 Pa (or N m−2)
A (π × 0.002002)
b This stress is under the elastic limit, so graph is straight line through origin.
σ
E=ε
σ 9.55 × 107
Strain ε=E= = 4.78 × 10−4
2.00 × 1011
Area under stress−strain graph = 0.5 × 4.78 × 10−4 × 9.55 × 107 = 2.28 × 104 J m−3
c Strain energy = area under graph × volume of material = 2.28 × 104 × (0.500 × σ × 0.002002) = 0.143 J
25 No, the rod fails at a point past the elastic limit, where the behaviour of the material is nonlinear. A stress−strain graph
is needed.
26 Need to find:
area under graph for P 4.5 squares
= = 1.5
area under graph for Q 3.0 squares
27 a Find area under graph for P at failure
= 9.5 squares × 1.0 × 108 × 1.0 × 10−3 = 9.5 × 105 J m−3
b Find area under graph for Q at failure
= 6.5 squares × 1.0 × 108 × 1.0 × 10−3 = 6.5 × 105 J m−3
28 Material P is tougher because it can absorb a greater amount of strain energy per unit volume before failing (indicated
by area under stress−strain graph).
29 a Material P, since it has a greater value for Young’s modulus (indicated by gradient).
b Material P, since it experiences a greater stress value before failing.
Chapter 15 Energy from nuclear power
Section 15.1 Energy from the nucleus

1 D. Only trace amounts of plutonium occur naturally. Fission involves the splitting of a heavier atom into two smaller
atomic masses. Pu-239 is produced via a multistep process following the absorption of a neutron by a U-238 nucleus.
2 C. The moderator slows neutrons produced from fission, decreasing their energy and increasing the probability they
will be absorbed. The role of the moderator is to decrease the energy of neutrons emitted via fission.
3 a uranium-238
b It is called a fast reactor because fast neutrons are used. Fast neutrons are used to fission U-238, the most
abundant isotope in naturally occurring uranium.
c Breeder reactors use nuclear fuel enriched in fissile material to transform U-238 into fissile P-239 and produce
more P-239 than they use U-238.
4 a absorption +10n
b decay β-
c decay β-
5 a The higher the number of neutrons produced per fission, the higher the probability that each neutron then goes on
to cause another fission. More neutrons released will generate more fissions, and hence more energy.
b Pu-239 would establish the stronger chain reaction if used as nuclear fuel because there are more neutrons able to
generate more fissions.
6 The shape of the uranium affects the number of neutrons that can escape from the material without causing fission.
Flat sheets allow more neutrons to escape than do spheres. The proportion of neutrons escaping from each fission
reaction is too high to sustain fission due to the increased surface area.
7 The fission of U-235 forms two relatively even fragments along with 2 or 3 neutrons that keep the fission process
going. What products are produced will vary. However, the total number of neutrons and total energy must be
conserved.
8 When the positrons come into contact (almost immediately afterwards) with electrons, they are annihilated,
releasing the additional energy. Each of the two positrons (e+) annihilates with an electron (e−) to release
an additional 2 × 1.02 MeV, accounting for the additional energy making up the total energy released of
(24.7 + 2 × 1.02) = 26.74 MeV.
9 The most likely reaction to succeed in a practical fusion reactor is the deuterium−tritium (the H-2 and H-3 isotopes of
hydrogen respectively). It was successfully initiated in a research reactor in 1997.
10 Limited fuel source: While tritium does not exist in nature, it can be produced artificially. Lithium is the limiting fuel
source in this process and hence limits the overall fuel available for deuterium−tritium fusion reactors.
Very high temperatures: a temperature of 4 × 107 K is required to overcome the repulsive forces of the like-charged
protons in each nucleus to initiate fusion.
Section 15.2 Nuclear energy as a power source

1 a coolant: keeps core from overheating
b fuel rod: location of fission reactions
c moderator: slows fast neutrons
d heat exchanger: transfers energy from coolant to produce steam
e control rod: absorbs neutrons
2 a fuel rods: nuclear energy
b heat exchanger: heat energy
c generator: kinetic energy
d power distribution: electrical energy
3 A and D. Fission releases more energy but fusion releases more energy per nucleon than fission. Fusion reactions do
not create much radioactive waste. Fission reactions create a great deal.
4 A control rod absorbs neutrons produced in the fission process. During a nuclear fission reaction, the number of
neutrons per fission required to maintain the chain reaction must be at least one. No control rods would mean no
absorption so the chain reaction that results will be uncontrolled.
5 A. Direct greenhouse emissions are small by comparison with coal. There are additional emissions associated with
mining not considered in this comparison.
6 Based on estimates involving a 1000 MW fusion reactor, a similar-sized coal-fired power station would require
1.5 million tonnes of coal per year to provide the same energy.
7 Deuterium is an isotope of hydrogen. Deuterium is found in and extracted from lakes and oceans.
8 Few radioactive particles are produced by fusion reactions. Hydrogen isotopes deuterium and tritium (produced in the
nuclear reactor from lithium) are the primary fuels. Deuterium is not radioactive nor is the lithium used in ‘breeding’
tritium. Tritium is radioactive but has an extremely short half-life (12.6 years) when compared with the radioactive
waste of fission reactors. It can be produced solely within the reactor itself. Helium, the product, is inert and is
also safe.
Like fission, fusion produces no greenhouse gases or other atmospheric pollutants. Little radiotoxicity would remain
once a fusion power station reached the end of its working life and was decommissioned.
9 Over a period of months, the fissile nuclei in the fuel rods become depleted (used up), the number of fissions
decreases, and so fewer neutrons are flying around in the core. In order to maintain the chain reaction, the control
rods must be gradually withdrawn by raising them.
10 The uranium fuel rods must have been either low-level or intermediate-level waste with a low percentage of U-235.
Chapter 15 Review
1 C. Neutrons are uncharged and are not repelled by the nucleus. This means that the chances of a neutron reaching
the nucleus of an unstable isotope is much greater than that for charged particles.
2 a Fissile nuclei undergo fission with the absorption of a neutron. Non-fissile nuclei are not likely to undergo fission.
b U-238 is first transformed into Pu-239, which is fissile.
c U-238 is highly abundant.
3 B. Fuel rods are made of about 3% fissile uranium-235 and 97% non-fissile uranium-238 so they are mostly U-238.
4 The total number of protons and neutrons in the fragments from the fission of a U-235 nucleus are conserved. The
small mass defect will be equivalent to the energy released.
5 To balance the reaction we have:
1n + 235U → 140Xe + 94Sr + X10n
0 92 54 38
So X = 2 neutrons
6 Uranium-235 is more fissile with slow neutrons. Fission occurs and more neutrons are released to sustain the fission
reaction.
7 a uranium-238
b uranium-235
c The concentration of the fissile uranium-235 is too low.
8 First, a neutron causes fission to occur in a uranium-235 nucleus, thus releasing 2 or 3 more neutrons. These then
go on and induce fission in more uranium-235 nuclei, each resulting in the release of 2 or 3 neutrons, and so on. The
chain reaction grows very rapidly and energy is released in each fission reaction.
9 As a result of its shape, a very high proportion of neutrons can escape from the flattened material, and so the chain
reaction dies out.
10 a less than one: chain reaction will die out
b equal to one: steady chain reaction
c greater than one: chain reaction will grow, potentially uncontrolled
11 The tokamak style of reactor has a torus-shaped core where the plasma of the fusion fuel is located. This fusion
material is held away from the reactor wall by magnetic fields. The heat energy produced is carried from the reactor
core by lithium and water.
12 411H → 42He + 2e+ + 2v + 2γ + 24.7 MeV
13 a The fission process in the reactor core produces heat. This heat energy is conducted into the coolant that is flowing
through the core. The energy is used to produce steam which drives a turbine to generate electricity.
b The difference is that the heat energy that makes the steam is produced by burning coal instead of a nuclear
fission reaction.
c They both use steam to turn a turbine to generate electricity.
14 a control rod: absorbs neutrons
b radiation protection barrier: provides shielding to prevent radiation escaping
c moderator: slows the neutrons
d cold coolant: stops the core from overheating
e fuel rod: contains enriched uranium
f hot coolant: removes heat from core
15 amount of coal
6.8 × 1013
=
2.5 × 107
= 2720 tonnes
= 2.7 × 103 tonnes
16 Heat from the fission process is carried by the coolant to the heat exchanger. This heat energy is used to make steam
and drive the turbine and generator to produce electricity.
17 Uranium-235 is more fissile when struck by slow (thermal) neutrons. A moderator is used to slow down the neutrons
released during fission. Collisions between the moderator material and the neutrons slow the neutrons down. Water,
graphite, heavy water and carbon dioxide are used as moderators.
18 Each fission reaction releases much more energy than each fusion reaction, 200 MeV and 25 MeV respectively. The
energy is created when the mass of the nucleons decreases slightly in both fission and fusion. So energy is created
by the slight loss of mass of nucleons, not the loss of nucleons. The number of nucleons does not change in either
process.
The amount of energy can be determined by using E = mc2. However, the percentage of mass lost is greater for fusion
than for fission. Therefore, the energy released per nucleon is greater during fusion than during fission.
19
Advantages of fusion reactors Disadvantages of fusion reactors
Deuterium is virtually unlimited. Fusion requires very high temperatures to initiate

No radioactive waste. Lack of naturally occurring tritium potentially limits fuel.
−1
20 a Intermediate-level waste (ILW) requires shielding. If it has more than 4000 Bq g of long-lived (over a 30-year half-
life) alpha emitters it is categorised as ‘long-lived’ and requires more sophisticated handling and disposal.
Australia does not have any high-level waste. It is spent fuel from the research reactor. This waste would be defined
as ‘intermediate-level’, and the waste that results from reprocessing it abroad will be returned as long-lived waste
for disposal or storage.
b Most commercial reprocessing takes place in France (La Hague). Reprocessing involves dissolving spent nuclear
fuel in acid and separating the unused uranium (about 96% of the mass), plutonium (1%) and high-level wastes
(3%).
c The following table summarises the current levels of waste in Australia.
Waste type Waste description Commonwealth

waste inventory
(approximate volume)
Low-level waste • lightly contaminated laboratory items such as paper, plastic and Total: 4048.28 m3
glassware
• operational waste from the research reactor
• contaminated items from production of radiopharmaceuticals
• research reactor decommissioning waste such as graphite,
concrete and steel
• lightly contaminated soil
Intermediate-level • higher activity operational waste from ANSTO including Total: 551.5 m3
waste irradiation cans, ion exchange resins, aluminium end
pieces of fuel rods, control arms and general waste from
radiopharmaceutical production
• concentrates from mineral sands processing (thorium and
uranium residues)
Chapter 16 Nuclear medicine
Section 16.1 Producing medical radiation

1 Radio waves, microwaves, infrared radiation, visible light, UV radiation, X-rays and gamma rays.
2 ionising, soft X-rays
3 ionising, hard X-rays
4 neutrons
5 a The least stable of the three radioisotopes is 99mTc.
43
b The most stable of the radioisotopes is 99
43
Tc.
6 Soft X-rays and X-rays are ionising. Soft X-rays have greater wavelengths than hard X-rays.
7 Iodine-131 emits high energy β-particles which are very effective at destroying cancer cells.
8 uranium-238
9 In the medical field, hard X-rays are used for therapeutic purposes and soft X-rays are used for diagnostic purposes.
10 Kinetic energy (of the electrons) is converted to electromagnetic energy (of the X-rays).
Section 16.2 Measurement of radiation doses

TREATING TUMOURS
A 25 g cancer tumour absorbs 5.0 × 10−3 J of energy from an applied radiation source. Calculate the dose equivalent
if the source is an alpha emitter.
Thinking Working
25
Convert the mass of the tumour from grams to kilograms. 25 g = = 0.025 kg
1000
Use the absorbed dose formula: absorbed dose =

energy absorbed
energy absorbed mass of tissue
absorbed dose = 5.0 × 10−3
mass of tissue =
0.025
= 0.20 Gy
Dose equivalent = AD × QF DE = AD × QF
QF = 20 for alpha = 0.20 × 20
= 4.0 Sv
Section 16.2 Review

1 Somatic effects arise when ordinary body cells are damaged. Examples include skin rash, hair loss and nausea.
2 Somatic. Genetic damage affects the DNA and is transmitted throughout generations.
energy (J) 0.30
3 absorbed dose = = = 2 Gy
mass (kg) 0.15
4 They are all equally damaging as they are already in the units of dose equivalent, sieverts (Sv).
5 a DE = AD × QF = 200 × 10−6 × 1 = 2.0 × 10−4 Sv
−6 −2
b energy = AD × mass = 200 × 10 × 80 = 1.6 × 10 J
6 DE = AD × QF
DEγ = 200 × 1 = 200 μSv
DEα = 20 × 20 = 400 μSv
DEβ = 50 × 1 = 50 μSv
DEneutron = 300 × 10 = 300 μSv
Here 20 μGy of alpha radiation has the highest DE of 400 µSv.
7 a 1000 µSv = 1 mSv so a little over 2 days is needed for astronauts to exceed the normal annual background dose.
b 1 mSv per day so 879 mSv.
36 Gy
8 = 90 hours
0.4 Gy h−1
9 Ovaries have the highest W value of 0.20, therefore these organs are the most radiosensitive.
10 Effective dose = ∑(dose equivalent × W)
= (35 × 0.20) + (35 × 0.05) + (50 × 0.12)
= 14.75 mSv
Section 16.3 Radiation in diagnosis and treatment of human

disease
Section 16.3 Review
1 An X-ray beam is sent into the tumour for the appropriate time. The beam is rotated so that healthy cells do not
receive large doses of ionising radiation.
2 X-rays
3 Any two of:
• have a short half-life (hours or days) that is appropriate for the time taken for the diagnostic procedure. Radioactive
materials are considered to be relatively safe after around 10 half-lives have passed.
• emit only γ radiation of an energy that can be detected by a γ camera
• not emit alpha or beta radiation because these particles would be trapped in the patient’s tissues and they would
not be detected externally
• be available in the highest possible activity but not be toxic to the patient or react with drugs used at the same
time.
4 MRI scans use magnetic field and radio waves, which are both non-ionising forms of radiation, so there are no harmful
effects on bystanders.
5 A radiopharmaceutical is one of a group of drugs which has a radioactive tracer attached to it.
6 The radioisotopes used in PET scans should be positron emitters. These particles interact with electrons from the
body cells and create gamma rays which are detected externally by a gamma camera.
7 The small amount of harm caused by the radiation is outweighed by the benefits of the diagnosis.
8 Phosphorus-32 is a β emitter only, therefore it cannot be detected with a γ camera.
9 MRI scans are similar to CT scans because slices of the body parts are photographed. An MRI uses magnetism (non-
ionising) to produce its images whereas CT scans use X-rays (ionising).
10 MRIs use non-ionising radiation and so there is no radiation dose when used.
Chapter 16 Review
1
Electromagnetic radiation Particle radiation
UV alpha
X-rays beta
gamma cosmic rays
2 Soft X-rays have less energy and penetrating power than hard X-rays. Soft X-rays and hard X-rays move at the
same speed.
3 bX + 10n → 32P
a 15
X is 31P
15
4 The γ rays emitted from a radioactive cobalt-60 source are ionising and electromagnetic radiation.
5 ionising radiation
6 The dose of radiation is not being delivered in one treatment session. In order to deliver this dose of radiation, the
patient would receive the dose over multiple treatment sessions.
7 1 Gy of alpha. Since alpha has a quality factor of 20, 1 Gy of alpha radiation is 20 times more damaging than 1Gy of
the beta and gamma.
8 They are all equally damaging as they are already in the units of dose equivalent, sieverts (Sv).
9 gamma radiation so the quality factor QF = 1
dose equivalent= absorbed dose × QF = 300 × 1 = 300 mSv
10 a energy = absorbed dose × mass = 5.0 × 75 = 380 J (to two significant figures)
b gamma rays so QF = 1
dose equivalent = absorbed dose × QF = 5.0 × 1 = 5.0 Sv (to two significant figures)
11 a They will take: 10 × 45 × 5 = 2250 X-rays in a year.
Dose per X-ray = 7900 ÷ 2250 ≈ 3.5 µSv per X-ray
b Background is around 2000 µSv per annum, so 7900 µSv is around 4 times this dose.
12 a DE = 0.50 × 20 = 10 µSv
b DE = 0.50 × 1 = 0.50 µSv
c DE = 0.50 × 1 = 0.50 µSv
13 Effective dose = ∑(dose equivalent × W)
= (2500 × 0.12) + (1000 × 0.05)
= 350 μSv
14 Technetium is the most common radioisotope used for medical tracing and it is produced in a nuclear reactor.
15 They use non-ionising radiation. Magnetic fields and radio waves are forms of non-ionising radiation.
16 Tracers need to able to pass through body tissue and be detected externally. Gamma rays are used as diagnostic
tracers because they can pass through the body whereas alpha and beta do not easily pass through the body.
17 Prior to a PET scan, the patient is usually injected with a radioactive tracer that emits positrons.
18 Positrons interact with electrons in the body tissue and create gamma rays that are detected by a gamma camera.
19 SPECT (single photon emission computed tomography) is used for diagnostic purposes. The patient is injected with a
radioactive gamma emitter and a gamma camera is used to obtain an image.
Chapter 17 Particle accelerators
Section 17.1 Synchrotrons

1 They all use charged particles.
2 They are passed through an electric field.
3 linac, booster ring, storage ring, beamlines
4 very close to the speed of light
5 In the storage ring electrons orbit for hours at a time at speeds near that of light, before being channelled along the
beamlines for experimentation.
6 in the booster ring
7 in the linac
8 High-intensity, high-energy sources allow X-ray diffraction techniques to be completed over considerably shorter times
than with traditional X-ray sources.
9 Synchrotrons produce a continuous spectrum of radiation, and particular wavelengths within that spectrum are highly
selectable or tunable.
10
X-ray tube Synchrotron
single burst produced over hours

relatively divergent highly collimated
standard intensity many times brighter
Section 17.2 Colliders and particle physics

1 from the outward spiralling circular path of the particles
2 Higher energies are achieved by synchronising the accelerating voltage with the particle velocity.
3 The Higgs boson essentially gives mass to all elementary particles.
4 Dark matter and antimatter are two predicted phenomenon not able to be explained by the standard model.
5 hydrogen atom source, electrons stripped away, linac, proton synchrotron booster, super proton synchrotron, storage
ring, detectors
6 The LHCb is able to detect b quarks by having a series of sub-detectors at points largely forward of the collision point
in order to focus on particles thrown forward of the collision.
7 EJ = EeV × q
= EeV × 1.6 × 10−19
= 14 × 1012 × 1.6 × 10−19
= 2.2 × 10−6 J
8 ALICE seeks to investigate quark−gluon plasma by studying the extremely high temperatures generated by heavy-ion
collisions.
9 The Proton Synchrotron Booster receives protons from the linear accelerator. It boosts the initial energy level from the
linac of 50 MeV to 1.4 GeV, after which they are fed into the Proton Synchrotron.
10 The LHCb has been designed to look for the bottom or beauty quark. Every collision event forms a broad range of
quarks for detection. Since quarks decay quickly, the LHCb has movable tracking detectors forward of the collision to
focus on particles thrown forward.
Section 17.3 The importance of accelerator technology in society

1 A collision event generates around 1 MB or 1 million bytes of data.
2 The computing centre processors are used for initial storage and analysis of data from the LHC before data is
distributed through the Worldwide LHC Computing Grid.
3 Synchrotron light is ideal for X-ray diffraction studies needing a high degree of definition since it is high energy, highly
collimated and can be produced over several hours.
4 Lithography is the process of printing a pattern onto another surface.
5 Synchrotron light is good for lithographic processes because it is high intensity, highly collimated and can be
produced continuously for several hours.
6 Like other particle accelerators, a heated cathode is used as the ion source in a beamline implantation particle
accelerator.
7 EJ = EeV × q
= 100 × 106 × 1.6 × 10−19
= 1.6 × 10−11 J
8 Relenza (zanamivir) is the world’s first anti-influenza drug.
9 X-ray diffraction
10 A semiconductor is a material that will conduct electricity only under particular conditions, placing its properties
somewhere between those of a conductor and an insulator.
Chapter 17 Review
1 Electrons are ‘boiled’ off a heated wire element acting as a cathode.
2 linear accelerator
3 A beamline is typically a stainless steel tube of 15−35 m in length along which synchrotron light travels from the
storage ring, where it is produced, to its target for experimental work.
4 X-ray diffraction
5 in the electron gun
6 Synchrotrons produce synchrotron light with frequencies ranging from the infrared region through to highest
frequency X-rays.
7 EJ = EeV × q
= 200 × 103 × 1.6 × 10−19
= 3.2 × 10−14 J
8 Hadrons. The other particles listed are fundamental particles. Fundamental particles do not have an internal structure.
Hadrons are less numerous and hence are likely to be made up of other more fundamental particles.
9 An accelerator capable of generating the 2 TeV accelerated particles required wasn’t available before the early nineties.
10 ATLAS: Head-on proton−proton collisions
ALICE: Heavy-ion detector
CMS: General-purpose detector
LHCb: Beauty-quark detector
s
11 v =
t
1
t= = 9.09 × 10−5 s
11 000
27 000
v= = 297 × 106 m s−1
9.09 × 10−5
12 A collider features two storage rings, each accelerating particles in opposite directions. Particles in each ring are
accelerated to 7 TeV. Colliding the two particles combines the individual energies to give a total of 14 TeV.
13 Any two from the following:

• It is unable to explain dark matter.
• It is unable to explain the absence of antimatter in the Universe today.
• It is unable to provide a completely unified model for all fundamental forces; interactions with gravity are
unexplained.
14 nearly 109 000
15 Ions are implanted in semiconductors in very specific locations and concentrations allowing the production of higher-
density semiconductors, which can mean smaller chips.
16 particle accelerators
17 heated cathode, filter magnet, accelerator column, mass-analysis magnet, scanner
18 Particles are colliding within the LHC approximately 600 million times per second and each collision event generates
about 1 MB (1 million bytes) of data. A powerful computer centre is required to store and analyse this massive
amount of data.
19 Tier 2 centres are largely universities.
20 Around three years after the initial collision event and after the data has been accessible through the Worldwide LHC
Computing Grid, the collision data is made available to anyone including teachers and students.
Chapter 18 Sport
Section 18.1 Collisions

CALCULATING COEFFICIENT OF RESTITUTION
A new tennis ball dropped from shoulder height (1.6 m) rebounds to waist height (1.1 m). Calculate the coefficient of
restitution of the tennis ball. Give your answer correct to two significant figures.
Thinking Working
Recall the definition of coefficient of restitution h

e =�
in terms of rebound height. H
Calculate the coefficient of restitution. 1.1

e =�
1.6
= 0.83
Section 18.1 Review

1 B. The law of conservation of energy prevents the coefficient of restitution being any higher than 1, since a ball will
lose energy in the bounce rather than gain it.
h 0.45
2 e =� =� = 0.80
H 0.7
The ball bounces too high for use in a tournament. Its value of e is 0.80 which is above the given range of 0.73−0.76.
h
3 e =�
H
h = e2H
= (0.75)2 × 1
h = 0.56
v2
4 e=
v1
v2 = e × v1 = 0.82 × 60 = 49
∆v = v1 − v2 = 60 − 49 = 11 m s−1
5 a i pi = mwuw + mrur = (0.16 × 5) + (0.16 × 0) = 0.8 kg m s−1
ii mwuw + mrur = mwvw + mrvr
(0.16 × 5) + (0.16 × 0) = (0.16 × 0) + (0.16 × vr)
0.8 = 0.16 × vr
0.8
vr = = 5 m s−1
0.16
1 1
iii ∑ Ek Initial = × 0.16 × 52 + × 0.16 × 02 = 2 J
2 2
1 1
iv ∑ Ek Final = × 0.16 × 0 + × 0.16 × 5 = 2 J
2 2
2 2
b Since ∑ Ek Initial = ∑ Ek Final, energy was conserved and collision is elastic.
6 The white ball is stationary and the red ball = 4 m s−1
Taking m as mass of balls
Before collision
pi = mw × 4 + mr × 0 = 4 m
∑ Ek Initial = 1 × mw × 42 + 1 mr × 02 = 8 m
2 2
After collision
pf = mw × 0 + mr × 4 = 4 m
∑ Ek Final = 1 × mw × 02 + 1 × mr × 42 = 8 m
2 2
This is the only combination where both momentum and kinetic energy are conserved (i.e. the red ball is stationary
and the white one moves at 4 ms−1).
7 marrowuarrow +mappleuapple = marrowvarrow + mapplevapple

0.08 × 35 + 0.1 × 0 = 0.08 × 25 + 0.1 × vapple
0.08 × (35 − 25)
vapple = = 8 m s−1
0.1
8 a mballuball +m4ballsu4balls = m5ballsv5balls
0.04 × 1.5 + (4 × 0.04) × 0 = 5 × 0.04 × v5balls
v5balls = = 0.3 m s−1
b Initial kinetic energy
∑ Ek Initial = 1 × 0.04 × 1.52 + 1
× (4 × 0.04) × 02 = 0.045 J
2 2
Final kinetic energy
∑ Ek Final = 1 × (5 × 0.04) × 0.32 = 0.009 J
2
Since kinetic energy is not conserved, the collision is inelastic.
9 Take the direction of the bat’s motion as positive
a Initial momentum of ball
pi ball = mballuball= (0.16 × −40) = −6.4 kg m s−1
Final momentum of ball
pf ball = mballvball = (0.16 × 21) = 3.4 kg m s−1
Change in momentum = ∆p = pf − pi = 3.4 − −6.4 = 9.8 kg m s−1
b Speed of bat after collision
mballuball + mbatubat = mballvball + mbatvbat
0.16 × −40 + 1.3 × 15 = 0.16 × 21 + 1.3 × vbat
13.1 = 3.36 + 1.3 × vbat
13.1 − 3.36 = 1.3 × vbat
vbat = = 7.5 m s−1
c Initial kinetic energy
∑ Ek Initial = 1 × 0.16 × (−40)2 + 1 × 1.3 × (15)2 = 270 J
2 2
Final kinetic energy
∑ Ek Final = 1 × 0.16 × (21)2 + 1
× 1.3 × (7.5)2 = 72 J
2 2
Since kinetic energy is not conserved the collision is inelastic.
Section 18.2 Sliding and rolling

CALCULATING FRICTION
Calculate the force of friction acting on a 7.2 kg bowling ball if the coefficient of kinetic friction between the ball and
the lane is 0.12. Give your answers correct to two significant figures.
Thinking Working
Calculate the normal force acting on the ball. On a flat FN = −Fg = −mg = −7.2 × 9.8
surface, the normal force will be equal in magnitude to = −71 N
the weight of the ball.
Recall the formula for friction. Ff = μFN
Calculate the force of friction. = 0.12 × −71

= −8.5 N

EFFECT OF FRICTION
A 65 kg footballer wears boots that have a coefficient of kinetic friction with grass of 0.69. If the footballer is running
at 8.0 m s−1 and then suddenly tries to stop, how fast will she be going after sliding for 2 m? Give your answer correct
to two significant figures.
Thinking Working
Calculate the normal force acting on the ball. FN = −Fg = −mg = −65 × 9.8
FN = −640 N
Recall the formula for friction. Ff = μFN
Calculate the force of friction. = 0.69 × −640

= −440 N
Calculate the deceleration of the bowling ball using F = ma

Newton’s Second Law. F −440
∴a= =
m 65
= −6.8 m s−2
Use an appropriate equation of motion to calculate the v2 = u2 + 2as

final speed (v) of the ball. 2
= 8 + 2 × −6.8 × 2
−1
v = 6.1 m s

CONVERTING BETWEEN DEGREES AND RADIANS
Make the following conversions. Give your answers correct to three significant figures.
a 130° to radians
Thinking Working
Recall the conversion for degrees to radians. π

Multiply value by
180
Convert 130° to radians π

130 × ≈ 2.27
180°
b 5.65 radians to degrees
Thinking Working
180
Recall the conversion for radians to degrees. Multiply value by
π
180°
Convert 5.65 radians to degrees 5.65 × ≈ 324°
π

CALCULATING ANGULAR SPEED
A spinning tennis ball goes through 50 complete rotations in 1 second. Calculate its angular speed. Give your answers
correct to three significant figures.
Thinking Working
Convert the frequency to a time of rotation. t=
1
=
1
f 50
= 0.02 s
Recall that 1 rotation = 2π radians θ = 2π ≈ 6.283 rad
θ
Recall the definition of angular speed. Ω=
t
Calculate the angular speed. (Note that the rule w = 2πf Ω=

6.283
could also have been used.) 0.02
= 314 rad s−1

CONVERTING ANGULAR SPEED TO LINEAR SPEED
A basketball with a diameter of 75 cm rolls along the ground at an angular speed of 40 rad s−1. Calculate its linear
speed.
Thinking Working
Calculate the radius of the basketball in m. r= D
1
2
= 0.375 m
Recall the formula for converting angular speed to linear speed. v = rω
Calculate the linear speed. v = 0.375 × 40
= 15 m s−1
Section 18.2 Review

1 C
Ff = μFN
FN = −Fg = −mg = −75 × 9.8 = 735 N
Ff = μFN = 0.8 × −735 = −590 N
2 C. If the ball experienced zero friction then it would never stop rolling.
Kinetic friction occurs when two surface slide against each other.
When a ball rolls along the ground it experiences static friction because the surface of the ball and the ground are
stationary relative to one another at the point of contact.
3 FN = −Fg = −mg = −0.165 × 9.8 = −1.6 N
Ff = μFN = 0.038 × −1.6 = −0.060 N
F (–0.060)
a= = = −0.37 m s−2
m 0.16
v = u + at
= 41 + −0.37 × 7
−1
= 38 m s
4 FN = −Fg = −mg = −80 × 9.8 = −780 N
Ff = μFN = 0.65 × −780 = −510 N
F (–510)
a= = = −6.4 m s−2
m 80
2 2
v = u + 2as
∴02 = 5.02 + 2 × −6.4 × s
(–25)
s= = 2.0 m
(–12.8)
5 First find the deceleration of the ball using 6 C. A radian is the measure of central angle subtending
v2 = u2 + 2as an arc equal in length to the radius. The circumference
∴ 02 = 15.02 + 2 × a × 25 of a circle is given by the formula C = 2πr. 1 revolution
(–225) is equal to exactly radians.
∴a=
(–25)
= −4.5 m s−2
Calculate the force of friction
Ff = ma = 0.44 × −4.5 = −2.0 N
Calculate the normal reaction force
FN = −Fg = −mg = −0.44 × 9.8 = −4.3 N
Find the coefficient of friction
Ff = μFN
Ff −2.0
∴μ = =
Fn −4.3
= 0.46
7
Angle (in degrees) Angle (in radians)
57°
π
57 × ≈ 0.995
180
125°
π
125 × ≈ 2.18
180
280°
π
280 × ≈ 4.89
180
450°
π
450 × ≈ 7.85
180
180 0.50
0.50 × π ≈ 28.6°
180 1.25
1.25 × π ≈ 71.6°
180 4.80
4.80 × π ≈ 275°
180 7.12
7.12 × π ≈ 408°
θ
8 Since w =
t
Angle, θ (rad) Time, t (s) Angular speed ω (rad s−1)

θ 3.14
3.14 0.01 w= t = 0.01 = 314
48
48 0.3 w= 160
0.3
630
630 21 w= = 30
2
θ = ω × t = 25 × 2.4 = 60 2.4 25
θ = 54 × 0.34 = 18 0.34 54
θ = 8.8 × 0.1 = 0.88 0.1 8.8

θ 55
55 t= 6.0
w = 6.0 = 9.2
8.4
8.4 t= = 0.22 38
38
1 1
9 r= D= × 0.217 10 Radius of ball
2 2 1 1
r= D= × 0.216
= 0.1085 m 2 2
v = rω = 0.108 m
d 18.3
= 0.1085 × 85.7 = 9.30 m s −1 Linear velocity v = = = 7.32 m s−1
t 2.50
Angular speed is derived from v = rω
v 7.32
ω= = = 67.8 rad s−1
r 0.108
Section 18.3 Hitting, kicking or throwing

SIMPLE PENDULUM
Calculate the period of a simple pendulum that is 70 cm long. Give your answer correct to two significant figures. Use
g = 9.8 m s−2.
Thinking Working
Recall the equation for the period of a simple pendulum. L

T = 2π�
g
Substitute the correct values into this equation. 0.7

T = 2 × 3.14 ×�
9.8
= 1.7 s
Section 18.3 Review

1 D. The gravitational potential energy is zero because 8 Treat the footballer’s leg as a simple pendulum.
the head of the golf club is at ground level. Kinetic Mechanical energy is conserved in a simple pendulum.
energy is zero because the golf club is stationary. By raising her foot, the footballer has given it
2 Gravitational potential energy is converted to kinetic gravitational potential energy. When the foot swings
energy and back throughout the golf swing. The down to kick the ball, its gravitational potential energy
gravitational potential energy is maximum because will transform into kinetic energy. The more kinetic
the head of the golf club is at its highest point. Kinetic energy her foot has, the more kinetic energy will be
energy is zero because the golf club will have stopped transferred to the ball and the faster the ball will go.
moving. 9 A pendulum consists of a bob, suspended from a fixed
3 D. When a bat hits a ball, some of the kinetic energy point. A double pendulum consists of one pendulum
of the bat is transformed into heat and sound, some is suspended from another pendulum so the upper leg or
transferred to the ball, some is retained by the bat. thigh acts as the upper pendulum; the lower leg or calf
4 Potential energy Eg = mg∆h acts as the lower pendulum.
= 0.150 × 9.8 × 0.225

= 0.33 J
5 The period of a simple pendulum is given by:
L
T = 2π�
g
0.3
= 2 × 3.14 ×�
1.6
= 2.7 s
L
6 T = 2π�
g
T2g
L=
4π2
12 × 9.8
= 4π2 10. A double pendulum is governed by the laws of physics
= 0.248 but sensitive to the initial position of each bob. The
= 248 mm results of its swing will vary depending on the exact
7 A. The period of a simple pendulum is independent of starting position of each of the bobs. Small changes in
its mass. the initial position of one bob will mean that the double
L pendulum system will swing a very different way.
The period of a simple pendulum is given by 2π� .
g
Since T ∝ √L increasing the length of a simple
pendulum will increase its period.
Section 18.4 The flight of a ball

BALLS HIT OR THROWN HORIZONTALLY
A tennis ball of mass 59 g is being projected horizontally from a practice machine. The initial speed is 20 m s−1 and the
ball is released 1.5 m from the ground.
a How long, in seconds, will the ball be in the air before hitting the surface of the court?
Thinking Working
Identify the known information for both the horizontal uh = 20 m s−1

and vertical components of the ball’s motion. As the ball uv = 0 m s−1
is falling down, it is easiest to take ‘down’ as positive in
ah = 0
this question.
av is positive
sh = ?
sv = 1.5 m
t=?
The time the ball takes to fall to the surface of the In the vertical direction
court will depend on the vertical motion only. From the s = 1.5 m
information supplied, identify the most suitable equation
uv = 0 m s−1
of motion.
t=?
2
Use the equation: s = ut + 4.9t
Substitute the known information and rearrange to find t. s = ut + 4.9t2

1.5 = 0t + 4.9t2
1.5
t2 = 4.9
1.5
t=�
4.9
= 0.553
= 0.55 s (to two significant figures)
b Calculate the distance the ball has travelled while it falls
Thinking Working
The time the ball takes to fall will be the same time sh = ?
that the ball is travelling horizontally. Use the time and uh = 20 m s
−1
identify known information in the horizontal direction to

ah = 0
calculate the distance.
t = 0.55 s
The only equation required for calculations in the
horizontal direction is s = ut since a is zero and the speed
is constant.
Substitute the known information and solve to find s. s = ut

= 20 × 0.55
= 11 m
c Calculate the resultant velocity of the ball on landing
Thinking Working
This calculation requires both the horizontal and vertical Horizontal: v = u = 20 m s−1 since a is zero in the
components of the ball’s velocity to be known. The final horizontal direction.
horizontal component of the velocity will be the same as Vertical:
the initial, the vertical component will change due to the
v=?
acceleration due to gravity. −1
u=0ms
s = 1.5 m
t = 0.55 s
Vertical acceleration downward is positive.
Identify a suitable equation based on what is known, Two options:

substitute and solve for the vertical component of the v = u + 9.8t
final velocity.
v2 = u2 + 19.6s
In this case there are two options. Try to use the supplied
To make use of supplied data, the best option to use is:
data when possible. 2 2
v = u + 19.6s
Substitute the known information and solve to find v. v2 = u2 + 19.6s

= 0 + 19.6 × 1.5
v = √29.4
−1
= 5.4 m s
Solve for the final velocity using vector addition of the two
θ
components
vf
Use Pythagoras to determine the magnitude of the final vf2 = vh2 + vv2
resultant velocity = 202 + 5.42
= 400 + 29.16
vf = √429.16
= 20.72
−1
= 20.7 m s (to three significant figures)
opp vv
Use trigonometry to find the angle. Since the adjacent tan θ = =
adj vh
and opposite are known, tan would be the appropriate
5.4
function. = = 0.27
20
θ = 15°
−1
State the final velocity giving both the magnitude and the 20.7 m s at 15° down from the horizontal.
angle relative to the horizontal.

BALLS HIT OR THROWN AT AN ANGLE
A football is kicked upward with an initial velocity of 20 m s−1 at an angle of 45° to the horizontal.
a How long will the ball take to reach its maximum height, assuming no air resistance?
Thinking Working
The initial values are supplied as a velocity with

magnitude and direction. Find the corresponding initial
vertical and horizontal components by drawing the
triangle and using trigonometry.
uv = u × sin θ = 20 × sin 45° = 14.14 m s−1

uh = u × cos θ = 20 × cos 45° = 14.14 m s−1
Time taken to reach the maximum height will be in the Use the equation:
vertical direction. Use the vertical component; v at the top v = u + 9.8t
of the flight will be zero. As the ball is rising, it is easiest
Since then ball is rising, take acceleration as negative and
to take ‘down’ as negative and ‘up’ as positive in this
the equation becomes:
question.
v = u − 9.8t
0 = 14.14 − 9.8t
−14.14
t= −9.8 = 1.443 =1.4 s
b Assuming the ball was kicked from an initial height of 1.0 m, what is the maximum height the ball will reach?
Thinking Working
Maximum height equals the starting height plus the In the vertical direction, use the equation:
additional height the ball achieves after release. Use the s = ut + 4.9t2
unrounded value calculated for t in calculating the height
Since then ball is rising, take acceleration as negative.
to avoid rounding errors.
The equation becomes:
s = ut − 4.9t2
= 14.14 × 1.443 − 4.9 × 1.4432
= 10.20 m up from the starting point
You may wish to check your working with a second s=

1
(u + v)t
equation applicable for this situation. Recall that the 2
1
vertical component of velocity will be zero at maximum = (14.14 + 0) × 1.443
2
height.
= 10.20
Calculate the final height from the original height plus the s = 1.0 + 10.20 = 11.20 m (up)
additional height calculated after release.
Section 18.4 Review

1 When air resistance is ignored, the horizontal velocity of a ball, or any other object undergoing projectile motion, is
constant as no forces act in the horizontal direction. So, the horizontal velocity of the basketball does not change
throughout the shot. It is constant.
2 When air resistance is ignored, the only force acting on the ball is due to gravity. This acts downwards and affects the
vertical velocity of the ball. The minimum velocity of the ball is at the top of its flight.
3 C. The path of an object undergoing projectile motion is symmetrical. So, the time taken for the ball to rise is the
same as when it falls.
4 The vertical component is 20 m s−1 and the horizontal component is 30 m s−1. Just before the ball hits the ground,
and as no other external forces apply, the ball will have the same velocity on landing as it does on take-off. So, the
velocity components will be the same.
5 For this question, you only need to consider the vertical components. Take ‘up’ as positive.
v = u − 9.8t
= 20 − 9.8 × 1.5
= 5.3 m s−1 (up)
6 a To calculate the time taken, use the vertical component of the ball’s motion. Calculate the time for the ball to reach
its highest point, then double it to find the total time of flight. (Take ‘up’ as positive.)
v = u − 9.8t
0 = 20 − 9.8t
−20
t= = 2.04 s
−9.8
Total time = 2t = 4.1 s
b For this question, you only need to consider the horizontal components to calculate the distance. Use the time
calculated in question 5.
s = ut = vt
= 30 × 4.1 = 123 m
7 Only vertical motion applies here. Take ‘up’ as positive.
v = 0 (at the top of the flight)
s = 3.30 − 1.80 = 1.50 m (distance the ball needs to rise)
u=?
v2 = u2 − 19.6s
0 = u2 −19.6 × 1.50
u2 = 19.6 × 1.50
u = √19.6 × 1.50 = 5.42 m s−1
8 Calculate the vertical and horizontal components of the initial velocity.
uv = 23 × sin 45° = 16.26 m s−1
uh = 23 × cos 45° = 16.26 m s−1
Calculate the time taken to reach the maximum height during flight. The total time will be double. (Take ‘up’ as
positive.)
v = u − 9.8t
0 = 16.26 − 9.8t
16.26
t= = 1.66 s
−9.8
total time = 1.66 × 2 = 3.32 s
Calculate the distance travelled using the horizontal component of velocity and the total time taken.
s = ut
= 16.26 × 3.32
= 54 m
Section 18.5 Air resistance

CALCULATING DRAG
Calculate the drag force acting on a baseball travelling at 47 m s−1 if it has a diameter of 72.1 mm and a drag
coefficient of 0.36. Assume an air density of 1.25 kg m−3. Give your answers correct to two significant figures.
Thinking Working
Calculate the cross-sectional area of the ball. r = 0.036 m

2 2
A = πr = 0.0041 m
Recall the formula for drag. FD =

1
CDρv2 A
2
1
Calculate the drag force. FD = × 0.36 × 1.25 × 472 × 0.0041
2
= 2.0 N

CALCULATING TERMINAL VELOCITY
Calculate the terminal velocity of a tennis ball (mass 58.9 g and diameter 67 mm) assuming gravitational acceleration
is 9.8 m s−2, a drag coefficient of 0.51 and air density of 1.26 kg m−3.
Thinking Working
Calculate the cross-sectional area of the ball. r = 0.034 m

2 2
A = πr = 0.0035 m
Recall the formula for terminal velocity. 2mg

vt = �
CDρA
Calculate the terminal velocity. 2 × 0.0589 × 9.8

vt = �
0.51 × 1.26 × 0.0035
= 23 m s−1
Section 18.5 Review

1 D. Air resistance produces a drag force. Drag is a retarding force which slows the motion of a ball through the
air. When compared to the ideal parabolic path, a ball that is affected by air resistance therefore travels a shorter
horizontal distance.
2 A is false. By removing air resistance the balls are equally affected by gravity and fall at the same velocity.
B is true.
C is false. If air resistance is taken into account the polystyrene ball will reach terminal velocity and fall at a constant
velocity.
D is false. Drag is affected by many factor and changes.
3 In this case drag relates to the density of each medium as velocity, area and drag coefficient of the body will remain
constant. The correct order is: glycerine, water, air, vacuum.
4 2
Ball type Diameter (mm) Radius (m) Cross-sectional area (m )
netball 226 mm D = 226 mm = 0.226 m A = πr2 = π × (0.113)2

0.226
∴r= = 0.113 m = 0.040 m2
2
cricket D = 2 × 36 0.036 A = πr2 = π × (0.036)2

= 72 mm = 0.0041 m2
tennis D = 2r A 0.0036 0.0036

r=� =�
= 2 × 34 π π
= 68 mm = 0.034 mm
5 First calculate the cross-sectional area of the ball:

D = 76 mm = 0.076 m
0.076
∴r= = 0.038 m
2
2 2
A = πr = π × 0.038
= 0.0045 m2
1
FD = CDρv2 A
2
1
= × 0.35 × 1.25 × 302 × 0.0045
2
= 0.89 N
6 At the start of the match:
D = 72.6 mm = 0.0726 m
0.0726
∴r= = 0.0363 m
2
2 2
A = πr = π × 0.0363
= 0.00414 m2
2mg
vt = �
CDρA
2 × 0.16 × 9.8
=�
0.33 × 1.25 × 0.00414
= 43 m s−1
Later in the match: new drag coefficient
2 × 0.16 × 9.8
vt = �
0.4 × 1.25 × 0.00414
= 39 m s−1
Difference in terminal velocity = 43 − 39 = 4.0 m s−1
7 D = 100 mm = 0.1 m
0.1
∴r= = 0.05 m
2
2 2
A = πr = π × 0.05
= 0.0079 m2
2mg
vt = �
CDρA
2 × 0.2 × 9.8
=�
0.45 × 1.2 × 0.0079
= 30 m s−1
2mg
8 vt = �
CDρA
2mg
vt2 =
CDρA
2mg
CD =
v 2t ρA
Calculate area
D = 98 mm = 0.098 m
0.098
∴r= = 0.049 m
2
2 2
A = πr = π × 0.049
= 0.0075 m2
2 × 0.195 × 9.8
CD =
392 × 1.25 × 0.0075
= 0.27 is the drag coefficient in air for a softball.
9 The terminal velocity occurs when the weight of the ball equals the drag force acting on it. The greater the weight of
the ball, the higher its terminal velocity; the greater the drag on the ball, the lower its terminal velocity.
A cricket ball has a higher terminal velocity than a tennis ball for two reasons. The cricket ball has a much higher
mass than the tennis ball; therefore, its weight will be greater. Also, since the cricket ball has a lower drag coefficient, it
will experience less drag force. Both of these factors increase the terminal velocity of the cricket ball compared to that
of the tennis ball.
10 When air flows more quickly over one surface of the ball than another, it creates an area of low air pressure. The ball
will move towards a region of low air pressure. Due to the spin, air is moving more quickly past the right hand side
of the ball than the left hand side of the ball. Because of this, the ball will move to the right (in the direction of the
yellow arrow).
direction of motion
direction of spin
direction of Magnus force
Chapter 18 Review
1 B
h
e=�
H
h
e2 =
H
∴ h = e2 × H = 0.56 m
v2
2 e=
v1
v2
v1 =
e
25
=
0.78
= 32
∆v = v1 − v2 = 32 − 25 = 7 m s−1
1
3 a Ek = mv2
2
∑ Ek = (Ek)200 g ball + (Ek)100 g ball
∑ Ek 1 1
Initial = × 0.2 × 92 + × 0.1 × 02
2 2
= 8.1 J
1 1
b ∑ Ek Final = × 0.2 × 32 + × 0.1 × 122
2 2
= 8.1 J
c The collision is elastic because the initial total kinetic energy is equal to the final total kinetic energy.
4 a Since the balls are travelling in opposite directions, the velocity of one of the balls must be treated as negative.
∑pbefore = m1 u1 + m2 u2
∑pafter = 4.0 × 3.0 + 4.0 × −3.0 = 0
Assuming the two balls rebound at equal velocities of v and −v respectively:
∑pafter = 4.0 × v + 4.0 × −v = 0
Since ∑pbefore = ∑pafter = 0, momentum has been conserved.
b Since 20 J of the initial kinetic energy is transformed into heat and sound, this is an inelastic collision.
c Assume that the final kinetic energy of the system is equally shared between the two balls.
∑ Ek Initial = 1 × m1 × u12 + 1 × m2 × u22
2 2
1 2 1
= × 4.0 × 3.0 + × 4.0 × 3.02
2 2
= 36 J
∑ Ek Final = 36 − 20 = 16 J
∑ Ek ball = 1 × 16 = 8 J
2
Joules per ball
1
Ek = mv2
2
2Ek 2 × 8.0
∴v=� =�
m 4.0
= 2.0 m s−1
5 The normal force experienced by the ball is equal and opposite to the ball’s weight.
Recall the definition for friction:
Ff = μFN
FN = −Fg = −mg
Ff = μFN = −μmg
F −μmg
a= = = −μg
m m
6 FN = −Fg = −mg = −0.425 × 9.8 = −4.2 N
Ff 2.0
μ= = = 0.48
FN 4.2
7 FN = −Fg = −mg
= −0.42 × 9.8
= −4.1 N
Ff = μFN
= 0.52 × −4.1 = −2.1 N
8 a Radius of ball
1 1
r= D= × 0.112
2 2
= 0.056 m
u+v
s= ( )t 2
10.9
=( ) 4.11 = 22.4 m
2
u+v 10.9
b Average linear velocity = ( ) = ( ) = 5.45 m s
2 2
−1
or you can use
d 22.4
linear velocity v = = = 5.45 m s−1
t 4.11
Angular speed is derived from v = rω
v 5.45
ω= = = 97.3 rad s−1
r 0.056
25.2
9 a Find average period: T = = 2.52 s
10
Transpose the equation for the period of a simple pendulum to make g the subject.
L
T = 2π �
G
g = 4π L = 4π × 0.6
2 2
T2 2.522
= 3.73 m s−1
9.80 − 3.73
b % Difference = ( 9.80
) × 100 = 62% lower
10 When a golfer swings the club, from above her head to strike the ball, gravitational potential energy will be converted
into kinetic energy. This system can be best modelled as a double pendulum.
11 Eg = mg∆h
= 1.3 × 9.8 × 1.4
= 17.8 J
12 Eg = Ek
1
Kinetic energy = Ek = mv2
2
1
17.8 = × 1.3 × v2
2
2 × 17.8
v=� = 5.2 m s−1
1.3
13 Assume down is positive direction
s = 17.5, u = 0, a = 9.8, t = ?
1
a s = ut + at2
2
1
17.5 = 0 + × 9.8t2
2
17.2
t2 =
4.9
17.5
t=� = 1.89 s
4.9
b u = 40, a = 0, t = 1.89, s = ?
1
sH = ut + at2
2
= 40 × 1.89 + 0 = 75.6 m
c vH = u + at
= 0 + 9.8 × 1.89
= 18.52 m s−1
Combine both vertical and horizontal speed using Pythagoras.
v = √18.522 + 402
= 44 m s−1
14 a Since there is no vertical motion uv = 0 m s−1
b u = 0, a = 9.8, t = 0.8, v = ?
vv = u + at
= 0 + 9.8 × 0.8 = 7.8 m s−1 down
1
c s = ut + at2
2
1
=0+ × 9.8 × 0.82 = 3.1 m
2
d Use Pythagoras
7.8 m s–1 v m s–1
𝛳
5 m s–1
v = √7.82+ 52
= 9.3 m s−1
7.8
e tan θ =
5
= 57°
15 a uV = v sin θ
= 20 × sin 65°
= 18.2 ms−1
Also know vh= 0, a = −9.8 ms−2, t = ? where t = time to top of flight path of ball
v = u + at
0 = 18.2 − 9.8t
18.2
t1 = = 1.86 s (half journey therefore we double this as flight is parabolic path)
2 9.8
t = 3.71 s
b Need to know horizontal velocity,

uH = v cos θ
= 20 × cos 65°
= 8.45 m s−1
So u = 8.45, a = 0, t = 3.71 and s = ?
1
s = ut + at2
2
= 8.45 × 3.71 = 31.4 m
Ball travels 31.4 m horizontally
16 a uH = v cos θ
= 8.0 × cos 60°
= 4.0 m s−1
b uV = v sin θ
= 8.0 × sin 60°
= 6.9 m s−1
c Use the vertical component and take up as positive:
u = 6.9, a = −9.8, v = 0, t = ?
v = u + at
0 = 6.9 − 9.8t
−6.9
t= = 0.71 s
−9.8
d u = 6.9, a = −9.8, v = 0, t = 0.71, s = ?
u+v
s= ( )t 2
6.9
= ( ) × 0.71 = 2.5 m
2
This must be added to the launch height, so height off ground
= 2.5 + 1.5 = 4.0 m
e At the highest point the shot is moving horizontally. Its vertical speed is zero.
Its speed is the same as the horizontal component of launch speed: 4.0 m s−1.
17 D = 68 mm = 0.068 m
0.068
∴r= = 0.034 m
2
2 2
A = πr = π × 0.034
= 0.0036 m2
1
FD = CDρv2 A
2
1
= × 0.56 × 1.25 × 552 × 0.0036
2
= 3.8 N
18 D = 66.4 mm = 0.0664 m
0.0664
∴r= = 0.0332 m
2
2 2
A = πr = π × 0.0332
= 0.0035 m2
2mg
vt = �
CDρA
2 × 0.0572 × 9.8
=�
0.48 × 1.25 × 0.0035
= 23 m s−1
Later in match: new drag coefficient
2 × 0.0572 × 9.8
vt = �
0.49 × 1.15 × 0.0035
= 24 m s−1
Difference in terminal velocity = 24 − 23 = 1.0 m s−1
19 Air resistance produces a drag force on the golf ball. Drag forces oppose the motion of the golf ball. This slows down
the horizontal motion of the ball which reduces the range of the shot. Drag also reduces the vertical speed of the ball
so that it stays it stays in the air for a shorter period of time and therefore travels a shorter distance, also reducing the
range of the shot.
20 Air pressure: Generally, as a spinning ball travels in the air, it drags air around itself in the direction of the spin. The
air moving past the ball also increases on one side and slows down on the other. Since faster moving air exerts less
pressure, the air on the opposite direction of the ball is at a relatively greater pressure. It is this specific difference in
pressure that creates the force which makes the ball to curve in flight.
Direction of ball movement: Whenever a ball is spinning through the air, the Magnus ‘force’ will push it in a direction
perpendicular to the direction of movement.
Top spin:
• Magnus effect causes slower moving air to create high pressure above the ball and faster moving air creates low
pressure underneath the ball.
• The direction of ball travel is always from high to low pressure.
• So the Magnus Force causes the ball to dip as it travels and the distance travelled is decreased from the non-
spinning flight path
Chapter 19 Practical investigation
Section 19.1 Designing and planning the investigation

1 a If the voltage is measured in units of number of batteries then it is a discrete value.
b If the voltage is measured with a voltmeter then the voltage would be continuous.
2 qualitative
3 C. A hypothesis should test only one independent variable and it should predict the relationship between the
independent and dependent variable. Hypothesis 1 tests two independent variables. Hypothesis 2 does not predict the
type of relationship between the independent and dependent variables.
4 a valid
b reliable
c accurate
5 The type of grip
Section 19.2 Conducting investigations and recording and

analysing data
1 a systematic error
b random error
2 Give answer to two significant figures, as this is the least number of significant figures in the data provided.
3 a mean = (21 + 28 + 19 + 19 + 25 + 24) ÷ 6 = 22.7
b mode = 19
c median = 22.5
4 Voltage (V)
2.5
1.5
0.5
0
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 Current (A)
5 Add a trend line or line of best fit.
Section 19.3 Discussing investigations and drawing evidence-

based conclusions
1 A linear graph shows the proportional relationship between two variables.
2 An inversely proportional relationship.
3 Directly proportional.
4 Time restraints and limited resources.
5 An increase in current from 0.03 to 0.05 A produced an increase of 0.88 V across the resistor.
Chapter 19 Review
1 A hypothesis is a prediction, based on evidence and prior knowledge, to answer the research question. A hypothesis
often takes the form of a proposed relationship between two or more variables.
2 Dependent variable: flight displacement
Independent variable: release angle
Controlled variable: (any of) release velocity, release height, landing height, air resistance (including wind)
3 a The acceleration of the object.
b The vertical acceleration of the falling object.
c The rate of rotation of the springboard diver.
4 Elimination, substitution, isolation, engineering controls, administrative controls, personal protective equipment.
5 6.8 ± 0.4 cm s−1
6 the mean
7 an exponential relationship
8 This graph should show a straight line with a positive gradient.
9 Any issues that could have affected the validity, accuracy, precision or reliability of the data plus any sources of error
or uncertainty.
10 Bias is a form of systematic error resulting from a researcher’s personal preferences or motivations.
Unit 1 Area of Study 1
How can thermal effects be explained?

REVIEW SOLUTIONS
1 D. No information is given about whether or not heat flows between A and C, hence insufficient information.
2 There has to be thermal contact for equilibrium to be reached. This does not have to be physical contact because
heat could be exchanged radiatively, although physical contact would be more common.
3 B. Temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy of particles within a system.
If the average kinetic energy in two objects is the same then their temperatures will be the same.
4 Initially the air is a gas at room temperature with relatively high average kinetic energy. Energy flows to the liquid
nitrogen. Gas molecules lose so much kinetic energy they begin to attract one another, and the gas condenses to a
liquid. Gas volume in balloon is reduced. On removal from the liquid nitrogen, molecules absorb energy from the
surrounding air. On heating the liquid boils and vaporises. Temperature and pressure are restored.
5 B
m1T1 + m2T2 80m + 10m 80 + 10
Tfinal = = = = 45°C
m1 + m2 2m 2
5 −1 −1 −1
6 C. The larger latent heat required to melt ice to water (3.34 × 10 J kg versus 1000 J kg K for the specific heat
capacity for air) means that more energy is required.
7 Heat is absorbed from the environment, increasing the internal energy of the CO2 molecules.
8 Temperature is related to the average kinetic energy of the particles. On sublimation, average kinetic energy of the
particles is not altered. Potential energy increases as the molecules move further apart.
9 Energy transferred to water: Q = mc∆T = 4200 × 0.20 × (25 − 20) = 4200 J
Energy transferred from metal: Q = 4200 J = c × 0.070 × (75 − 25)
4200
Specific heat capacity of unknown metal: c = = 840 J kg−1 K−1
0.10 × 50
From table of specific heat capacities this would most closely match aluminium.
10 C
K = °C + 273
T = 1550 + 273 = 1823 K
11 Energy flows from an object at a higher temperature to that at a lower temperature until both furnace and copper are
at the same temperature. The amount of energy that leaves the furnace is equal to the amount of energy that enters
the copper rod.
12 When energy is added to the rod, the atoms move faster, increasing their average kinetic energy. Temperature is a
measure of the average kinetic energy of the particles, and so the temperature increases.
13 The rod will lose heat by radiation and conduction to the steel plate and the nitrogen gas.
(No convection in the steel or the copper solids, but convection currents in the gas could assist with cooling.)
14 B and C. The temperature is related to the average kinetic energy of the particles. This has not changed.
The potential energy has changed as the particles have moved further apart—energy absorbed to overcome the
attraction of the particles for one another. Potential energy is increased.
The total internal energy is the sum of potential and kinetic energies. It has increased because potential energy
has increased.
Heating does not change the number of particles, just their kinetic energy.
15 When heat is absorbed by a material and no phase change is involved, the heat capacity is the energy in joules to
heat 1 kg of material by one degree. For phase changes (latent heat) there is no temperature change—it is merely the
energy per kg to cause the phase change.
16 Q = mc∆T
= 0.500 kg × 3.8 × 103 J kg−1 K−1 × 25 K
= 47.5 kJ
17 Water has a very high specific heat capacity relative to the fats and proteins in the ice cream. Ice cream mix is 70.0%
water, hence its lower specific heat.
18 The heat lost to the brine at 0°C comes from the latent heat of fusion and the water changes phase and becomes ice.
19 Latent heat of fusion for water to freeze:

Q = mL
= 0.7 × 0.500 kg × 3.34 × 105 J kg−1
= 116.9
≈ 117 kJ
20 Total heat gained by brine = heat to cool ice cream mix and freeze water in ice cream
= 116.9 kJ + 47.5 kJ = 164.4 kJ
Q 164.4 × 103 J
∆T = =
mc 5 kg × 3.5 × 103 J kg−1 K−1
Final temperature is 9.39°C above the starting temperature of −11°C.
Tf ≈ −1.6°C
Note: after freezing, the ice cream will cool still further until it reaches thermal equilibrium with the brine.
21 Q = mL
= 1.0 kg × 199 kJ kg−1
= 199 kJ
22 Q = mc∆T
= 1.00 kg × 1.34 kJ kg−1 K−1 × 196°C
= 262.6 kJ
23 Q = mc∆T
= 0.2 kg × 3.8 kJ kg−1 K−1 × 8°C
= 6.08 kJ
Water content = 0.7 × 0.200 = 0.140 kg
Q = mL
= 0.14 kg × 3.34 × 102 kJ kg−1 = 46.8 kJ
Total required = 6.08 kJ + 46.8 kJ = 52.8 kJ
24 Heat absorbed to vaporise and heat 1 kg nitrogen:
QN = 262.6 + 199 ≈ 462 kJ
52.8
Mass nitrogen = × 1 kg = 0.114 kg
462
i.e. it takes 114 g liquid nitrogen to make 200 g ice cream.
25 Q = mc∆T
Heat lost by lemonade = 500 g × 4.2 J g−1 × 28°C = 58.8 kJ
Q 5.58 × 104
Mass of ice = = = 167 g
L 3.34 × 102
26 Heat lost by coin = heat gained by water
mcSHCc ∆Tc = mSHCw ∆Tw
0.500 kg × 2.5°C × 4.20 × 103 J kg−1 K−1
SHCc =
0.050 kg × 227.5°C
SHCc = 462 J kg−1 K−1
27 Water has an exceptionally high specific heat capacity, and thus can absorb large amounts of heat without
significantly changing temperature. This moderates the temperatures close to the coast.
28 Obviously the amount of steam or water in question would make a difference since the heat is proportional to
the mass.
If the masses were equal, the steam will burn more severely because of the additional latent heat that is released
when it condenses to water on the person’s skin at 100°C.
29 D. P = kT4 = k × ()
1 4
2
=k×
1
16
30 Energy lost by patient = m × ∆T × SHC
= 65 kg × 3.2°C × 3.50 × 103 J kg−1 °C−1 = 728 kJ
heat from patient
∆T =
mwSHCw
728 000 J
=
40 kg × 4.2 × 103 J kg−1 °C−1
= 4.33°C
Ti = Tf − ∆T = 37 − 4.33 = 32.7°C
31 a radio waves, microwaves, infrared, visible light, ultraviolet, X-rays, gamma rays
b gamma rays, X-rays, ultraviolet, visible light, infrared, microwaves, radio waves
32 Radiation: heat enters the Earth’s atmosphere via radiated by Sun and is re-radiated out by black-body radiation;
some of the radiant heat is trapped creating the greenhouse effect.
Conduction: air is a poor conductor of heat.
Convection: major factor; hot air rises, cools and drops; basis of most weather systems.
33 B
Power radiated per square metre
P (per m2) = σT4
= 5.67 × 10−8 W m−2 K−4 × (290)4
Power = 401 W m−2
34 a Incident: P = 1370 W m−2 × πRE2
b Absorption: P = (1 − 0.31) × 1370 W m−2 × πRE2
P = 945 W m−2 × πRE2
−8
35 P = 5.67 × 10 J K−4 × TE4 × πRE2
36 The effect of the atmosphere is to retain some of the reflected heat. This raises the average temperature.
37 a Apart from air temperature, it is the heat re-radiated from the ground that affects the night temperatures. Clouds
absorb some of the radiated heat and reflect it back to Earth; on clear nights, more energy is lost by radiation.
b Energy lost = P × time
P = eAσ(T4 − Ts4)
P = 0.5 × 1.5 × 5.67 × 10−8 J K−4 × (2884 − 2704)
P = 66.6 W
Energy lost = 66.6 W × 3600 s × 5 = 1.20 MJ
38 The indoor heater heats the air at the burner by conduction, and forces the hot air through the vents, where
convection will carry it throughout the house. People are heated by conduction as the warm air contacts their skin.
The outdoor heater is primarily radiative. People are heated by the radiation from the heater far more than by
conduction or convection of air. So the salesman is correct.
39 The plate radiates heat as it glows. The plate conducts heat to the pot and to the water by conduction. Convection
currents set up in the water. The peas are heated by the conduction of heat from the hot water.
40 The greenhouse effect means that Venus re-radiates very much less energy. The CO2 in the atmosphere absorbs much
of the re-radiated energy which traps the heat on the planet, causing a higher temperature.
41 As P ∝ T4, doubling the temperature increases the radiant power by a factor of 16.
42 λSTS = λBTB
500 nm × 5778 K
TB = = 3300 K
875 nm
43 A human body radiates energy in the infrared region of the electromagnetic spectrum. The goggles are sensitive to
these wavelengths, and so people can be detected by the radiation they emit.
44 a λmaxT = 2.898 × 10−3 m K
−3
λmax = 2.898 × 10 mK
= 9.99 μm
290 K
This is in the infrared.
b For the steel:
−3
2.898 × 10 mK
T= = 700 K
4.14 × 10−6 m
45 A black body emits a whole range of frequencies. In this case the peak is in the infrared. There will be emissions at
shorter wavelengths that are in the red end of the visible spectrum.
46 Wien’s Law: λmaxT = constant
As the temperature goes up, the peak of the black-body spectrum moves to shorter wavelengths, going from red to
yellow to bright white. At lower temperatures the emission of radiation is outside the visible range.
47 D. The observation is only related to temperature. Based on Wien’s law, a higher temperature will result in an observed
colour more towards the blue/violet end of the spectrum; hence, Rigel can be expected to be hotter than the red
Betelguese.
48 The greenhouse effect simply refers to the role of gases such as CO2, which absorb some of the energy re-radiated by
the Earth, and results in an increased temperature. The enhanced greenhouse effect is caused by increasing levels of
CO2, which are usually attributed to human activity since the Industrial Revolution, in particular the burning of fossil
fuels.
49 Yes, data from various remote observation stations (Cape Grim, Mauna Loa), and ice core samples show a steady
increase in CO2.
50 The global climate system is very complex. There are natural variations and cycles, as well as long term trends. There
are many factors that influence climate, and it is difficult to attribute a change to only one factor.
How do electric circuits work?

REVIEW SOLUTIONS
1 B. A voltmeter has a very high resistance.
2 A. Ammeters have low resistance.
V 100 V
3 a I= = =2A
R 50 Ω
q = It
= (2.0 A)(1.0 s) = 2.0 C
2.0
Number of electrons per second = = 1.3 × 1019 electrons
1.60 × 10−19
b U = qV = 1.60 × 10−19 × 100 = 1.60 × 10−17 J
c The electrical energy is converted into heat energy in the wire.
2
d P = VI = 100 × 2.0 = 2.0 × 10 W
19 −17
e There are 1.3 × 10 electrons passing through the wire each second, each carrying energy of 1.60 × 10 J.
∴ Total energy per second = 1.3 × 1019 × 1.60 × 10−17 = 200 J s−1 = 2.0 × 102 W
2
f According to the answer to part d, power output of battery is 2.0 × 10 W.
g These answers are the same because power is the energy given to each unit of charge (volt).
4 Current only flows when there is a potential difference. If the bird touches only one wire the potential difference
between the feet is negligible. If it touches two different wires they will be at different voltages, and so current will flow.
5 a Charge is escaping at the same rate.
b q = It
I = 2.0 uA = 2.0 x 10−6 A
q = 2.0 × 10−6 × 1
q = 2.0 × 10−6 C
2.0 × 10−6
Number of electrons = = 1.25 × 1013 electrons
1.60 × 10−19
They are being carried off the dome.
c P = VI = 400 × 103 × 2.0 × 10−6 = 0.8 W
d Energy = Vq = 400 × 103 × 1.60 × 10−19 = 6.40 × 10−14 J
−3
6 a 50 mA = 50 × 10 A
V 2.5
R= = = 50 Ω
I 50 × 10−3
b U = qV
= 1.60 × 10−19 × 9.0
= 1.4 × 10−18 J
V2
c P = VI =
R
(9.0)2
= = 1.6 W
50
d q = It = 0.18 × 10 = 1.8 C
1.8
The number of electrons per second = = 1.1 × 1019
1.60 × 10−19
7 B. Kirchhoff’s current law tells us that all current coming from the first element must pass through the second when
they are connected in series. If the two elements are identical, the other alternatives may also be correct, but that is
only true in that special case.
8 C
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
9 a = + + = + + ∴ RT = 60 Ω
RT R1 R2 R3 100 200 600
V 120
b I= = = 2.0 A
R 60
V 120 V 120 V 120
c I1 = = = 1.20 A, I2 = = = 0.60 A, I3 = = = 0.20 A
R1 100 R2 200 R3 600
d P = VI = 120 V × 2.0 A = 240 W
e 240 W
V 5.0
10 a A current of I = = = 1.25 mA will flow through the 4.0 kΩ resistor.
R 4.0 × 10−3
Therefore, a current of 0.7 mA needs to flow through the second resistor in parallel with it. The value of this resistor:
V
R=
I
5.0
= = 6.7 kΩ
0.75
1 1 1 1 1
b = + = +
RT R1 R2 4.0 6.7
∴ RT = 2.5 kΩ
Or
V 5.0
RT = = = 2.5 kΩ
I 2 × 10−3
V 1.0
11 a R = = = 0.13 Ω
I 8.0
b P = VI = 2400 W
Hence with 240 V mains, I = 10 A
Vdrop = IR = 10 × 0.13 = 1.3 V
c P = VI = 1.3 × 10 = 13 W
mgh 20 × 10 × 0.6
12 a P = = = 2.0 W
time 60
b P = VI
P 2.0
I= =
V 3.0
= 0.67 A
13 From the graph, when V = 100 V, I = 2.0 A.
V
14 R = , so:
I
50
a at 50 V: R = = 50 Ω
I.0
100
b at 100 V: R = = 50 Ω
2.0
150
c at 150 V: R = = 56 Ω
2.7
200
d at 200 V: R = = 67 Ω
3.0
15 P = VI
= 150 × 2.7 = 405 W
16 The resistance of the element increases with temperature.
17 a I = 0.27 A. We would not expect twice the current at 4 V. If the curve is extended to 4 V we could expect around
0.31 A, but it might well be that the globe would have burnt out before 4 V is reached, as the graph implies that it
is probably a 3 V globe.
b This is not an ohmic conductor because the I−V graph is non-linear. The graph of an ohmic conductor must be a
straight line because the current is directly proportional to the voltage applied.
c P = VI = 3 × 0.3 = 0.9 W
18 a The device is non-ohmic. The purpose of this device is to limit the current through a particular section of the circuit
to a constant value regardless of the voltage across that part of the circuit.
b The resistance of the device increases with voltage.
c V2 = (50 kΩ) × (2.0 mA) = 100 V
V1 = 250 V − V2
Then V1 = 250 V − 100 V = 150 V
d P = VI = (150 V) × (2.0 mA) = 0.30 W
e P = VI = (100 V) × (2.0 mA) = 0.20 W
f P = VI = (250 V) × (2.0 mA) = 0.50 W
19 Power input to motor = VI = 6.0 V × 0.25 A = 1.5 W
4.0 J
Power output = = 0.8 W
5.0 s
0.8 W
Efficiency = × 100 = 53%
1.5 W
20 Power input to motor = VI = 8.0 V × 0.30 A = 2.4 W
power output
Efficiency = 0.60 =
2.4 W
Power output = 1.44 W, hence t = 2.8 s
P 10000
21 I = = = 42 A
V 240 120 W
22 For minimum load I = = 0.5 A
240
V = IR = 0.5 A × 0.50 Ω = 0.25 V
23 For maximum load voltage drop across cables is V = IR = 42 A × 0.50 Ω = 21 V
Hence V = 240 V − 21 V = 219 V
240 V
24 The power rating would be identical = 60 W, the voltage rating = = 60 V
4
60 V
25 Originally the current through each parallel globe was = 0.25 A, and total current was 4 × 0.25 A = 1.0 A.
240 W
60 W
For the series circuit, the current through each globe is = 1.0 A = total current, which is the same as for the
60 V
parallel connection.
26 The power bill is calculated on the total power consumption, which is the same for both arrangements. Mary is
correct.
1 1 1
27 = +
Re 3.0 + 4.0 5.0 + 6.0
Re = 4.3 Ω
28 a P = IV
P 6.0
V= = = 12 V
I 0.50
b V=8V
c R = 16 Ω
29 A. L1 will be brighter. With the three LEDs in the circuit there is 1.0 V across each. As the switch shorts out L3, the 3.0 V
is shared between the other two, giving them 1.5 V each and hence making them brighter.
30 D. Since there will be no current flowing through L3, L3 will not operate.
31 C. The reading on voltmeter V = terminal voltage of battery. But because the battery has zero internal resistance the
terminal voltage = EMF of battery, which remains constant regardless of the magnitude of the current.
32 A. Closing S increases the current flowing through the battery and hence the power it is producing.
V 1.0 V
33 a V = 1.0 V ∴ R = = = 50 Ω
I 20 mA
V 1.5 V
b V = 1.5 V ∴ R = = = 15 Ω
I 100 mA
34 a With the three LEDs in the circuit there is 1.0 V across each diode and I = 20 mA.
b With just two LEDs in the circuit there is 1.5 V across each diode and I = 100 mA.
35 A. In a series circuit the current must be the same in every part of the circuit.
36 D. Connecting another resistor in parallel with R1 would reduce the effective resistance of the circuit, thereby
increasing the current through R2 and since V = IR, the voltage across R2 would also increase.
37 A. The power output of the battery is given by P = EI and since the current would increase, P would also increase.
38 A fuse protects against overload current—too much current poses a fire hazard. A RCD detects an imbalance between
current entering and leaving a device, which suggests that current is flowing to earth. Both will throw a circuit breaker.
39 Household circuits are connected in parallel, so that each device is supplied with 240 V and can be turned on and off
individually. Within a single circuit all the current to the devices in parallel passes through the one circuit breaker.
40 To protect against drawing too much current and exceeding the rating, posing a fire risk.
P 800 W
41 I = = = 3.33 V
V 240 V
V V2 2402
42 R = = = = 72 Ω
I P 800
4000 W
43 Total power = 4000 W. Current drawn by circuit = = 16.6 A. As the circuit has a 15 A circuit breaker, the circuit
240 V
breaker will trip.
44 Total energy usage = 1200 W × 2.5 × 6 × 52 = 936 kWh
VsR2 6 V × 1 kΩ
45 Use the voltage divider equation Vout = =1V= . Hence RT = 5 k Ω and the temperature is 20°C.
RT + R2 RT + 1 kΩ
46 Resistors R1 and R2 in the potentiometer form a voltage divider, which can set a variable voltage across the load. This
in turn will control the current that flows through the load resistor.
47 Transducers convert one form of energy to another. A microphone picks up the kinetic energy of air molecules
and converts this to an electrical signal, and a speaker takes and electrical signal and converts it to motion of air
molecules.
48 D. The most important thing is to disconnect the power.
49 A short circuit is effectively bypasses the load in the circuit and connects the active and the neutral wires. This results
in a greatly reduced resistance, and a high current flow. This condition will trigger the circuit breaker.
50 Plugs with three prongs have an earth. This is required when there is any possibility that the active lead could contact
a metal and risk electrocuting a user. Some smaller devices are double insulated and so the active cannot deliver
charge to any part of the device that a user can touch. In this case the earth is not needed and the plug can safely
have only two prongs.
What is matter and how is it formed?

REVIEW SOLUTIONS
1 The big bang is an expansion of space−time. Before the big bang there was no space, time or matter, so it is not a
case of matter exploding out into space in a time continuum, but space and time itself being created at the big bang
event as energy converted to matter, after which space expanded. The energy present allowed the creation of matter−
antimatter pairs and the rapid inflation of the universe prevented annihilation taking place immediately, taking the
created matter with it. While it is true that the early universe was extremely dense, the big bang theory would suggest
that mass/energy, space and time all emerged at once from nothing.
2 Yes, he is correct in the sense that the light that reaches our telescope left the object viewed at some previous point
in time. The more distant the object, the longer the light takes to reach us, and in a sense the further back in time we
are looking.
3 Stellar spectra include the absorption lines for elements for which we know the wavelengths. When these spectra
are emitted from objects receding from us, the lines are shifted to longer wavelengths—towards the red end of the
spectrum. This is the case for the majority of stellar objects which are redshifted, the more distant objects being
shifted the most and hence receding the fastest. This is consistent with a model in which space−time and the whole
universe is expanding.
4 v = H0d where H0 = 70 km s−1 Mpc−1 and d = 90 Mpc, so v = 70 × 90 = 6300 km s−1.
8 −1 5 −1 6300
The speed of light is 3 × 10 m s = 3 × 10 km s . So the ratio is = 0.02, i.e. the recession speed is 2% of c.
3 × 105
5 a v = H0d = 70 km s−1 Mpc−1 × d
The speed is directly proportional to the distance.
Proxima Centauri is 1.3 pc away and so its speed is:
70 × 10−6 km s−1 pc−1 × 1.3 pc = 91 mm s−1
4.4 × 1026 m
The edge of the universe is 4.4 × 1026 m = = 1.4 × 1010 pc
3 × 105
−6 −1 −1 10 8 −1
Speed = 70 × 10 km s pc × 1.4 × 10 pc = 9.8 × 10 m s
b The edge of the visible universe is receding from us at a speed in excess of the speed of light. That is not a violation
of the principles of special relativity, as no object is moving through space at a speed in excess of the speed of light,
it is purely a relative velocity.
If there is concern that technically this is not the edge of the visible universe, since light would never reach us, we
are only concerned here with a factor of 3 or so and in astronomical terms, this is good enough!
v
c H0 = , i.e. a velocity divided by a distance. As velocity in SI units is m s−1 and distance is simply m, the units
d
−1 −1 −1 −1 4 −1 22 v 7 × 104
of H0 are m s m = s . As 70 km s = 7 × 10 m s and 1 Mpc = 3.1 × 10 m, H0 has the value =
d 3.1 × 1022
2 × 10−18 s−1.
The relative proximity of a star like Proxima Centauri would mean redshift would not be measurable.
d The extremely small value for H0 reflects the fact that the recession velocity is only significant for huge distances!
6 Cepheid variables have a period that varies with their absolute brightness. So by observing their period, it is possible
to infer their absolute brightness. Their actual brightness can be measured, and so it is possible to work out their
actual distance by using the drop in intensity of the radiation.
7 a The radiation which when created would have had a very short wavelength would be expected to ‘stretch out’ with
space itself, and so would have a much longer wavelength as space expanded. Calculations show that this would be
in the microwave range today.
b The variations indicate a slightly uneven distribution of light and therefore matter. This allowed gravitational
attraction to collect clumps of matter together, ultimately forming stars and galaxies. If there had been completely
uniform radiation, there would have been no universe as we know it.
8 Pair production is the creation of a matter and antimatter pair of particles, such as a positron and an electron from a
photon. This is a mechanism for the creation of particles from photons.
9 Normally pairs annihilate rapidly with the release of photons, but the rapid inflation moved the pairs apart so that the
particles were able to persist.
10 As the universe cooled, the average photon energy dropped to a level at which a photon no longer had the energy
required to create a matter−antimatter pair
11 Any atoms formed would immediately be ionised as the photons, although not having enough energy for pair
production, certainly possessed the ionisation energy for a hydrogen atom.
12 Fusion requires very high densities, temperatures and pressures for charged particles overcome their mutual
repulsion and come close enough for the strong nuclear force to exceed the electrostatic repulsion. This happened in
the first few seconds after the big bang, and then particle distances increased and energies dropped below the values
required for fusion to be possible. Fusion re-ignited in stars much later when gravitational forces once again brought
particles together at high densities.
13 Photon energies had to be below the ionisation energy of the atoms.
14 Gravity caused particles to aggregate. As the dust clouds collapsed under their mutual attraction, vast amounts of
energy were released and this created the temperatures and pressures for fusion to re-ignite in the first stars.
15 a The energy of photons results from the mass of the leptons being converted to energy.
b E = mc2. The mass of the two particles forms the mass defect.
−31
E = 2 × 9.1 × 10 × (3.0 × 108)2 = 1.6 × 10−13
16
Particle Property
gluon • mediator of the strong nuclear force

• interacts with quarks
photon • mediator of the electromagnetic force

• interacts with charged particles
+ −
W , W and Z • mediator of the weak nuclear force
• causes nuclear decay
(graviton) • mediator of the gravitational force
17
Category Particles Description
+
BOSONS photons, gluons, gravitons, W , mediators of the fundamental forces
W−, and Z
FERMIONS leptons: positrons, electrons • do not experience the strong force

make up all neutrinos, muons • exchange W and Z bosons—weak nuclear force
matter • charged leptons exchange photons—electromagnetic force
hadrons do experience the strong force, exchanging gluons

made up of quarks
1 baryons: protons, made of 3 quarks

neutrons, antiprotons
2 mesons: pions made of 2 quarks
18 a The typical nucleon separation lies at the point where the attraction of the strong nuclear force is the strongest.
This is the short-range force that binds the nucleons to their nearest neighbours.
b The strong force acts on protons and neutrons within range. The elctrostatic force acts between protons.
c For larger atoms, the repulsive forces between protons accumulate. The electrostatic force causes protons to repel
one another and this accumulates as proton number increases. This destabilises the nucleus. Neutrons supply
additional binding as they introduce the strong force without the cost of repulsion, thereby increasing stability.
19 Cs-137: 55 protons, 82 neutrons, 137 nucleons
I-131: 53 protons, 78 neutrons, 131 nucleons
20 a nucleus
b nucleus
c nucleus
21 9
Time (× 10 years) No. of K nuclei No. of Ar nuclei Ratio K:Ar
0 1000 0 −
1.3 500 500 1:1
2.6 250 750 1:3
3.9 125 875 1:7
22 7Li + 11H → 242He

3
1.4 × 10−12
23 a E = = 8.8 ×106 eV = 8.8 MeV
1.6 × 10−19
6.7 × 10−14
b E= = 4.2 × 105 eV = 0.42 MeV
1.6 × 10−19
8.0 × 10−14
c E= = 5.0 × 105 eV = 0.5 MeV
1.6 × 10−19
24 a
Activity
(Bq)
1000
800
600
400
200
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min)
b From graph, after 13 minutes, activity is about 320 Bq.

c Find the time at which activity has been reduced from 800 Bq to 400 Bq: t 1 ≈ 10 min.
2
d From graph, extrapolate to find activity when t = 30 min. Activity ≈ 100 Bq.
25 B. The probability of a nuclide decaying during the next half-life is always 50%.
26 a 1 p, 2 n
b By balancing the nuclear equation, it can be determined that the daughter nuclide has an atomic number of 2 and
so is helium.
c B. A neutron in the hydrogen atom has transformed into a proton and an electron.
d A neutron has transformed into a proton and an electron.
27 185Au → 181Ir + 42He
79 77
28 a From the graph the activity halves in approximately 1 minute, hence half-life is 1 minute.
5 150
b 5 minutes is 5 half-lives. The radioactive sample will reduce by a factor of 2 = 32. Remaining mass = = 4.7 g
32
c 11Na → 0β + 26Mg + energy
16 −1 12
29 a B. The radioisotope with the shorter half-life (Bi-211) is less stable by a factor of four and so will initially have a
higher activity by a factor of four.
b The activity of Bi-211 is 4 times greater at the start, but after 8 minutes (4 half-lives) its activity is reduced by a
factor of 16. After 8 minutes the activity of Bi-215 has fallen by half and so it has double the activity of Bi-211 at
this time.
30 a 238U → 234Th + 42He
92 90
b 218Po → 218At + 0β
84 85 −1
31 Po and At have different numbers of protons and this is what makes them distinct elements.
210
32 Bi can undergo beta decay to form 210Po and then this undergoes alpha decay to form 206Pb. Alternatively, it an
undergo an alpha decay first to form 206Tl and then the subsequent beta decay results ion 206Pb.
33 They all have 84 protons, but differ in their number of neutrons. 214, 210 and 206 neutrons respectively.
34 The total energy that is released when the nucleons bind to create the nucleus, divided by the number of nucleons.
This is then also effectively the energy required to break up the nucleus into its constituent nucleons.
35 Fe requires the most energy per nucleon to break up the nucleus, therefore it is the most stable.
36 The energy per nucleon for uranium is about 7.5 MeV and the binding energy per nucleon for fragments of mass
number 118 is 8.5 MeV. That means that when the smaller fragments are formed, they are more tightly bound and
the difference in energy is released in the fission reaction. This is about 2 MeV for each nucleon.
37 The energy yield is thus approximately 235 × 2 MeV = 470 MeV for each uranium nucleus.
38 Hydrogen is an unbound proton, so it has no binding energy.
39 The nucleons release the binding energy as a result of becoming bound in the He nucleus.
6.8 × 1013
40 Mass (kg) of coal = = 2.72 × 106 kg
2.5 × 107
3
This is equal to 2.7 × 10 tonnes of coal.
41 a There is approximately the same number of protons and neutrons in small stable nuclei.
b There are more neutrons than protons in large unstable nuclei.
c The strong nuclear force which binds the nucleons together is greater than the repulsive electrostatic force acting
on the proton as a result of the other 5 protons, hence the nucleus is stable.
d The repulsive electrostatic force on the proton is greater because of the increased charge concentrated in the
nucleus, but the strong nuclear force which only acts on neighbouring nucleons is of the same order. This nucleus
is therefore less stable.
42 a The reactants have greater combined mass than the fusion products.
b The difference in potential energy represented by the missing mass has appeared as the kinetic energy gained by
the fusion products and electromagnetic radiation.
c As the nuclides approach, an electrostatic force of repulsion is acting on them, but their great speed enables them
to overcome this force and fuse together. At this point, electrostatic forces of repulsion and larger nuclear forces of
attraction are acting on the protons. The neutrons experience only strong nuclear forces of attraction.
43 a E = mc2 = 4.99 × 10−28 × (3.0 × 108)2 = 4.49 × 10−11 J
4.49 × 10−11
b E= = 2.8 × 108 eV = 280 MeV
1.6 × 10−19
44 a Electrostatic forces of repulsion act on the protons. They do not have enough energy to overcome this force to
get close enough for the strong nuclear force to come into effect and hence will not fuse. These protons have not
jumped the energy barrier.
b Electrostatic forces of repulsion act on the two protons initially, but the protons have enough energy to push past
these forces and get close enough together for the strong nuclear forces to take effect. This force enables the
nucleons to fuse. These protons have overcome the energy barrier.
45 • Fusion joins lighter elements to form a heavier element and fission splits a heavy element to form lighter fragments.
• Fusion usually requires the reacting nucleons to have high energy to overcome the electrostatic repulsion. Fission
can be achieved with the capture of relatively slow-moving neutrons.
• Fusion does not create harmful and radioactive waste products but fission wastes are often highly radioactive.
• At this point fission has been achieved commercially, but fusion reactors are still under development.
• Energy released per nucleon is higher for fusion than for fission.
46 a Accelerating charges are caused by thermal vibration of electrons in the hot filament.
b Electrons are decelerating as they are fired into metal targets.
c Electrons are accelerated between two electrodes and excite the electrons in a sodium vapour. The electrons jump
up to higher energy levels and then emit the characteristic yellow light corresponding to the dominant electron
transitions for sodium.
d Thermal vibrations cause acceleration of the charges. Because the steel is at a lower temperature than the
tungsten, it emits at a longer wavelength.
e Electrons accelerated around the circular beamline radiate.
f Electrons are pumped up into higher metastable energy levels and then are stimulated to drop down to a
lower level.
How can motion be described and explained?

REVIEW SOLUTIONS
1 C. Distance is the length that has been travelled, in this case 300 + 400 = 700 km. Displacement is a vector, and is
the shortest distance from the beginning of the journey to the end, given with a direction. The journey of the plane
forms two sides of a right-angled triangle, with the hypotenuse being the displacement, hence 500 km. The direction
400
is given by the angle between the hypotenuse and due north, or tan−1 ( ).
300
Or instead imagine the aeroplane going 400 km east along the x-axis and then 300 km north to give an angle of
36.9 degrees. The direction will then be 90 − 36.9 = N 53.1° E
2 D. Applying the equations of motion:
u = 0, a = 5.5 m s−2, t = 3 s
1
s = ut + at2
2
1
s=0+ × 5.5 × 32
2
s = 24.75 m
3 B. The distance travelled in the first three seconds (s3) minus the distance travelled in the first two seconds (s2) is the
distance travelled in the third second of motion.
Finding the distance travelled in the first two seconds:
Applying the equations of motion:
u = 0, a = 5.5 m s−2, t = 2 seconds
1
s2 = ut + at2
2
1
s2 = 0 + × 5.5 × 22
2
s2 = 11 m
∴ s3 − s2 = 24.75 − 11 = 13.75 m
4 C. Newton’s third law states: ‘For every action force (object A on B) there is an equal and opposite reaction force
(object B on A)’. If boat A exerts a force of +F N on boat B, then boat B exerts an equal force (−F N) back on boat A.
The negative sign indicates that the force acts in the opposite direction.
5 C. Distance is found by taking the magnitude of the area under the graph.
The area is found by using the formula for the area of a trapezium.
1
Area = (a + b)h
2
1
Area = (2 + 6) × 0.2
2
Area = 0.8 m
6 B. Displacement is found by taking the area under the graph, taking care to consider whether the area is positive
(moving away from the starting point) or negative (moving towards the starting point).
The area of the positive section was found in the previous question (+0.8 m).
The area of the ‘negative’ section found by using the formula for the area of a trapezium.
1
Area = (a + b)h
2
1
Area = (3 + 5) × −0.1
2
Area = −0.4 m
Displacement = +0.8 + (−0.4)
Displacement = +0.4 m or 0.4 m east, as train was initially moving east.
1
7 B. When a ball is dropped, the gravitational potential energy of the ball (mgh) is converted into kinetic energy
1 1 2
( mv ).
2
2
2
Therefore mgh = mv , or gh = v
2 2
Then v1 = √2gh
If the height is increased to 2h, then:
1 1
mg(2h) = mv−2 or 2gh = v2
2 2
4gh = v−2
v2 = √4gh
∴ v2 = √2 × v1
8 A
Change in velocity = vfinal − vinitial
= (−3) − (+5) = −8 m s−1
9 D. Newton’s second law states that ∑F = ma, or an object experiences no acceleration when the net force on the object
is zero.
For a person in a lift, if they are not accelerating (e.g. are at rest or travelling at constant velocity) then the net force on
them must be zero. (∑F = 0). When this occurs, then the magnitude of the weight force (mg) is equal to the magnitude
of their normal force, and hence the scales read 60 kg.
10 A. Newton’s Second Law states that ∑F = ma.
The two forces acting on the student are mg (downwards) and normal force (upwards)
∴ N − mg = ma
or N = mg + ma
11 D. In orbit at a constant radius and constant speed, both the gravitational potential energy and the kinetic energy of
the moon remain unchanged. Because Earth’s gravitational force on the Moon acts at right angles to the velocity of
the Moon, it does no work on the Moon.
(Work = Fs cos θ, and θ = 90°, therefore work done = 0)
12 A. Momentum is a vector, so direction of momentum must be considered.
Taking direction to the right as positive:
Total momentum = (+mv) + (−mv) = 0 kg m s−1
13 C. Hooke’s Law states that F = kx.
k = 10 N m−1
x = 20 cm = 0.2 m
F = 10 × 0.2
=2N
= mg
2 = m × 9.8
m = 0.20 kg
= 200 g
14 a When the arrow reaches its maximum height its vertical velocity = 0.
v = u + at
0 = 100 m s−1 − (9.8 m s−2)t
t = 10.2 s
1
b x = ut + at2
2
1
= 0 + (9.8 m s−2)(10.2 s)2
2
= 510 m
c The acceleration of the arrow is constant during its flight and is equal to 9.8 m s−2 downwards.
15 Displacement north = 8 + 7 sin 45° = 12.95 km
Displacement east = 7 cos 45° = 4.95 km
12.95 45
Total displacement = 13.9 km on a bearing of 90 − tan−1
3
13.9 × 10 m
( 4.95
) tan
−1
(7 sin
8
+ 7 sin 45) = 21°
−1
16 Speed = 0.55 m s
7 × 60 × 60 s
17 The weight will travel three times as far during the second second as during the first.
72
18 a 72 km h−1 = = 20 m s−1
3.6
x = vt
= 20 m s−1 × 0.50 s = 10 m
b v = u + at
0 = 20 m s−1 + (−4.0 m s−2)t
t = 5.0 s
c Reaction distance: x = 10 m
1
Braking distance: x = ut + at2
2
1
x = (20 m s−1)(5.0 s) + (−4.0 m s−2)(5.0 s)2 = 50 m
2
Total stopping distance: 10 m + 50 m = 60 m
1
19 a s = ut + at2
2
Therefore −122 = −4.9t2 so t = 5s
1
b s = ut + at2
2
Therefore −122 = −10t − 4.9t2, t = 4.08 s
(alternatively calculate v and then use v = u + at)
122 122
c = 24.4ms−1, = 29.9ms−1 downwards
5 4.08
20 a For the first 30 s, the cyclist travels 150 m east at constant speed, then he accelerates for the next 10 s travelling a
further distance of 150 m. He then travels at a higher constant speed for the next 10 s, travelling a further distance
of 200 m.
b 5 m s−1 east
−1
c 20 m s east
u+v 5 m s−1 + 20 m s−1
d vav = = = 12.5 m s−1 east
2 2
v−u
e a= = 1.5 m s−2 east
t
x 500 m
f vav = = = 10 m s−1
t 50 s
21 a B, C, D and E all show acceleration (B is a negative acceleration).
b Displacement is the area under the curve, so A has the greatest displacement.
22 a C. Uniform acceleration
b D. Acceleration approaching a terminal velocity as air resistance increases with speed
c A. Constant speed
x 1 × 10−2 m
23 a vav = = = 0.10 m s−1
t 0.10 s
x 3.0 × 10−2 m
b vav = = = 0.30 m s−1
t 0.10 s
x 5.0 × 10−2 m
c vav = = = 0.50 m s−1
t 0.10 s
24 The instantaneous speeds of the marble in the centre of the time interval are equal to the average speed over the
entire interval.
a v = 0.10 m s−1
−1
b v = 0.30 m s
−1
c v = 0.50 m s
25 The marble is moving with constant acceleration.
26 a FME is the gravitational force on the man by the Earth and FN = FMS, the normal reaction force exerted on the man
by the surface.
b FME = 980 N = FN, the forces are equal in magnitude but opposite in direction.
c FEM is the gravitational attraction that the man exerts on the Earth, which is the reaction force to his weight; FSM is
the force that the man exerts on the surface.
27 a FAE is the gravitational force on A by the Earth and is directed downwards. This is balanced by an equal normal
reaction force FAB directed upwards. Both forces are 100 N.
b FBE is the weight of the block B, 100 N directed downwards. FBA is the force exerted by A, also 100 N downwards.
The normal reaction force FBC balances both and is hence 200 N upwards.
c FCB is 200 N downwards (effectively caused by the weight of A and B is the reaction pair to FBC), FCE = 100 N
downwards and the normal reaction force FCT = 300 N is exerted upwards by the table.
d The force FBE is still exerted on block B, but FBC = 0. Both A and B fall and so the contact forces between A and B
also go to zero. Each block only experiences its own weight force and accelerates under gravity.
28 a v2 = u2 + 2ax
(10.0 m s ) = (5.00 m s−1)2 + 2a(100 m)
−1 2
∴ a = 0.375 m s−2 west

−2
b ∑F = ma = (1000 kg)(0.375 m s west) = 375 N west
c ∑F = force exerted by tow truck − frictional force
375 N = force exerted by tow truck − 200 N
∴ force exerted by tow truck = 375 N + 200 N = 575 N west
d The tow truck and car form an action−reaction pair, so the car exerts the opposite force: 575 N east.
29 a = g(sin 11.3°) = 1.92 m s−2
v2 = u2 + 2ax
v2 = 0 + 2 × (9.8 m s−2 × sin 11.3°)(100 m)
v = 19.6 m s−1
= 70.6 km h−1
30 a Constant velocity means acceleration = 0, so ∑F = 0.
∑F = F − [(mg) sin θ + Ff] = 0
F = (mg)(sin θ) + Ff
= (100 kg)(9.8 m s−2)(sin 30°) + 110 N
= 600 N
b ∑F = ma
= (100 kg)(2.0 m s−2)
= 200 N = F − 600 N
∑F = 800 N
c ∑F = ma
(100 kg)a = 1000 N − 600 N
400 N
a= = 4.0 m s−2 up the incline
100 kg
resultant force
31 a Acceleration =
total mass
(20 kg − 10 kg)(9.8 N kg−1)
∴a= = 3.3 m s−2 clockwise
100 kg
−2 −2
i.e. 3.3 m s up for the 10 kg mass and 3.3 m s down for the 20 kg mass.
−2 −1
b The resultant force on the 20 kg mass = (20 kg)(3.3 m s ) = (20 kg)(9.8 N kg ) − T
∴ T = 1.3 × 102 N
32 a ∑Fh = (800 N)(cos 60°) − 100 N = 300 N
b W = (100 N)(10 m) = 1.0 kJ
c W = (300 N)(10 m) = 3.0 kJ
d W = ∆Ek = 3.0 kJ
1
e ∆Ek = (mv2) = 3000 J
2
−1
∴ v = 17.3 m s
1
33 mgh = mv2
2
1 1
∴ v = (2gh) = [(2)(9.8 m s−2)(0.30 m)] = 2.4 m s−1
2 2
34 The work required to break the pencil will equal the loss in energy of the mass
= (0.40 kg)(9.8 m s−2)(0.30 m − 0.14 m) = 0.63 J
35 Energy is converted into sound and heat when the mass collides with the pencil.
36 Forces can be equal in magnitude and opposite in direction hence causing no translation because there is no net
force. If they do not act along the same line however, there can be a net torque, hence the object is not in rotational
equilibrium.
37 τ = 500 N × 0.9 m = 450 Nm
38 Sum of clockwise torques = sum of anticlockwise torques
9.8 m s (35 kg × 3.0 m + 25 kg × 3.5 m ) = 9.8 m s−2 (d × 42 kg)
Thomas should sit 4.6 m from the pivot opposite his siblings.

85 kg × 9.8 m s−2 × 0.7 m + 20 kg × 9.8 m s−2 × 0.5 m = F × 1.7 m
F = 400 N
40 a 600 N (sin θ) = 400 N
∴ θ = 42°
b W = F × d = 600 N cos 42° × 20 m = 8.9 × 103 J
c There is no displacement in the direction of the vertical component, so no work is done.
−1 2
d P = F × v = (600 N) cos 42° × 2 m s = 8.9 × 10 W
Weight exerts a clockwise torque through the centre of mass at distance 9.0 m. The ground and support column
produce counter-torques. Consider the torques about the point at which the beam contacts ground to eliminate one
force. Hence 9.0 m × (9.8 m s−2) × 300 kg = Fp × 8.0 m ∴ Fp = 3307 N. The translational equilibrium force of the
ground, pillar and weight sum to zero.
Fground = 3307 N − (9.8 m s−2 × 300 kg) = 367 N
12 1 −1 2
42 a Ek = (mv ) = (2000 kg)(40.0 m s ) = 1.6 MJ
2 2
b ∑F = ma = (2000 kg)(8.0 m s−2) = 16 kN = 1.6 × 104 N
c ∑F = 16 000 N = F − 400 N ∴ F = 16.4 kN
4 6
d W = Fx = (1.64 × 10 N)(100 m) = 1.64 × 10 J = 1.64 MJ
W 1.64 MJ
e P= = = 328 kW
t 5.0 s
f W = (400 N)(100 m) = 40 kJ
1.6 MJ
g Efficiency = × 100 = 97.6%
1.64 MJ
1
43 a Etot = Ek + Ep = (mv2) + mgh
2
1 −1 2
−2 2
Etot = (2.0 kg)(10 m s ) + (2.0 kg)(9.8 m s )(2.0 m) = 1.4 × 10 J
2
b The kinetic energy of the sphere at B = (kinetic energy of sphere at A) − (mg∆h)
= 100 J − (2.0 kg)(9.8 m s−2)(1.0 m) = 80 J
c The minimum kinetic energy occurs at C.
Then min Ek = 100 J − (2.0 kg)(9.8 m s−2)(3.0 m) = 41.2 J
∴ min speed = 6.4 m s−1
d As we assume no losses due to friction, Etot remains constant = 140 J.
44 a The elastic potential energy stored in the spring = area under force−compression graph between
∆x = 0 and ∆x = 2.0 cm = 40 J.
b When trolley comes to rest, its initial kinetic energy of 250 J will be stored in the spring as elastic potential energy.
c When the trolley comes to rest, Ek = 0. All its initial kinetic energy has been transferred to the spring as elastic
potential energy.
1
Then us = k(∆x)2 = 250 J
2
F (10 × 103)
Where k = = = 2 × 105 Nm−1
x (5 × 10−2)
∴ ∆x = 0.050 m = 5.0 cm
d The elastic potential energy stored in the spring is transferred back to the trolley as kinetic energy when the spring
starts to regain its original shape.
e The spring is elastic. This means it can retain its original shape after the compression force has been removed.
45 a Taking the zero position 0.50 m below the trampoline:
1
mgh = k(∆x)2
2 1
(34 kg)( 9.8 m s−2)(3.5 m + 0.50 m) = k(0.50)2
2
k = 1.1 × 104 N m−1
Ep final 4.0 − 7.5
b Efficiency = = × 100 = 81 %
Ep initial 4.0
c Child has maximum kinetic energy just before striking the trampoline on first descent.
46 Gravitational potential energy ⇒ kinetic energy ⇒ elastic potential energy of trampoline ⇒ kinetic energy as child
rebounds losing contact with trampoline (with some loss to heat and sound) ⇒ gravitational potential energy
47 a The section from 2.0 cm to 5.0 cm is rough because the cube loses kinetic energy (Ek) in this section.
1
b Ek = mv2 = 5J
2
−1
∴ v = 7.1 m s
c ∆Ek = 5.0 J − 2.0 J = 3.0 J
d The kinetic energy has been converted into heat and sound.
e W = ∆Ek = Fx
3.0 J
∴F= = 100 N
0.030 m
48 The distance of the race = area under the v−t graph from t = 0 s to t = 11 is s = 100 m.
distance 100
49 a Average speed = = = 9.1 m s−1
time 11
distance 120
b Average speed = = = 8.0 m s−1
time 15
50 a A, B, C: those sections of the graph with a positive gradient
b D: the section of the graph with a zero gradient
c E, F, G: those sections of the graph with a negative gradient
d A, E: those sections of the graph with a gradient whose magnitude is increasing with respect to time
e C, G: those sections of the graph with a gradient whose magnitude is decreasing with respect to time
51 a Total distance = 80 m + 80 m = 160 m
distance 160
b Average speed = = = 2.0 m s−1
time 80
change in displacement (12 m − 0 m)
52 a Velocity = = V
change in time 10 s
−1 −1
= 1.2 m s = 1.2 m s north
b Velocity = =
change in time 5.0 s
−1
= 5.4 m s = 5.4 m s−1 north
c Velocity = =
change in time 10 s
= −3.0 m s−1 = 3.0 m s−1 south
53 a Convert the velocity to m s−1: 90 km h−1 = 25 m s−1; 60 km h−1 = 16.67 m s−1
(16.61 m s−1 − 25 m s−1
a=
12 s
= −0.69 m s−2
= deceleration of 0.69 m s−2
b F = ma
= (830 kg)(0.69 m s−2)
= 5.7 × 102 N
2 2
c v = u + 2as
(16.67 m s−1)2 = (25 m s−1)2 − 2(0.69 m s−2)s
∴ s = 2.5 × 102 m
d Kinetic energy is converted into heat.
54 The swimmer pulls against the water with her arms, exerting a force on the water. The reaction force (Newton’s third
law) of the water on her arms is what propels her forwards. If this reaction force is greater than the sum of the drag
forces on her, she will accelerate according to Newton’s second law. If there is no net force she will travel at constant
speed according to Newton’s first law.
55 Earth: FN = (2.0 × 104 kg)(9.8 m s−2) = 1.96 × 105 N
Moon: FN = (2.0 × 104 kg)(1.6 m s−2) = 3.2 × 104 N
56 a The chair will obtain an initial velocity from the push, and then quickly slow to a stop due to sliding friction.
b Castors will roll, resulting in less friction, hence the chair will travel further before coming to a stop.
c In both cases the force of the initial push causes the chair to accelerate while being pushed, which is an application
of Newton’s first and second laws. While the person pushes on the chair (action) the chair will push back on the
person (reaction) with an equal and opposite force, an example of Newton’s third law.
57 The steady force applied by the engine is equal and opposite to the combined resistance forces such as air resistance,
friction between the wheels and track etc. The net resultant force on the carriages is zero, and according to Newton’s
first and second laws, constant velocity is the result.
58 a 85 N m−1
b 43 J
59 a Impulse = ∆p = m∆v = 86 × 7.5 = 645 kg m s−1

b Momentum is always conserved. The motion of the pole is minute because it is anchored in the ground and very
heavy.
c As his skull comes to rest against the pole, according to Newton’s first law, his brain would continue in its motion at
7.5 m s−1 until it collides with the skull, incurring potential damage in the collision.
60 a Momentum before collision = momentum after
4.0 × 104 kg × 3.0 m s−1 = (4.0 × 104 kg + 1.5 × 104 kg)(vfinal)
vfinal = 2.2 m s−1
1
b Ek before = mv = 1.8 × 105 J
2
2
Ek after = 1.3 × 105 J, hence kinetic energy is not conserved
c Total energy is always conserved but kinetic energy is only conserved for perfectly elastic collisions. In this case
there is considerable loss to heat and sound in the collision.
61 a ∆p = impulse = area under F−t graph = 0.5 × 0.04 s × 500 N = 10 kg m s−1
b As the bat and ball form an isolated system, momentum is conserved. The gain in momentum of the ball is equal
to the loss of momentum of the bat. Hence ∆p = 10 kg m s−1.
c ∆p = m∆v
Therefore:
∆p 10
∆v = = = 59 m s−1
m 0.170
62 a v2 = u2 + 2ax
(8.0 × 102 m s−1)2 = 02 +2a(20 m)
∴ a = 1.6 × 104 m s−2
6
b F = ma = 8.8 × 10 N
2 −1 5 −1
c p = mv = 550 kg × 8.0 × 10 m s = 4.4 × 10 kg m s
d Momentum of shell = momentum of gun
(1.08 × 105 kg)v = 4.4 × 105 kg m s−1
v = 4.1 m s−1
∆p
e F=
∆t
v−u 8.0 × 102 m s−1
t= = = 0.05 s
a 1.6 × 104 m s−1
5 −1
4.4 × 10 kg m s
F= = 8.8 × 106 N as before
0.05 s
f Work = F × d
= 8.8 × 106 N × 20 m
= 1.8 × 108 J
1
Ek of shell = mv2 = 1.8 × 108 J
2
This obviously represents an ideal situation; realistically there would be significant losses.

REVIEW SOLUTIONS
1 B. The Sun is a ‘main sequence’ star.
2 C. Blue supergiants have a large luminosity and a high surface temperature.
3 A. A ‘Sun-like’ star will progress to white dwarf as part of its life cycle. White dwarf stars are not very luminous and
have a moderate surface temperature.
4 D. All stars begin life as a planetary nebula before moving into the main sequence. A massive star will then expand to
become a red supergiant before it becomes a super nova to end as a black hole.
1
5 D. Apparent brightness varies inversely with the square of the distance from the star. (Apparent brightness ∝ 2). If the
r
distance from the star is 4 times greater, the apparent brightness will be 16 times (42) less.
2
6 a parsec
3
b 137 510 AU
7 a The event horizon is a distance (a radius) around a black hole from which it is impossible for anything, even light,
to escape. i.e. the escape velocity is faster than the speed of light
b 22.8 km to 59.3 km
8 Einstein’s combined the three dimensions of space and movement in time to form the idea of spacetime. These four
dimensions are all interdependent. Movement through space is not independent of moving through time; e.g. the
faster you move through space, the slower you move through time. Core to Einstein’s spacetime theory is that the
speed of light will be the same for all observers.
9 The absolute magnitude of a star is the magnitude (brightness) that would be observed if the star were a distance of
10 pc from the Sun. The apparent brightness of a star is the brightness of a star as observed from Earth. Apparent
brightness utilises a scale (devised by Hipparchus) ranging from −25 (very bright, e.g. our Sun) to +25 (very faint).
10 a 3.91 × 1026 W
b Luminosity would be four times greater.
c Luminosity would be sixteen times smaller.
Forces in the human body

11 D. For an object to be in translational equilibrium, the net force on the object must be zero. If the object experiences
a net force of zero, the object has no acceleration and is therefore at constant velocity (this constant velocity could
be zero).
12 D. Maximum compressive stress is the maximum amount of stress that an object can experience before it fails.
170 MPa = 170 × 106 Pa
170 × 106 Pa = 170 × 106 N per m2
13 C. Stress = force per unit area
1
Therefore, stress α
area
If the diameter is doubled, the area increases by a factor of 4.
1
Bone sample B, with twice the diameter has of the stress.
4
stress on bone sample A: stress on bone sample B
1
1:
4
4:1
14 D
change in length
Strain =
original length
change in length
2.5% =
12.00
change in length
0.025 =
12.00
change in length = 0.025 × 12 = 0.30
new length = 12.00 + 0.30 = 12.30 cm
15 A. Brittleness is defined by a lack of plastic deformation.
16 B. A second-class lever is one where the effort, load and fulcrum are present in this order.
17 B. Stiffness is depicted by a steep graph (high Young’s modulus).

Plastic deformation is depicted by having a curve that extends past the linear section of the stress vs strain graph.
Toughness is depicted by a large area under a stress vs strain graph.
Hence, graph B is the best option.
18 C. Torque = force × perpendicular distance to the fulcrum
or Torque = perpendicular force component multiplied by distance to fulcrum
19 A. Tendons are very elastic in behaviour and can withstand high tensile loads.
Tendons are elastic and will return to their original length once the load has been removed (no permanent
deformation). They should also be able to withstand high tensile loads so that they do not fail when they are loaded.
20 C. An object is more stable when it has a low centre of mass and a very wide base.
Objects will ‘topple’ when the centre of mass is tilted so that it moves outside the base.
Option C presents the wine glass with a wide base, and a lower centre of mass (because it is half empty).
21 Compressive forces: Forces applied in opposing directions cause compression of the material, forcing atoms closer
together than they would be under equilibrium conditions.
Tensile forces: Forces exerted in opposite directions stretch a material, moving the atoms in the material further apart
than they would be under equilibrium.
Shear forces: These occur when two or more forces act, but do not act in a line with each other. Shear forces tend to
change the shape of an object without necessarily altering its dimensions.
22 332 kPa
(m1x1 + m2x2 + m3x3)
23 xcm =
(m1 + m2 + m3)
(20 × 0 + 5 × 0.75 + 30 × 1.5)
=
(20 + 5 + 30)
= 0.89 m
24 40 Nm
25 5 × 9.8 × 0.42 + 1 × 9.8 × 0.21 = F × 0.07
F = 320 N
26 Carrying a long pole can lower the centre of mass of the tight rope walker, effectively improving their stability.
27 0.04 mm
28 20 GPa
29 10.8 J
Energy from nuclear power

30 A. The role of the moderator is to reduce the energy (speed) of the fast moving neutrons.
31 B. The role of the control rod is to absorb neutrons in order to control the rate of fission within the reactor. Boron and
cadmium are both suitable materials for use in control rods.
32 C
1 eV = 1.6 × 10−19 J
24.7 MeV = 24.7 × 106 eV
(24.7 × 10 eV) × 1.6 × 10−19 = 3.95 × 10−12 J
6
33 D. Critical mass is the minimum amount of nuclear fuel required to sustain a chain reaction. When a chain reaction
occurs, neutrons that are produced as part of the fission that takes place can then cause further fission reactions.
Therefore, the mass, shape and purity of the nuclear fuel can all impact the critical mass.
34 C. All nuclear equations must balance.
The mass numbers must balance on both sides of the reaction, as should the atomic numbers.
Mass numbers:
235 + 1 = 92 + 141 + x
∴x=3
35 2H + 21H → 32H + 10n + energy
1
36 5.33568 × 10−13 J
37 8.004 × 1013 J
38 a 238U + 10n → 239U
92 92
b 239U → 239Np + 0β, 239Np → 239Pu + 0β

92 93 −1 93 94 −1
39 Fast breeder reactor
Nuclear medicine
40 C. Ionising radiation is radiation that can ionise atoms. Radiation needs to have enough energy to do this, and the
energy of radiation is directly proportional to its frequency. Radiation with frequency greater than 2 × 1016 Hz is
ionising. Visible light, infrared and microwave radiation have frequencies of less than 2 × 1016 Hz.
41 B. Soft X-rays are defined as having less energy than hard X-rays. The energy of X-rays is directly proportional to its
frequency. Therefore, soft X-rays must have a lower frequency than hard X-rays.
42 B. Radiation measured in grays (Gy) is equal to the amount of radiation energy absorbed per kilogram of mass. The
measurement in Gy does not factor in the type of radiation (e.g. alpha, beta, gamma) that has been absorbed. Alpha
radiation is more ionising than beta.
Radiation measured in sieverts (Sv) does takes into account the type of radiation, and hence its actual effect on
humans. Hence, 1 Sv of beta radiation is biologically as damaging as 1 Sv of alpha radiation.
43 D. Diagnostic procedures are those that are used to identify that a patient has a medical issue.
Gamma knife, chemotherapy and brachytherapy are all used to treat medical conditions.
44 B. Alpha radiation is the most ionising of all of the listed radiations, because they have +2 charge and they are
relatively slow moving. They interact with just about every atom that they encounter.
Similarly, beta radiation with its −1 (or +1) charge and faster speed also interact with a large number of atoms as they
travel and are less ionising.
Gamma radiation is more ionising than X-rays because the energy of radiation is directly proportional to its frequency.
Gamma has a larger frequency, therefore is more energetic and has a greater ionising ability.
45 a Magnetic resonance imaging: low energy electromagnetic waves
b Single photon emission computed tomography: radiotracers emitting γ rays
c Positron emission topography: γ rays
d Computed tomography: X-rays
46 8.8 mSv = x (0.05 + 0.12 + 0.05)
x = 40 mSv
47 a 124Xe + 11p → 123Cs + 210n
54 55
b 123Cs → 123Xe + 0β
55 54 +1
c 123Xe → 123I + 0β
54 53 +1
40kBq
48 a = 1.25 kBq
25
b Not only does the sample decay, but the body will also rid itself of some of the I-123 through its normal
mechanisms for removing waste.
c 250 μGy
49 Somatic effects of radiation exposure include the damage to body cells (any cells other than the sex cells). Symptoms
of somatic effects can vary greatly, depending on the size of the dose. Symptoms include nausea, vomiting, diarrhoea,
skin rashes, hair loss, drop in white blood cell levels.
Genetic effects result from exposure and consequent damage to the sex cells (sperm and ova). If the sex cells are
damaged (changes made in the DNA of these cells from ionising radiation) then there maybe mutations in future
generations.
Particle accelerators
50 D. 1 eV is defined as the change in energy experienced by an unit charged particle as moves between a potential
difference of 1 volt and is equivalent to 1.6 × 10−19 J.
51 A. Hadrons are subatomic particles that are composed of quarks and interact by the strong interaction, e.g. protons
and neutrons.
Electrons and neutrinos are leptons.
52 B. An electron that accelerates across a potential difference of 5 kV gains 5 keV of energy.
5 keV = (5 × 103) × (1.6 × 10−19) = 8.0 × 10−16 J
1
∴ Kinetic energy of electron = 8.0 × 10−16 J = mv2
2
2 × 8.0 × 10−16
v=�
9.1 × 10−31
= 4.2 × 107 m s−1
53 B. The LHC can accelerate particles to an energy level of approximately 14 TeV.
54 C. In order from earliest to most recent the particle accelerators are listed as: cathode ray tube, cyclotron, synchrotron,
LHC
55 Linac produces and accelerates electrons in a straight line.
Booster ring bends the electrons into a circular path using magnets and accelerates the electrons further. The energy
is boosted through the use of an RF chamber.
Storage ring is where the electrons orbit. The electrons are travelling at speeds close to the speed of light. As they are
‘bent’ by the large magnetic fields, they emit their synchrotron light. Electrons can orbit for hours in the storage ring.
Beamline is the path that the synchrotron light takes from where it is produced (in the storage ring) to where it used
to undertake experimental work.
56 The ATLAS experiment at the Large Hadron Collider was responsible for detection of the Higgs boson. The Higgs
boson is a subatomic particle that essentially gives mass to all matter. The Standard Model in physics acknowledges
the presence of four forces: gravitational force, electromagnetic force, strong nuclear force and weak nuclear force.
The Standard Model has been able to link three of the four forces, but not the gravitational force. Why particles had
mass could not be predicted from the Standard Model. The presence of a Higgs field and a subatomic particle, the
Higgs boson, was theorised to explain how particles obtain mass. The detection of the Higgs boson was confirmation
of this theory.
57 Synchrotron light is the light (or electromagnetic radiation) produced when charged particles are accelerated. As
electrons are ‘bent’ and forced to travel in a circular path in the storage ring, they are continually being accelerated
(their velocity is changing) and therefore they emit synchrotron light.
Synchrotron light has a number of key characteristics including:
• very high intensity
• a very broad spectral range (from infrared to X-rays)
• it is very collimated and experiences very low divergence
• it is emitted in very short pulses (less than a nanosecond)
• it is highly polarised.
58 Particle accelerators are being used in applications such as:
• cancer treatment
• carbon dating
• art restoration
• pharmaceutical research.
59 a 3.2 × 1010 m s−1
b This value is greater than the speed of light, and nothing can travel at speeds greater than this.
c As particles are accelerated, their effective mass increases (Einstein’s mass−energy equivalency). As particles are
accelerated to speeds close to the speed of light, their effective mass increases significantly. The energy supplied to
the electron by the synchrotron increases its speed and also its effective mass. The speed of the electron does not
exceed the speed of light.
Sport
60 B
speed after collision
The coefficient of restitution, e, is defined % e = .
speed before collision
A is the basic definition of e.
C is an expression for e.
GPE at release = mgH, GPE after bounce = mgh
GPE of ball at release height = EK before ball strikes ground
1 1
mgH = mvH , so gH = vH , and vH = 2gH, vH = √2gH
2 2 2
2 2
GPE after ball bounces = EK once ball leaves ground
mgh = mvh , so gh = vh , and vh = 2gh, vh = √2gH
21 2 2 1
2 2
= �2gh = √h
vh
∴e=
vH 2gH √H
D is an expression for e.
1
Kinetic energy = mv2, so v = √2mEK
2
1
vh 2 mEKh
e= = 1
vH
2 mEKH
61 D. Momentum is a vector, so direction is important. Define east as positive and west as negative.
Change in momentum = final momentum − initial momentum
Change in momentum = (−3) − (+5)
Change in momentum = −8 kg m s−1 = 8 kg m s−1 west
62 C. Momentum is always conserved in any collision in an isolated system.
The change in momentum of the cricket ball must equal the change in momentum (in the opposite direction) of the
cricket bat.
63 C. Angular speed = number of revolutions (in radians) per second
2400
2400 revolutions in one minute = = 40 revolutions per second
60
1 revolution = 2π radians
40 revolutions = 80π radians
∴ angular speed = 80π rad s−1
64 D. If two balls reach the same height when thrown, they must be in the air for the same amount of time, regardless of
their different launch velocity (speed and angle).
65 D. Air resistance depends on the square of the speed at which the object is moving.
Air resistance ∝ v2
If the speed of the ball increases from v to 3v, the air resistance increases from F to 9F.
66 A
1
Air resistance (drag) = CρAv2: air resistance ∝ area, or air resistance ∝ radius2, or air resistance ∝ diameter2
2
A is incorrect, because increasing the area of the parachute by a factor of 2 would increase the air resistance by a
factor of 2.
67 B. A is correct, as without the effect of air resistance, the horizontal velocity of an object undergoing projectile motion
is constant.
C is correct, as without the effect of air resistance, the acceleration of the ball is equal to g downwards.
D is correct, as without the effect of air resistance, the net force on the object is mg, downwards.
B is incorrect as the vertical velocity of the ball changes due to the acceleration due to gravity.
68 0.71
69 0.5 m s−1 east.
The collision is considered elastic because the initial kinetic energies of both balls is equal to the final kinetic energy of
both balls.
70 An inelastic collision is one in which kinetic energy is not conserved; that is, the kinetic energy before the collision is
greater than the kinetic energy after the collision.
Nearly all collisions involve the conversion of kinetic energy to other forms such as heat and sound. As energy is
always conserved in any interaction within a closed system, the final kinetic energy must therefore be less than the
initial kinetic energy, and hence the collision an inelastic collision.
71 0.50 m
72 Circumference = 2 πr = 0.785 m
8
= 10.2 rotations
0.785
10.2 rotations
= 2.55 Hz
4s
8 v 2
(alternatively, v = = 2 ms−1, ω = = = 16 radians/sec then convert to Hz)
4 r 0.125
73 a 2 2
Length of pendulum (m) Time for 10 swings (s) Period (s) Period (s )
0.1 6.3 0.63 0.40
0.2 9.0 0.90 0.81
0.3 11.0 1.10 1.21
0.4 12.7 1.27 1.61
0.5 14.2 1.42 2.02
4π2
b If a graph of T2 vs l is plotted, the gradient should equal .
g
4π2 π2
= 4, so = 1 or π2 = g
g g
−2
g = 9.8 m s
T2 (s2)
3.00
2.50
T2 = 4 × length
2.00
1.50
1.00
0.50
0.00
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
Length (m)
74 Refer to the diagram from this text:
higher pressure
boundary air
layer of air v
moves with ball spin
ball curves
towards the
lower pressure region of lower
pressure
Magnus forces acts on

the ball in this direction
75 200 g ball: terminal velocity is 18.8 m s−1

400 g ball: terminal velocity is 26.6 m s−1
The terminal velocity of the 400 g ball is √2 times greater than the terminal velocity of the 200 g ball. This is because
terminal velocity is directly related to √mass. A doubling of the mass means √2m or √2 times greater than the original
terminal velocity.
Chapter 1 answers
Section 1.1
GRAVITATIONAL ATTRACTION BETWEEN SMALL OBJECTS
Two bowling balls are sitting next to each other on a shelf so that the centres of the balls are 60 cm apart. Ball 1 has a
mass of 7.0 kg and ball 2 has a mass of 5.5 kg.
Calculate the force of gravitational attraction between them.
Thinking Working
Recall the formula for Newton’s law of universal m1m2

gravitation. Fg = G
r2
Identify the information required, and convert values into m1 = 7.0 kg

appropriate units when necessary. m2 = 5.5 kg
r = 0.60 m
G = 6.67 × 10–11 N m2 kg –2
Substitute the values into the equation. 7.0 × 5.5

Fg = 6.67 × 10–11 ×
0.602
Solve the equation. Fg = 7.1 × 10–9 N

GRAVITATIONAL ATTRACTION BETWEEN LARGE OBJECTS
Calculate the force of gravitational attraction between the Earth and the Moon, given the following data:
mEarth = 6.0 × 1024 kg
mMoon = 7.3 × 1022 kg
rMoon–Earth = 3.8 × 108 m
Thinking Working
Recall the formula for Newton’s law of universal m1m2

gravitation. Fg = G
r2
Identify the information required. m1 = 6.0 × 1024 kg

m2 = 7.3 × 1022 kg
r = 3.8 × 108 m
G = 6.67 × 10–11 N m2 kg –2
Substitute the values into the equation. 6.0 × 1024 × 7.3 × 1022
Fg = 6.67 × 10–11 ×
( 3.8 × 10 )
2
8
Solve the equation. Fg = 2.0 × 1020 N

ACCELERATION CAUSED BY A GRAVITATIONAL FORCE
The force of gravitational attraction between the Sun and the Earth is approximately 3.6 × 1022 N. Calculate the
aEarth
acceleration of the Earth and the Sun caused by this force. Compare these accelerations by calculating the ratio a Sun .
Use the following data:

mEarth = 6.0 × 1024 kg
mSun = 2.0 × 1030 kg
Thinking Working
Recall the formula for Newton’s second law of motion. F = ma
Transpose the equation to make a the subject. F

a=
m
Substitute values into this equation to find the 3.6 × 1022

accelerations of the Earth and the Sun. aEarth = = 6.0 × 10–3 m s–2
6.0 × 1024
3.6 × 1022
aSun = = 1.8 × 10–8 m s–2
2.0 × 1030
Compare the two accelerations.

aEarth 6.0 × 10−3
= = 3.3 × 105
aSun 1.8 × 10−8
The acceleration of the Earth is 3.3 × 105 times greater
than the acceleration of the Sun.

GRAVITATIONAL FORCE AND WEIGHT
m1m2
Compare the weight of a 1.0 kg mass on the Earth’s surface calculated using the formulas Fg = mg and Fg = G .
r2
Use the following dimensions of the Earth where necessary:
g = 9.8 m s–2
mEarth = 6.0 × 1024 kg
rEarth = 6.4 × 106 m
Thinking Working
Apply the weight equation. Fg = mg

= 1 × 9.8
= 9.8 N
Apply Newton’s law of universal gravitation. m1m2

Fg = G
r2
6.0 × 1024 × 1
= 6.67 × 10–11 ×
(6.4 × 10 )
2
6
= 9.77 N
= 9.8 N
Compare the two values. Both equations give the same result to two significant
figures.

APPARENT WEIGHT
Calculate the apparent weight of a 90 kg person in an elevator which is accelerating downwards at 0.8 m s–2.
Use g = 9.8 m s–2.
Thinking Working
Calculate the weight of the person using Fg = mg. Fg = mg = 90 × 9.8 = 882 N
Calculate the force required to accelerate the person at Fnet = ma = 90 × 0.8 = 72 N

0.8 m s–2.
The net force that causes the acceleration consists of Fnet = 72

the normal reaction force (upwards) and the weight Fg – FN = 72
force (downwards). Since the elevator is accelerating
882 – FN = 72
downwards, Fg > FN. Notice that, as the person is partially
falling in the direction of gravitational acceleration, there FN = 882 – 72
is less contact force and the person feels lighter than if Apparent weight = 810 N
standing still.
1.1 review
1 The force of attraction between any two bodies in the universe is directly proportional to the product of their masses
and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.
2 r is the distance between the centres of the two objects.
m1m2
3 Fg = G r2
2.0 × 1030 × 6.4 × 1023
= 6.67 × 10–11 × = 1.8 × 1021 N
(2.2 × 10 )
2
11
4 Fg = mMars × aMars
1.8 × 1021 = 6.4 × 1023 × aMars
1.8 × 1021
aMars =
6.4 × 1023
= 2.8 × 10–3 m s–2

5 a Note: 1 million km = 1 × 106 km = 1 × 109 m
m1m2
Fg = G
r2
6.0 × 1024 × 6.4 × 1023
= 6.67 × 10–11 ×
(9.3 × 10 )
2
10
= 3.0 × 1016 N
m1m2
b Fg = G
r2
2.0 × 1030 × 6.0 × 1024
= 6.67 × 10–11 ×
(15.3 × 10 )
2
10
= 3.4 × 1022 N
c % comparison = (3.0 × 1016) ÷ (3.4 × 1022) × 100 = 0.000088%. The Mars–Earth force was 0.000088% of the
Sun–Earth force.
6 The Moon has a smaller mass than the Earth and therefore experiences a larger acceleration from the same
gravitational force.
M
7 a=g=G
r2
3.3 × 1023
g = 6.67 × 10–11 ×
(2 500 000)
2
= 3.5 m s–2
m1m2
8 Fg = G
r2
6.4 × 1023 × 65
= 6.67 × 10–11 ×
( 3.4 × 10 )
2
6
= 240 N
9 On Earth, weight is the gravitational force acting on an object near the Earth’s surface whereas apparent weight is the
contact force between the object and the Earth’s surface. In many situations, these two forces are equal in magnitude
but are in opposite directions. This is because apparent weight is a reaction force to the weight of an object resting on
the ground. However, in an elevator accelerating upwards, the apparent weight of an object would be greater than its
weight since an additional force would be required to cause the object to accelerate upwards.
10 a Fg = mg = 50 × 9.8 = 490 N
When accelerating upwards at 1.2 m s–2, the net force is Fnet = ma = 50 × 1.2 = 60 N, and FN > Fg.
Fnet = FN – Fg = 60 N
FN = 60 + 490 = 550 N. The person’s apparent weight is 550 N.
b When the person is moving at a constant speed, their apparent weight is equal to their weight.
FN = Fg = mg = 50 × 9.8 = 490 N
Section 1.2
INTERPRETING GRAVITATIONAL FIELD DIAGRAMS
The diagram below shows the gravitational field of a planet.
(a) Use arrows to indicate the direction of the gravitational force acting at points A, B and C.
Thinking Working
The direction of the field arrows indicates the direction

A
of the gravitational force, which is inwards towards the
centre of the planet.
(b) Indicate the relative strength of the gravitational field at each point.
Thinking Working
The closer the field lines, the stronger the force.

A
ea est eld
B strongest eld
ediu
strength eld

CALCULATING GRAVITATIONAL FIELD STRENGTH
A student uses a spring balance to measure the weight of a piece of wood as 2.5 N.
If the piece of wood is thought to have a mass of 260 g, calculate the gravitational field strength indicated by this
experiment.
Thinking Working
Recall the equation for gravitational field strength. Fg

g= m
Substitute in the appropriate values. 2.5

g=
0.26
Solve the equation. g = 9.6 N kg –1

CALCULATING GRAVITATIONAL FIELD STRENGTH AT DIFFERENT ALTITUDES
Commercial airlines typically fly at an altitude of 11 000 m. Calculate the gravitational field strength of the Earth at
this height using the following data:
rEarth = 6.38 × 106 m
mEarth = 5.97 × 1024 kg
Thinking Working
Recall the formula for gravitational field strength. M

g=G
r2
Add the altitude of the plane to the radius of the Earth. r = 6.38 × 106 + 11 000 m
= 6.391 × 106 m
Substitute the values into the formula. M

g=G
r2
5.97 × 1024
= 6.67 × 10–11 ×
(6.391 × 10 )
2
6
= 9.75 N kg –1

GRAVITATIONAL FIELD STRENGTH ON ANOTHER PLANET OR MOON
Calculate the strength of the gravitational field on the surface of Mars.

mMars = 6.42 × 1023 kg
rMars = 3390 km
Give your answer correct to two significant figures.
Thinking Working
Recall the formula for gravitational field strength. M

g=G
r2
Convert Mars’ radius to m. r = 3390 km

= 3.39 × 106 m
Substitute values into the formula. M

g= G
r2
6.42 × 1023
= 6.67 × 10–11 ×
( 3.39 × 10 )
2
6
= 3.7 N kg –1
1.2 review
1 N kg–1
Fg 1.4
2 g= = = 9.3 N kg–1
m 0.15
3 The distance has been increased three times from 400 km to 1200 km so, in terms of the inverse square law, and the
original distance, r:
1
F∝
r2
1
∝
( 3r )
2
1
∝
(9r )
2
1
∴ of the original
9
M
4 a g =G
r2
5.97 × 1024
= 6.67 × 10–11 ×
( )
( 6380 + 2000 × 103 )2
= 5.67 N kg –1
M
b g =G
r2
5.97 × 1024
= 6.67 × 10–11 ×
( )
( 6380 + 10 000 × 103 )2
= 1.48 N kg –1
M
c g =G
r2
5.97 × 1024
= 6.67 × 10–11 ×
( )
( 6380 + 20 200 × 103 )2
= 0.56 N kg –1
M
d g =G
r2
5.97 × 1024
= 6.67 × 10–11 ×
( )
( 6380 + 35 786 × 103 )2
= 0.22 N kg –1
M
5 g =G
r2
1 × 1013
= 6.67 × 10–11 ×
9002
= 0.0008 N kg –1 or 8 × 10–4 N kg –1
M
6 g =G
r2
3.30 × 1023
Mercury: g = 6.67 × 10–11 × = 3.7 N kg –1
(2.44 × 106 )2
5.69 × 1026
Saturn: g = 6.67 × 10–11 × = 10.4 N kg –1
(6.03 × 107 )2
1.90 × 1027
Jupiter: g = 6.67 × 10–11 × = 24.8 N kg –1
(7.15 × 107 )2
M 3.0 × 1030
7 g=G = 6.67 × 10−11 × = 2 × 1012 N kg –1
r2 (10 × 103 )2
M
8 gpoles = G
r2
M
8 = 6.67 × 10–11 × 5 000 0002
M = 3 × 1024 kg
M 3 × 1024
gequator = G = 6.67 × = 5.6 N kg –1
r 2 6 000 0002
8 ÷ 5.6 = 1.4. The gravitational field strength at the poles is 1.4 times that at the equator. (Alternatively, the inverse
square law could also be used to find this relationship.)
9 Let x be the distance from the centre of the Earth where the Earth’s gravity equals the Moon’s gravity. Then:
6.67 × 10−11 × 6 × 1024
gEarth =
x2
6.67 × 10−11 × 7.3 × 1022
gMoon =
( 3.8 × 10 )
2
8
−x
Equating these two expressions gives:
6 × 1024 7.3 × 1022
=
( 3.8 × 10 )
2 2
x 8
−x
82.2 1
=
( 3.8 × 10 )
2
x2 8
−x
Taking square roots of both sides gives:

9.07 1
=
x ( 3.8 × 10 8
−x )
Inverting both sides gives:
x
9.07
= 3.8 × 108 – x
x = 3.45 × 109 – 9.07x

10.07x = 3.45 ×109
x = 3.4 × 108 m
1 1 1 1
10 g is proportional to r2 , so if g becomes th of its value, r must become 10 times its value so that becomes .
100 r2 100
10 times r means a distance of 10 Earth radii.
Section 1.3
WORK DONE FOR A CHANGE IN GRAVITATIONAL POTENTIAL ENERGY
Calculate the work done (in MJ) to lift a weather satellite of 3.2 tonnes from the Earth’s surface to the limit of the
atmosphere, which ends at the Karman line (exactly 100 km up from the surface of the Earth). Assume g = 9.8 N kg –1.
Thinking Working
Convert the values into the appropriate units. m = 3.2 tonnes = 3200 kg
h= 100 km = 100 × 103 m
Substitute the values into Eg = mgΔh. Remember to give Eg = mgΔh

your answer in MJ to two significant figures. = 3200 × 9.8 × 100 × 103
= 3.136 × 109 J
= 3.1 × 103 MJ
The work done is equal to the change in gravitational W = ∆E = 3.1 × 103 MJ

potential energy.

SPEED OF A FALLING OBJECT
Calculate how fast a 450 g hammer would be going as it hit the ground if it was dropped from a height of 1.4 m on
Earth, where g = 9.8 N kg–1.
Thinking Working
Calculate the gravitational potential energy of the Eg = mgΔh

hammer on Earth. = 0.45 × 9.8 × 1.4
= 6.2 J
Assume that when the hammer hits the surface of the Ek = Eg = 6.2 J
Earth, all of its gravitational potential energy has been
converted into kinetic energy.
Use the definition of kinetic energy to calculate the speed 1

of the hammer as it hits the ground. Ek = mv2
2
1
6.2 = × 0.45 × v2
2
6.2 × 2
= v2
0.45
v = 5.2 m s–1
m = 500 kg
v = 250 m s–1
2.7 × 10 6 m Heinemann Physics 12 4e

CHANGE IN GRAVITATIONAL POTENTIAL ENERGY USING A FORCE–DISTANCE1.7 × 10 6 m
GRAPH
A 500 kg lump of space junk is plummeting towards the Moon. The Moon has a radius of 1.7 × 106 m. Using the
force–distance graph, determine the decrease in gravitational potential energy of the junk as it falls to the Moon’s
surface.
m = 500 kg
v = 250 m s–1
Gravitational force on space junk (N)

900
2.7 × 10 6 m 600
1.7 × 10 6 m 300
1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0

1.7 2.7
6
Distance from centre of Moon (× 10 m)
Gravitational force on space junk (N)
900
Thinking Working
Count the number of shaded squares. (Only count Number of shaded squares = 52
600
squares that are at least 50% shaded.)
Calculate the area (energy value) of each square. Esquare = 0.1 × 106 × 100
300 = 1 × 107 J
To calculate the energy change, multiply the number of ΔEg = 52 × (1 × 107)

shaded squares by the energy value of each square. = 5.2 × 108 J
1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
1.7 2.7
6
WorkedDistance
example:from centre of Moon (×1.3.4
Try yourself 10 m)
CHANGE IN GRAVITATIONAL POTENTIAL ENERGY USING A GRAVITATIONAL FIELD STRENGTH–DISTANCE GRAPH
A 3000 kg Soyuz rocket moves from an orbital height of 300 km above the Earth’s surface to dock with the
International Space Station at a height of 500 km. Use the graph of the gravitational field strength of the Earth below
to determine the approximate change in gravitational potential energy of the rocket.
11.0
10.0
9.0
Gravitational eld strength (N g –1 )
8.0
7.0
6.0
5.0
4.0
3.0
2.0
1.0
0.0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600
Altitude ( )
Thinking Working
Count the number of shaded squares. Only count squares Number of shaded squares = 36
that are at least 50% shaded.
Calculate the energy value of each square. Esquare = 50 × 103 m × 1 N kg –1

= 5 × 104 J kg –1
To calculate the energy change, multiply the number of ∆Eg = 36 × 5 × 104 × 3000
shaded squares by the energy value of each square and = 5.4 × 109 J
the mass of the rocket.
1.3 review
1 C. A stable orbit suggests that the object is in a uniform gravitational field, hence its gravitational potential energy
does not change. Its speed will also remain the same in a stable orbit.
2 g increases from point A to point D.
3 The meteor is under the influence of the Earth’s gravitational field which will cause it to accelerate at an increasing
rate as it approaches the Earth.
4 A, B and C are all correct. The total energy of the system does not change.
5 W = Eg = 3 000 000 × 9.8 × 67 000
= 2.0 × 1012 J
6 Eg = mg∆h
= 0.4 × 6.1 × 7000
= 17100 J
1
Ek = mv2
2
1
17100 = × 0.4 × v2
2
2 × 17100
v = 0.4
= 292 m s–1
7 a 100 km above the Earth’s surface is a distance of 6.4 × 106 m + 100 000 m = 6.5 × 106 m. According to the graph,
F is between 9 N and 9.2 N at this height.
b According to the graph, 5 N occurs at approximately 9.0 × 106 m from the centre of the Earth. So, the height above
the Earth’s surface = 9.0 × 106 – 6.4 × 106 = 2.6 × 106 m or 2 600 km.
8 a Convert km s–1 to m s–1 then apply the rule:
1
Ek = mv2
2
1
= × 1 × 40002
2
= 8 × 106 J
b ∆Ek = ∆Eg
∆Eg = area under the graph
area = 19 squares × 2 × 0.5 × 106
= 1.9 × 107 J
c new Ek = starting Ek + ∆Ek = 8 × 106 + 1.9 × 107 = 2.7 × 107 J
d new speed = 2 × 2.7 × 107
= 7348 m s–1 or 7.3 km s–1

9 600 km above the Earth’s surface = 6.4 × 106 + 600 000 = 7.0 × 106 m or 7000 km
Area under the graph between 7000 km and 8000 km is approximately 7 squares.
As the satellite comes to a stop, the change in kinetic energy over the distance is the same as the Ek at its launch.
Ek = area under the graph × mass of the satellite
= 7 squares × 2 × 0.5 × 106 × 240
= 1.7 × 109 J
10 600 km above the Earth’s surface = 6.4 × 106 + 600 000 = 7.0 × 106 m or 7000 km
2600 km above the Earth’s surface = 6.4 × 106 + 2 600 000 = 9.0 × 106 m or 9000 km.
The area under the graph between 7000 km and 9000 km is approximately 26 squares.
∆Eg = area under the graph × mass of the satellite
= 26 squares × 1 × 0.5 × 106 × 20 000
= 2.6 × 1011 J
CHAPTER 1 REVIEW
m1m2
1 Fg = G
r2
6.0 × 1024 × 75
= 6.67 × 10–11 ×
(6.4 × 10 )
2
6
= 730 N
m1m2
2 Fg = G
r2
1.05 × 1021 × 5.69 × 1026
2.79 × 1020 = 6.67 × 10–11 × r2
−11
6.67 × 10 × 1.05 × 10 × 5.69 × 10
21 26
r2 =
2.79 × 1020
= 378 000 000 m

= 3.78 × 108 m
3 F = maSun
F
aSun =
m
4.2 × 1023
= = 2.1 × 10–7 m s–2
2.0 × 1030
4 a The force exerted on Jupiter by the Sun is equal to the force exerted on the Sun by Jupiter.
b The acceleration of Jupiter caused by the Sun is greater than the acceleration of the Sun caused by Jupiter.
M
5 g =G
r2
6.4 × 1023
= 6.67 × 10–11 ×
( 3 400 000)
2
= 3.7 m s–2
6 a Fg = mg = 50 × 9.8 = 490 N
When accelerating downwards at 0.6 m s–2, the net force is Fnet = ma = 50 × 0.6 = 30 N and Fg > FN.
Fg – FN = 30
490 – FN = 30
FN = 490 – 30 = 460 N
b When the person is moving at a constant speed, their apparent weight is equal to their weight: Fg = FN = 490 N
m1m2
7 a F = G
r2
(6.67 × 10−11 × 1.9 × 1027 × 1000)
=
(7.15 × 107 )2
= 2.48 × 104 N
b The magnitude of the gravitational force that the comet exerts on Jupiter is equal to the magnitude of the
gravitational force that Jupiter exerts on the comet = 2.48 × 104 N.
F net
c a =
m
2.48 × 104
=
1000
= 24.8 m s–2
F net
d a =
m
2.48 × 104
=
1.90 × 1027
= 1.31 × 10–23 m s–2
8 D. At a height of two Earth radii above the Earth’s surface, a person is a distance of three Earth radii from the centre of
the Earth.
900 900
Then F = = = 100 N
32 9
9 a D. Fnet = FN – Fg = ma
FN = 80 × 30 + 80 × 9.8 = 3184 N or 3200 N
b B. From part (a), the apparent weight is greater than the weight of the astronaut.
c C. True weight is unchanged during lift-off as g is constant.
d A. During orbit, the astronaut is in free fall.
e D. Fg = ma = 80 × 8.2 = 656 N or 660 N
10 When representing a gravitational field with a field diagram, the direction of the arrowhead indicates the direction of
the gravitational force and the space between the arrows indicates the magnitude of the field. In gravitational fields, the
field lines always point towards the sources of the field.
Fg 600
11 g = = = 9.76 N kg–1
m 61.5
M
12 a g = G
r2
6.67 × 10−11 × 5.97 × 1024
=
(6378 × 1000)2
= 9.79 N kg –1
M
b g =G
r2
6.67 × 10−11 × 5.97 × 1024
=
(6357 × 1000)2
= 9.85 N kg –1
9.85
%= × 100 = 100.61%
9.79
M
13 a g = G
r2
6.67 × 10−11 × 1.02 × 1026
=
(2.48 × 107 )2
= 11.1 N kg –1
b C. It will accelerate at a rate given by the gravitational field strength, g.
M m
14 G =G
(0.8R ) (0.2R )
2 2
M m
=
0.64 0.04
M 0.64
= = 16
m 0.04
15 a Increase in Ek = area under the graph between 3 × 106 m and 2.5 × 106 m
= 6 squares × 10 × 0.5 × 106 = 3 × 107 J
1 1
b Ek(initial) = mv2 = × 20 × 10002 = 1 × 107 J
2 2
Ek(new) = 1 × 107 + 3 × 107 = 4 × 107 J

2 × Ek 2 × 4 × 107
c v= = = 2000 m s–1 or 2 km s–1
m 20
d From the graph, F = 70 N = mg
70
g= = 3.5 N kg –1
20
16 300 km = 300 000 m or 3 × 105 m

From the graph, g = 9 N kg –1 at this altitude.
17 D. The units on the graph are N m kg –1, which are the same as J kg –1
18 C. As the satellite falls, its gravitational potential energy decreases. The units on the graph are J kg –1, so therefore C is
correct.
19 Increase in Ek = area under the graph × mass of the satellite
= 35 squares × 1 × 1 × 105 × 1000 = 3.5 × 109 J
20 No. Air resistance will play a major part as the satellite re-enters the Earth’s atmosphere.
Chapter 2 answers
Section 2.1
USING F = qE
Calculate the magnitude of the uniform electric field that creates a force of 9.00 × 10–23 N on a proton.
(qp = +1.602 × 10–19 C)
Thinking Working
Rearrange the relevant equation to make electric field F = qE

strength the subject. F
E=
q
Substitute the values for F and q into the rearranged 9 .0 0 × 1 0 −2 3
equation and calculate the answer. E= 1 .6 0 2 × 1 0 −1 9
= 5.62 × 10–4 N C–1

WORK DONE ON A CHARGE IN A UNIFORM ELECTRIC FIELD
A student sets up a parallel plate arrangement so that one plate is at a potential of 36.0 V and the other earthed plate
is positioned 2.00 m away. Calculate the work done to move an electron a distance of 75.0 cm towards the negative
plate. (qe = –1.602 × 10–19 C)
In your answer identify what does the work and what the work is done on.
Thinking Working
Identify the variables presented in the problem to V2 = 36.0 V

calculate the electric field strength E. V1 = 0 V
d = 2.00 m
V V
Use the equation E = to determine the electric E =
d d
field strength. 3 6 .0 − 0
=
2 .0 0
= 18.0 V m–1
Use the equation W = qEd to determine the work done. W = qEd

Note that d here is the distance that the electron moves. = 1.602 × 10–19 × 18.0 × 0.750
= 2.16 × 10–18 J
Determine if work is done on the charge by the field or if Since the negatively charged electron would normally
work is done on the field. move away from the negative plate, work is done on
the field.
2.1 review
1 C. In an electric field, a force is exerted between two charged objects.
2 B. The electric field direction is defined as being the direction that a positively charged test charge moves when
placed in the electric field.
3 a True. Electric field lines start and end at 90˚ to the surface, with no gap between the lines and the surface.
b False. Field lines can never cross. If they did it would indicate that the field is in two directions at that point, which
can never happen.
c False. Electric fields go from positively charged objects to negatively charged objects.
d True. Around small charged spheres called point charges you should draw at least eight field lines: top, bottom, left,
right and in between each of these.
e True. Around point charges the field lines radiate like spokes on a wheel.
f False. Between two point charges the direction of the field at any point is the resultant field vector determined by
adding the field vectors due to each of the two point charges.
g False. Between two oppositely charged parallel plates the field between the plates is evenly spaced and is drawn
straight from the positive plate to the negative plate.
4 F = qE
= 5.00 × 10–3 × 2.5
= 0.005 × 2.5
= 0.0125
= 1.25 × 10–2 N
5 F = qE
F
q=
E
0 .0 2 5
=
18
= 0.00139 C
= 1.39 × 10–3 C
= 1.39 mC
6 F = qE
= 1.602 × 10–19 × 3.25
= 5.207 × 10–19 N
and
F = ma
F
a=
m
−1 9
5 .2 0 7 × 1 0
= −3 1
9 .1 1 × 1 0
= 5.72 × 1011 m s–2

V
7 E=
d
V
4000 =
0 .3
V = 4000 × 0.3 = 1200 V

8 As the oil drop is stationary, the electric force must be equal to the gravitational force. Use the equations F = mg and
F = qE to determine the force and the charge respectively. The number of electrons is found by dividing the charge by
the charge of one electron.
F = mg
= 1.161 × 10–14 × 9.8
= 1.138 × 10–13 N
F
q=
E
−1 3
1 .1 3 8 × 1 0
=
3 .5 5 × 1 0 4
= 3.206 × 10–18 C
Number of electrons is found by dividing this value by the charge on one electron
−1 8
3 .2 0 6 × 1 0
= −1 9
1 .6 0 2 × 1 0
= 20 electrons
9 a work done by the field

b no work is done
c work done on the field
d no work is done
e work done on the field
f work done by the field
10 a W = qEd
= 3.204 × 10–19 × 34 × 0.01
= 1.09 × 10–19 J
b Work is done on the field if the charge is forced to go in a direction it would not naturally go. Alpha particles
carry a positive charge. So work is done on the field since a positive charged particle is being moved towards a
positive potential.
Section 2.2
USING COULOMB’S LAW TO CALCULATE FORCE
Two small spheres A and B act as point charges separated by 75.0 mm in air. Calculate the force on each point
charge if A has a charge of 475 nC and B has a charge of 833 pC.
(Use ε0 = 8.8542 × 10–12 C2 N–1 m–2.)
Thinking Working
Convert all values to SI units. qA = 475 × 10–9 = 4.75 × 10–7 C

qB = 833 × 10–12 = 8.33 × 10–10 C
r = 7.50 × 10–2 m
State Coulomb’s law. 1 q1q2

F=
4πε 0 r2
Substitute the values qA, qB, r and ε0 into the equation 1 4 .7 5 × 1 0 −7

× 8 .3 3 × 1 0 −1 0
F= ×
and calculate the answer.
( )
2
4 π × 8 .8 5 4 2 × 1 0 −1 2
7 .5 0 × 1 0 −2
= 6.32 × 10 N –4
Assign a direction based on a negative force being F = 6.32 × 10–4 N repulsion

attraction and a positive force being repulsion.

USING COULOMB’S LAW TO CALCULATE CHARGE
Two small point charges are charged by transferring a number of electrons from q1 to q2, and are separated by
12.7 mm in air. The charge on each point is equal and opposite to the other. Calculate the charge on q1 and q2 if there
is an attractive force of 22.5 µN between them.
(Use k = 9.0 × 109 N m2 C–2.)
Thinking Working
Convert all values to SI units. F = 22.5 × 10–6 = 2.25 × 10–5 N

r = 12.7 × 10–3 = 1.27 × 10–2 m
State Coulomb’s law. q1q2

F=k
r2
Substitute the values for F, r and k into the equation and Fr2
calculate the answer. q1q2 =
k
( )
2
(Remember to indicate which charge is positive and 2 .2 5 × 1 0 −5
× 1 .2 7 × 1 0 −2
which is negative in your final answer.) =

9 .0 × 1 0 9
= 4.03 × 10 –19
Since q1 = q2:
q12 = 4.03 × 10–19
q1 = 4 .0 3 × 1 0 −1 9
q1 = +6.35 × 10–10 C
q2 = –6.35 × 10–10 C

ELECTRIC FIELD OF A SINGLE POINT CHARGE
Calculate the magnitude and direction of the electric field at point P at a distance of 15 cm to the right of a positive
point charge, Q, of 2.0 × 10–6 C.
Thinking Working
Determine the quantities known and unknown and E=?

convert to SI units as required. Q = 2.0 × 10–6 C
r = 15 cm = 0.15 m
Substitute the known values to find the magnitude of E Q

Q E=k
using E = k . r2
r2 −6
2 .0 × 1 0
= 9.0 × 109 × 2
0 .1 5
= 8.0 × 105 N C–1
The direction of the field is defined as that acting on a Since the charge is positive the direction will be away
positive test charge. Point P is to the right of the charge. from the charge Q or to the right.
2.2 review
1 When a positive charge is multiplied by a negative charge the force is negative, and a positive charge attracts a
negative charge. When a negative charge is multiplied by a negative charge the force is positive, and a negative charge
repels a negative charge.
Force q1 charge q2 charge Action
a) positive positive positive repulsion
b) negative negative positive attraction
c) positive negative negative repulsion
d) negative positive negative attraction
2 D. 24.0 × 103 N C–1. Since the distance has been halved, by the inverse square law, the field will be four times the
original.
1 q1q2
3 F= 4πε 0 r2
−1 9 −1 9
1 +1 .6 0 2 × 1 0 × −1 .6 0 2 × 1 0
= ×
4 π × 8 .8 5 4 2 × 1 0 −1 2
(5 3 × 1 0 −1 2
)2
= –8.22 × 10–8 N
Q
4 Recall that E = k
r2
−6
3 .0 × 1 0
E = 9 × 109 ×
(0 .0 5 )
2
= 1.1 × 10 N C–1 7
q1q2
5 F=k
r2
1 .0 0 × 1 .0 0
= 9 × 109 × 2
1000
= 9000 N
6 F = mg = 0.01 × 9.8 = 0.098 N
q1q2
=k
r2
−9 −3
3 .4 5 × 1 0 × 6 .5 × 1 0
0.098 = 9 × 109 ×
r2
−9 −3
3 .4 5 × 1 0 × 6 .5 × 1 0
r2 = 9 × 109 ×
0 .0 9 8
= 2.059
r = 2 .0 5 9
= 1.435 m
7 The force is directly proportional to the product of the charges. The force is inversely proportional to the square of the
distance between the point charges.
a If one of the charges is doubled to +2q, the force will double and repel.
b If both charges are doubled to +2q, the force will quadruple and repel.
c If one of the charges is changed to –2q, the force will double and attract.
d If the distance between the charges is halved to 0.5r, the force will quadruple and repel.
8 There are two protons within the helium nucleus. Recall that a proton has a charge of qp = +1.602 × 10–19 C. Use
Coulomb’s law to calculate the force on the protons.
q1q2
F=k
r2
−1 9 −1 9
1 .6 0 2 × 1 0 × 1 .6 0 2 × 1 0
= 9 × 109 × (2 .5 × 1 0 −1 5 2
)
= 36.96 N
= 37 N
9 Determine the charge on either point using Coulomb’s law:

q1q2
F=k
r2
q2
1 = 9 × 109 × (0 .3 0 )2
1 × 0 .3 0 2
q= 9 ×1 0 9 = 3.16 × 10–6 C
−6
3 .1 6 × 1 0
Since each electron has charge 1.602 × 10–19 C, the number of electrons is: = −1 9
1 .6 0 2 × 1 0
= 1.97 × 1013 electrons
Section 2.3
DIRECTION OF THE MAGNETIC FIELD
A current-carrying wire runs along the length of a table. The conventional current direction, I, is running toward
an observer standing at the near end. What is the direction of the magnetic field created by the current as seen by
the observer?
Thinking Working
Recall that the right-hand grip rule indicates the Point your thumb to the front in the direction of the
direction of the magnetic field. current flow.
Hold your hand with your fingers aligned as
if gripping the wire.
thumb points in direction

of current o
ngers point in direction

of agnetic eld
current carrying ire
Describe the direction in simple terms of the field The magnetic field direction is perpendicular to the wire.
in terms of the reference object or wire so that the As the current travels along the wire, the magnetic field
description can be readily understood by a reasonable runs anticlockwise around the wire.
reader.
2.3 review
1 B. A north pole is always associated with a south pole. The field around the magnet is known as a dipole field.
All magnets are dipolar. This means that every magnet always has a north and a south pole.
2 A. A magnet suspended freely will behave like a compass. The north end of a magnet is attracted to a south pole and
the Earth’s geographic north currently coincides with a magnetic south pole.
3 C. If you consider the spacing of the magnetic field in the loop as shown by the crosses and dots, it is already non-
uniform. Turning the current on and off creates a changing field around the loop but the loop’s magnetic field is still
non-uniform.
4 C. The poles are different so the force will be attractive. With increased distance, the force will decrease.
5 The direction of the magnetic field created by the current is perpendicular to the wire and runs up the front of the
wire then down the back when looking from the front of the wire.
N
S
I
6 The end labelled A is the north pole. Use the right-hand grip rule to find the field in the conductor.
7 Based on the directions provided, the magnetic field would be east—away from the north pole of the left-hand magnet.
8 Based on the directions provided, the magnetic field would be west—away from the north pole of the right-hand
magnet.
9 A magnetic field is a vector. If a point is equidistant from two magnets and the directions of the two fields are
opposite, then the vector sum would be zero.
10 a A = east, B = south, C = west, D = north
b A = west, B = north, C = east D = south
Section 2.4
MAGNITUDE OF FORCE ON A POSITIVELY CHARGED PARTICLE
A single, positively charged particle with a charge of +1.6 × 10–19 C travels at a velocity of 50 m s–1 perpendicular to a
magnetic field, B, of strength 6.0 × 10–5 T.
What is the magnitude of the force the particle will experience from the magnetic field?
Thinking Working
Check the direction of the velocity and determine Particle is moving perpendicular to the field. A force
whether a force will apply. will apply and so F = qvB.
Forces only apply on the component of the velocity
perpendicular to the magnetic field.
Establish which quantities are known and which ones are F=?
required. q = +1.6 × 10–19 C
v = 50 m s–1
B = 6.0 × 10–5 T
Substitute values into the force equation. F = qvB

= 1.6 × 10–19 × 50 × 6.0 × 10–5
Express final answer in appropriate form with appropriate F = 4.8 × 10–22 N

significant figures. Note that only magnitude has been
requested so do not include direction.

DIRECTION OF FORCE ON A NEGATIVELY CHARGED PARTICLE
A single, negatively charged particle with a charge of –1.6 × 10–19 C is travelling horizontally from left to right across a
computer screen and perpendicular to a magnetic field, B, that runs vertically down the screen. In what direction will
the force experienced by the charge act?
Thinking Working
The right-hand rule is used to determine the direction of Align your hand so that your fingers are pointing
the force on a positive charge. downwards in the direction of the magnetic field.
If the negatively charged particle is travelling from left
( ngers)
(thu ) to right, a positively charged particle would be moving
eld B (pal )
force F
v (positively charged in the opposite direction, i.e. from right to left. Align
particle) your thumb so it is pointing left, in the direction that a
positive charge would travel.
Your palm is facing outwards, which is the direction of the
force applied by the magnetic field on a negative charge.

MAGNITUDE OF THE FORCE ON A CURRENT-CARRYING WIRE
Determine the magnitude of the force due to the Earth’s magnetic field
that acts on a suspended power line running east–west near the equator
B
at the moment it carries a current of 50 A from west to east. Assume that F
the strength of the Earth’s magnetic field at this point is 5.0 × 10–5 T.
N
E
W
S
Thinking Working
Check the direction of the conductor and determine As the current is running east–west and the Earth’s
whether a force will apply. magnetic field runs south–north, the current and the
Forces only apply to the component of the wire field are at right angles and a force will exist.
perpendicular to the magnetic field.
Establish what quantities are known and what are required. F=?
Since the length of the power line hasn’t been supplied, n=1
consider the force per unit length (i.e. 1 m).
I = 50 A
l = 1.0 m
B = 5.0 × 10–5 T
Substitute values into the force equation and simplify. F = nIlB

= 1 × 50 × 1.0 × 5.0 × 10–5 N
= 2.5 × 10–3 N
Express final answer in an appropriate form with a suitable F = 2.5 × 10–3 N per metre of power line
number of significant figures. Note that only magnitude has
been requested; so do not include direction.

DIRECTION OF THE FORCE ON A CURRENT-CARRYING WIRE
A current balance is used to measure the force from a magnetic field on a wire of length 5.0 cm running
perpendicular to the magnetic field. The conventional current direction in the wire is from left to right. The magnetic
field can be considered to be running out of the page. What is the direction of the force on the wire?
Thinking Working
The right-hand rule is used to determine the direction of Align your hand so that your fingers are pointing in the
the force. direction of the magnetic field.
Align your thumb so it is pointing to the right in the
( ngers)
(thu ) direction of the current.
eld B (pal )
force F
v (positively charged Your palm is facing downwards.
particle)
State the direction in terms of the other directions The force on the charge is acting vertically downwards.
included in the question. Make the answer as clear as
possible to avoid any misunderstanding.

FORCE AND DIRECTION ON A CURRENT-CARRYING WIRE
Santa’s house sits at a point that can be considered the Earth’s magnetic north pole (which behaves like the south pole
of a magnet).
Assuming the strength of the Earth’s magnetic field at this point is 5.0 × 10–5 T, calculate the magnetic force and its
direction on the following:
(a) A 2.0 m length of wire carrying a conventional current of 10.0 A vertically up the outside wall of Santa’s house.
Thinking Working
Forces only apply to the components of the wire running The section of the wire running up the wall of the building
perpendicular to the magnetic field. will be parallel to the magnetic field, B. Hence, no
The direction of the magnetic field at the magnetic north force will apply.
pole will be almost vertically downwards.
State your answer. A numeric value is required. No F=0N

direction is required with a zero answer.
(b) A 2.0 m length of wire carrying a conventional current of 10.0 A running horizontally right to left across the
outside of Santa’s house.
Thinking Working
Forces only apply to the components of the wire running The section of the wire horizontally through the building
perpendicular to the magnetic field. will be perpendicular to the magnetic field, B. Hence, a
The direction of the magnetic field at the magnetic north force will apply.
pole will be almost vertically downwards.
Identify the known quantities. F=?

n=1
I = 10.0 A
l = 2.0 m
B = 5.0 × 10–5 T
Substitute into the appropriate equation and simplify. F = nIlB

= 1 × 10.0 × 2.0 × 5.0 × 10–5
= 1.0 × 10–3 N
The direction of the magnetic force is also required to Align your hand so that your fingers are pointing in the
fully specify the vector quantity. Determine the direction direction of the magnetic field, i.e. vertically down.
of the magnetic force using the right-hand rule. Align your thumb so it is pointing left in the direction of
the current.
( ngers)
(thu ) Your palm should be facing outwards (out from the
eld B (pal )
force F
v (positively charged house). That is the direction of the force applied by the
particle) magnetic field on the wire.
State the magnetic force in an appropriate form with F = 1.0 × 10–3 N out from Santa’s house.
a suitable number of significant figures and with the
direction to fully specify the vector quantity.
2.4 review
1 D. Orientating the right hand with the fingers pointing right and the thumb pointing inwards in the direction of the
motion of the charge, the palm is pointing vertically down.
2 a South (S). The palm of the hand will be pointing downwards, indicating that the force will be south based on the
compass directions provided.
b The path followed is therefore C.
c Since v is constant and energy is a scalar quantity, the kinetic energy remains constant.
d Path A. The palm of the hand will be pointing upwards, indicating that the force will be north based on the compass
directions provided. The particle will curve upwards, as the force changes direction with the changing direction of
the negative particle.
e Particles with no charge, e.g. neutrons, could follow path B.
3 D.
F = qvB
= 1.6 × 10–19 × 0.5 × 2 × 10–5
= 1.6 ×10–24 N
4 0 N. The particle will experience a force of zero newton because the particle is moving parallel to the magnetic field.
That is, there is no component of the motion perpendicular to the field.
5 The section of the wire PQ is running parallel to the magnetic field, B. Hence, no force will apply. You can confirm this
using the right-hand rule. Try to align your hand so that your fingers are pointing in the direction of the magnetic field,
i.e. to the right, and your thumb is also pointing to the right. It’s impossible to do so while still keeping both thumb
and fingers outstretched.
6 F = nIlB
= 1 × 80 × 100 × 5.0 × 10–5
= 0.4 N
Direction: thumb points right (west to east), fingers point into the page (north), palm will face up
Therefore the force is 0.4 N upwards.
7 F = qvB
= 1.6 × 10–19 × 2 × 1.5 × 10–5
= 4.8 × 10–24 N south
8 The force would double when the velocity doubles. The magnitude of the force becomes 2F. The direction of the force
is north.
9 F = nIlB
= 1 × 2 × 0.05 × 2.0 × 10–3
= 2.0 × 10–4 N
Direction is north.
10 a F = nIlB
= 1 × 50 × 80 × 4.5 × 10–5
= 0.18 N downwards
b Same as (a). The change in height has no effect on the perpendicular components of the magnetic field (south–
north) and the wire’s direction.
Section 2.5
2.5 review
1 C. The direction of a field line at any point is the resultant field vector. At either end the field outside the plates is less.
The horizontal component of the resultant field vector would point outwards.
2 B. In a static field, the strength of the field doesn’t change with time. This is true of most gravitational and magnetic
fields since mass of the object or the strength of the magnet is unchanging.
m1m2
3 Fg = G
r2
−3 1 −3 1
9 .1 × 1 0 × 9 .1 × 1 0
8 × 10–37 = 6.67 × 10–11 ×
(r )2
−3 1 −3 1
−1 1
9 .1 × 1 0 × 9 .1 × 1 0
6 .6 7 × 1 0 ×
r = 8 ×1 0 −3 7
= 8.3 × 10–18 m
4 a monopoles
b monopoles and dipoles
c dipoles
5 The field around a monopole is radial, static and non-uniform.
A monopole is a single point source associated with electrical and gravitational fields. The inverse square law applies
to the radial fields around monopoles.
6 The charge on the right is negative. As the field lines run from one charge to the other, the force is one of attraction.
Therefore charge must have the opposite sign.
7 D. Magnetic fields exist only as dipoles. The inverse square law is associated with the radial field around essentially
point source monopoles.
8 The direction of a field at any point is defined as the resultant field vector determined by adding the individual field
vectors due to each mass, charge or magnetic pole within the field.
q1q2
9 F =k
r2
−1 9 −1 9
+1 .6 × 1 0 × −1 .6 × 1 0
= 9 × 109 ×
(0 .5 3 )
2
−1 0
×1 0
= 8.2 × 10–8 N
m1m2
10 Fg = G
r2
−3 1 −2 7
9 .1 × 1 0 × 1 .6 7 × 1 0
= 6.67 × 10–11 ×
(0 .5 3 )
2
−1 0
×1 0
= 3.6 × 10 –47
N
CHAPTER 2 REVIEW
1 F = qE = 3.00 × 10–3 × 7.5
= 0.003 × 7.5
= 0.0225 N
2 D
Q
E=k
r2
−6
3 0 ×1 0
= 9 × 109 ×
(0 .3 0 )
2
= 3 × 10 N C–1 upwards.
6
Since the electric field is defined as that acting on a positive test charge, the field direction would be upwards or away
from the charge, Q.
3 The electrical potential is defined as the work done per unit charge to move a charge from infinity to a point in the
electric field. The electrical potential at infinity is defined as zero. When you have two points in an electric field (E)
separated by a distance (d) that is parallel to the field, the potential difference V is then defined as the change in the
electrical potential between these two points.
V
4 E=
d
V
1000 =
0 .0 2 5
V = 1000 × 0.025 = 25 V
5 C. For a uniform electric field, the electric field strength is the same at all points between the plates.
6 When a positively charged particle moves across a potential difference from a positive plate towards an earthed plate,
work is done by the field on the charged particle.
7 Use the work done in a uniform electric field, W = qEd, equation to determine the work done on the field.
W = qEd
= 2.5 × 10–18 × 556 × 3.0 × 10–3
= 4.17 × 10–18 J
V 1 5 ×1 0 3
8 E = = = 125 000 V m–1

d 0 .1 2
F = qE
= 1.6 × 10–19 × 125 000 = 2 × 10–14 N
9 a The distance between the charges is doubled to 2r, so the force will quarter and repel.
b The distance between the charges is halved to 0.5r, so the force will quadruple and repel.
c The distance between the charges is doubled and one of the charges is changed to −2q, so the force will halve
and attract.
10 Recall that kinetic energy gained by the ion (Ek) is equal to work done (W). Therefore, the velocity can be calculated
using the equation Ek= ½ mv2 when the kinetic energy is known.
Ek can be calculated in two steps by using the work done on a charge in a uniform electric field equation,
V
W = qEd, and the equation to determine the electric field, E = .
d
V 1000
E= = = 50 000 V m–1
d 0 .0 2 0
W = qEd = 3 × 1.602 × 10–19 × 50 000 × 0.020 = 4.806 × 10–16 J

1
Ek = mv 2
2
16
2 Ek 2 4 .8 0 6 10
v =
m
= 3 .2 7 10 25
= 5.42 × 104 m s–1

q1q2
11 F = k
r2
−3 −9
5 .0 0 × 1 0 × 4 .0 0 × 1 0
= 9 × 109 × (2 .0 0 ) 2
= 0.045 N
12 F = mg
q1q2
F=k
r2
q1q2
mg = k
r2
q1q2
r2 = k mg
−3 −3
2 .2 5 × 1 0 × 3 .0 5 × 1 0
= 9 × 109 × 3 × 9 .8
= 2100
= 2100
r = 45.8 m
13 Find the weight force of the ball using F = mg. Then substitute this value into the equation F = Eq to calculate
the charge.
F = mg = 5.00 × 10–3 × 9.8 = 4.9 × 10–2 N
= qE
−2
F 4 .9 × 1 0
q = =
E 3 0 0 .0
= +1.63 × 10–4 C
The charge must be positive to provide an upwards force in the vertically upwards field.
14 With the current turned off the loop is producing no field. The steady field in the region would be the only contributing
field. It has a value of B into the page.
15 With the current doubled, the loop is producing double the field, 2B. The steady field in the region would be
contributing B. The total is 3B into the page.
16 The field from the loop would exactly match that of the field in the region but in the opposite direction. The vector
total would be zero.
17 D. The magnitude of the magnetic force on a conductor aligned so that the current is running parallel to a magnetic
field is zero.
A component of the conductor’s length must be perpendicular to a magnetic field for a force to be created.
18 a palm
b fingers
c thumb
19 For the electron beams to behave as shown in (a), v1 is equal to v2 and the region of the magnetic field, By, must be
acting into the page.
20 F = nIlB
0.800 = 1 × I × 3.2 × 0.0900
0 .8 0 0
I= 0 .0 9 0 0 × 3 .2 0
= 2.78 A
21 In each case the force is found from F = nIlB as the field is perpendicular to the current.
a F = 1 × 1 × 10–3 × 5 × 10–3 × 1 × 10–3
= 5.0 × 10–9 N into the page (from the right-hand rule)
b F = 1 × 2 × 1 × 10–2 × 0.1 = 2.0 × 10–3 N into the page
22 The magnetic force exerted on the electron is:
F = qvB
= 1.6 × 10–19 × 7.0 × 106 × 8.6 × 10–3
= 9.6 × 10–15 N
23 Using the right-hand rule: fingers pointing to the right in the direction of the magnetic field; thumb pointing away in
the direction of conventional current. The palm is pointing down indicating the direction of the force is downwards.
24 The east–west line would experience the greater magnetic force as it runs perpendicular to the Earth’s magnetic field.
25 C. Magnetic fields are associated only with dipoles. Only monopoles generate radial fields.
q1q2
26 F = k
r2
−1 9 −1 9
−1 .6 × 1 0 × −1 .6 × 1 0
= 9 × 109 ×
(5 .4 )
2
−1 2
×1 0
= 7.9 × 10 N –6
m1m2
27 Fg = G
r2
−3 1 −3 1
9 .1 × 1 0 × 9 .1 × 1 0
= 6.67 × 10–11 ×
(5 .4 )
2
−1 2
×1 0
= 1.9 × 10 –48
N
Chapter 3 answers
Section 3.1
CALCULATING APPARENT WEIGHT
A 79.0 kg student rides a lift down from the top floor of an office block to the ground. During the journey the lift
accelerates downwards at 2.35 m s–2, before travelling at a constant velocity of 4.08 m s–1 and then finally decelerating
at 4.70 m s–2.
(a) Calculate the apparent weight of the student in the first part of the journey while accelerating
downwards at 2.35 m s−2.
Thinking Working

a = 2.35 m s–2 down
g = 9.80 m s–2 down
Apply the sign and direction convention for motion in m = 79.0 kg

one dimension. Up is positive and down is negative. a = –2.35 m s–2
g = –9.80 m s–2
Apply the equation for apparent weight Fnet = FN + Fg

(the normal force). FN = Fnet – Fg
= ma – mg
= (79.0 × –2.35) – (79.0 × –9.80)
= –185.65 + 774.2
= 589 N
(b) Calculate the apparent weight of the student in the second part of the journey while travelling
at a constant speed of 4.08 m s−1.
Thinking Working

a = 0 m s–2 down
g = 9.80 m s–2 down
dimension. Up is positive and down is negative. a = 0 m s–2
g = –9.80 m s–2

= ma – mg
= (79.0 × 0) – (79.0 × –9.80)
= 0 + 774.2
= 774 N
(c) Calculate the apparent weight of the student in the last part of the journey while travelling downwards
and decelerating at 4.70 m s−2.
Thinking Working

Also consider that deceleration is a negative acceleration. a = −4.70 m s–2 down
g = 9.80 m s–2 down
Apply the sign and direction convention for motion in m = 79.0 kg

one dimension. Up is positive and down is negative. a = 4.70 m s–2
g = –9.80 m s–2

= ma – mg
= (79.0 × 4.70) – (79.0 × –9.80)
= 371.3 + 774.2
= 1150 N

WORKING WITH KEPLER’S LAWS
Determine the orbital speed of a satellite, assuming it is in a circular orbit of radius of 42 100 km around the Earth.
Take the mass of the Earth to be 5.97 × 1024 kg and use G = 6.67 × 10–11 N m2 kg–2.
Thinking Working
Ensure that the variables are in their standard units. r = 42 100 km = 4.21 × 107 m
Choose the appropriate relationship between the orbital GM v2

speed, v, and the data that has been provided. a=g= 2 =
r r
Make v, the orbital speed, the subject of the equation. GM

v= r
Substitute in values and solve for the orbital speed, v. GM

v= r
−1 1
(6 .6 7 × 1 0 ) × (5 .9 7 × 1 0 24
)
= 4 .2 1 × 1 0 7
= 3.08 × 103 m s–1

SATELLITES IN ORBIT
Callisto is the second largest of Jupiter’s moons. It is about the same size as the planet Mercury. Callisto has a mass of
1.08 × 1023 kg, an orbital radius of 1.88 × 106 km and an orbital period of 1.44 × 106 s (16.7 days).
(a) Use Kepler’s third law to calculate the orbital radius (in km) of Europa, another moon of Jupiter, which has an
orbital period of 3.55 days.
Thinking Working
Note down the values for the known satellite. You can Callisto:
work in days and km. r = 1.88 × 106 km
T = 16.7 days
r3 Europa:
= constant for all satellites of a central mass.
T2 r3
= constant
T2
Work out this ratio for the known satellite.
(1 .8 8 )
3
×1 0 6
= 2
1 6 .7
= 2.38 × 1016
Use this constant value with the ratio for the satellite r3
= constant
in question. T2
r3
2 = 2.38 × 1016
3 .5 5
Make r3 the subject of the equation. r3 = 3.552 × 2.38 × 1016

= 3.00 × 1017
Solve for r. 3 .0 0 × 1 0
r = 3 17
= 6.70 × 105 km
Europa has a shorter period than Callisto so you should
expect Europa to have a smaller orbit than Callisto.
(b) Use the orbital data for Callisto to calculate the mass of Jupiter.
Thinking Working
Note down the values for the known satellite. You must Callisto/Jupiter:
work in SI units. r = 1.88 × 109 m
T = 1.44 × 106 s
m = 1.66 × 1023 kg
G = 6.67 × 10–11 N m2 kg–2
M=?
Select the expressions from the equation for centripetal 4 2r GM

=
acceleration that best suit your data. T2 r2
2 2
v 4 r GM
a= = = =g These two expressions use the given variables r and T,
r T2 r2
and the constant G, so that a solution may be found
for M.
Transpose to make M the subject. 4π 2r3

M=
GT 2
( )
3
Substitute values and solve. 4 π 2 1 .8 8 × 1 0 9
M= 6 .6 7 × 1 0 −1 1
(
× 1 .4 4 × 1 0 6
) 2
= 1.90 × 1027 kg
(c) Calculate the orbital speed of Callisto in km s–1.
Thinking Working
2π r Callisto:
Note values you will need to use in the equation v = .
T r = 1.88 × 106 km
T = 1.44 × 106 s
v=?
Substitute values and solve. The answer will be in km s –1

2π r
if r is expressed in km. v =
T
2 π × 1 .8 8 × 1 0 6
= 1 .4 4 × 1 0 6
= 8.20 km s–1
3.1 review
1 Fg = mg
= 6.50 × 9.80
= 63.7 N
2 Normal force = weight force for an object at rest
FN = 150 N
3 Fnet = FN + Fg
FN = Fnet – Fg
= ma – mg
= (45.0 × 2.02) – (45.0 × –9.80)
= 90.9 + 441
= 532 N
4 Fnet = FN + Fg
FN = Fnet – Fg
= ma – mg
= (45.0 × 0) – (45.0 × –9.80)
= 0 + 441
= 441 N
5 B. It is the only object that is on a surface and so it can experience an upwards normal force due to that surface.
6 C. Satellites orbit around a central mass. The Earth does not orbit Mars. The Moon does not orbit the Sun and
the Sun does not orbit the Earth.
7 B. In order to be geostationary, the satellite must be in a high orbit.
8 D. Increasing the mass of the satellite will not affect its orbital properties.
9 a a = g = 0.22 m s–2
b Fg = mg
= 2.3 × 103 × 0.22
= 506 N (or 510 N to 2 significant figures)
r3
10 = constant for satellites of Saturn, therefore the orbital period for each moon can be calculated.
T2
For Atlas:
(1 .3 7 )
3
5
r3 10
=
(0 .6 0 )
2
T2
= 7.14 × 1015
For Titan:
r3
= 7.14 × 1015
T2
r3
T2 =
7 .1 4 × 1 0 15
(1 .2 0 )
3
×1 0 6
=
7 .1 4 × 1 0 15
= 242
T = 242
= 15.6 days
Section 3.2
TORQUE ON A COIL
A single square wire coil, with a side length of 4.0 cm, is free to rotate within a magnetic field, B, of strength
1.0 × 10–4 T. A current of 1.0 A is flowing through the coil. What is the torque on the coil?
1
I
B
2
I I 4
I
3
Thinking Working
Confirm that the coil will experience a force based Using the right-hand rule, confirm that a force applies on side
on the magnetic field and current directions 2 out of the page. A force applies to side 4 into the page. The
supplied. coil will turn clockwise as viewed from in front of side 3.
Sides 1 and 3 lie parallel to the magnetic field and no force will
apply.
Calculate the magnetic force on one side. F = IlB

= 1.0 × 0.04 × 1.0 × 10–4
= 4.0 × 10–6 N
Determine the distance, r, from the point of length of side = 4.0 cm

rotation that the magnetic force is applied. distance between axis of rotation and application of force
1
= × side length
2
r = 2.0 cm = 0.020 m
Calculate the torque applied by the magnetic force τ = r⊥F

on one side of the coil.
= 0.020 × 4.0 × 10–6
= 8.0 × 10–8 N m
Since two sides, 2 and 4, experience a magnetic Total torque = 2 × 8.0 × 10–8
force and hence a torque, the torque on one side = 1.6 × 10–7 N m
should be multiplied by 2 to find the total torque.
The direction is clockwise as viewed from side 3.
State also the direction of rotation.
3.2 review
1 A. Recall the equation τ = r⊥F . The maximum torque exists when the force is applied at right angles to the axis of
rotation.
2 F = nIlB
= 1 × 2.0 × 0.05 × 0.10
= 1.0 × 10–2 N into the page
3 F = nIlB
= 1 × 2.0 × 0.05 × 0.10
= 1.0 × 10–2 N out of the page
4 The force will be 0 N.
Side PQ is parallel to the magnetic field.
5 Considering the direction of the forces acting on sides PS and QR, the coil would rotate in an anticlockwise direction.
6 D. The direction of the current does not affect the magnitude of the torque. This is the only option that doesn’t affect
either the distance to the axis of rotation or the magnetic force from the options available.
7 τ = r⊥F × 2 sides
= 2r⊥ F
0 .0 2
=2× × 1.0 × 10–2
2
= 2.0 × 10–4 N m
8 F = nIlB
= 1 × 1.0 × 0.50 × 0.20
= 0.1 N
9 Current flows into brush P and around the coil from V to X to Y to W. So force on side VX is down, force on side YW is
up, so rotation is anticlockwise.
10 D. As F = nIlB, the coil will experience more force, and rotate faster, if the current and field strength are increased.
Therefore, A and B are correct. Whether C is correct will depend on how the area is increased. But if the length in the
field is increased, you would expect it to turn faster. If widened, it will experience more torque but that may not make
it turn faster.
Section 3.3
CALCULATING THE SPEED OF ACCELERATED CHARGED PARTICLES
Determine the final speed of a single electron, with a charge of magnitude 1.6 × 10–19 C and a mass of 9.1 × 10–31 kg
when accelerating across a potential difference of 1.2 kV.
Thinking Working
Ensure that the variables are in their standard units. 1.2 kV = 1.2 × 103 V
Establish what quantities are known and what are v=?

required. q = 1.6 × 10–19 C
m = 9.1 × 10–31 kg
V = 1.2 × 103 V
Substitute values into the equation and re-arrange to 1

solve for the speed. qV = mv2
2
1
1.6 × 10−19 × 1.2 × 103 = × 9.1 × 10−31 × v2
2
−1 9
2 × 1 .6 × 1 0 × 1 .2 × 1 0 3
v= 9 .1 × 1 0 −3 1
= 2.1 × 107 m s–1

CALCULATING SPEED AND PATH RADIUS OF ACCELERATED CHARGED PARTICLES
An electron gun releases electrons from its cathode, which are accelerated across a potential difference of 25 kV, over a
distance of 20 cm between a pair of charged parallel plates. Assume that the mass of an electron is 9.1 × 10–31 kg and
the magnitude of the charge on an electron is 1.6 × 10–19 C.
(a) Calculate the strength of the electric field acting on the electron beam.
Thinking Working
Ensure that the variables are in their standard units. 25 kV = 25 × 103 = 2.5 × 104 V
20 cm = 0.20 m
Apply the correct equation. V

E=
d
Solve for E. 2 .5 × 1 0 4
E =
0 .2 0
= 1.3 × 105 V m–1
(b) Calculate the speed of the electrons as they exit the electron gun assembly.
Thinking Working
Apply the correct equation. 1

mv2 = qV
2
Rearrange the equation to make v the subject. 2qV

v= m
Solve for v. 2 × 1 .6 × 1 0 −1 9
× 2 .5 × 1 0 4
v = 9 .1 × 1 0 −3 1
= 9.4 × 107 m s–1
(c) The electrons then travel through a uniform magnetic field perpendicular to their motion. Given that this field is
of strength 0.3 T, calculate the expected radius of the path of the electron beam.
Thinking Working
Apply the correct equation. mv

r= qB
Solve for r. 9 .1 × 1 0 −3 1
× 9 .4 × 1 0 7
r= −1 9
1 .6 × 1 0 × 0 .3
= 1.8 × 10–3 m
3.3 review
1 B. A charged particle moving in a magnetic field will experience a force.
2 F = qvB
= 1.6 × 10–19 × 1.0 × 1.5 × 10–5
= 2.4 × 10–24
The electron will experience a force of 2.4 × 10–24 N south.
2qV
3 v= m
((
2 1 .6 × 1 0 −1 9
) × (2 .5 ×1 0 3
))
= 9 .1 × 1 0 −3 1
= 3.0 × 107 m s–1
4 a F = qvB
= 1.6 × 10–19 × 7.0 × 106 × 8.6 × 10–3
= 9.6 × 10–15 N
mv
b r = qB
−3 1
9 .1 × 1 0 × 7 .0 × 1 0 6
= −1 9 −3
1 .6 × 1 0 × 8 .6 × 1 0
= 4.6 × 10–3 m
mv
5 r= qB
mv
B= qr
1 1
Radius = diameter = × 9.2 × 10–2 = 4.6 × 10–2 m
2 2
−3 1
9 .1 × 1 0 × 7 .6 × 1 0 6
B= −1 9 −2
1 .6 × 1 0 × 4 .6 × 1 0
= 9.4 × 10–4 T
mv
6 r = qB
rqB
v =
m
= 0.06 × (1.76 × 1011) × (1.5 × 10–4)

= 1.6 × 106 m s–1
7 A charged particle in a magnetic field will experience a force (F = qvB).
As force ∝ velocity, the force will increase as the velocity increases. This will continue while the charge remains in the
magnetic field, continuously accelerating the charge.
1
8 Ek= mv2 = qV
2
2qV
v= m
(
2 × 1 .6 × 1 0 −1 9
) × ( 3 .0 ×1 0 3
)
= 9 .1 × 1 0 −3 1
= 3.25 × 107 m s–1
Because the forces acting on the electron due to the electric and magnetic fields are balanced, you can equate them.
FE = qE and FB = qvB
qE = qvB
E = vB
= (3.25 × 107) × (1.6 × 10–3)
= 5.20 × 104 J
V V
= so the plate separation, d =
d E
3000
d=
5 .2 0 × 1 0 4
= 5.8 × 10–2 m or 5.8 cm
CHAPTER 3 REVIEW
1 Fnet = FN + Fg
FN = Fnet - Fg
= ma – mg
= (45.0 × –3.15) – (45.0 × –9.80)
= −141.75 + 441
= 299 N
2 D. Objects in orbit are in free fall. While still in orbit around the Earth, gravity is reduced, but is still significant in
magnitude.
3 D. At this altitude, gravity is reduced and so will be less than 9.8 N kg–1, hence, acceleration is less than 9.8 m s–2.
Note: B is not correct, because while the speed of the satellite would be constant, its velocity is not.
4 A. Apparent weightlessness is felt during free fall, when FN is zero.
r3
5 = constant for satellites of Earth, therefore the orbital period for each satellite can be calculated.
T2
For X:
r3
= constant = k
T2
For Y:
(5r) 3
2 =k
T Y
(5r ) 3
r3
2
=
T Y T2
125r3 r3
=
TY2 T2
125r3
TY = T
2 2
r3
= 125T 2
TY = 11.2T
GM
6 a a=
r2
−1 1
6 .6 7 × 1 0 × 1 .0 2 × 1 0 26
=
( 3 .5 5 )
2
×1 0 8
= 0.0540 m s –2
v2
b a=
r
v = ar = 0 .0 5 4 × 3 .5 5 × 1 0
8
= 4.38 × 103 m s−1

mv 2 4 2
rm GMm
c Fg = = = = mg
r T2 r2
2
4 rm GMm
=
T2 r2
2 3
4 r
T2 =
GM
( 3 .5 5 )
3
2 8
4 10
= 11 26
6 .6 7 10 1 .0 2 10
= 2.60 × 1011
T = 2 .6 0 10 11
= 5.09 × 105 s
1 day = 24 × 60 × 60 = 86 400 s
5 .0 9 × 1 0 5
T =
86400
= 5.89 days
GM
7 a a= =g
r2
GM
g=
r2
−1 1
6 .6 7 × 1 0 × 7 .0 × 1 0 20
=
( 3 .8 5 )
2
×1 0 5
= 0.315 N kg–1
mv 2 GMm
b =
r r2
GM
v =
r
−1 1
6 .6 7 × 1 0 × 7 .0 × 1 0 20
= 3 .9 5 × 1 0 5
= 344 m s–1
8 a down the page
b up the page
9 anticlockwise
10 a down the page
b up the page
c Zero torque acts as the forces are trying to pull the coil apart rather than turn it. The force is parallel to the coil,
rather than perpendicular to it.
11 C. Reversing the direction of the current in the loop will ensure that the loop keeps travelling in the same direction.
Use the right-hand rule to verify this.
12 The commutator’s function is to reverse the current direction in the coil every half turn to keep the coil rotating in the
same direction.
13 Electrons are released from a negative terminal or hot cathode of the evacuated tube and accelerate towards a
positively charged anode. They can be detected as they hit a fluorescent screen at the rear of the tube. The electrons
are accelerated by a high potential difference between the cathode and positively charged anode.
2qV
14 v = m
(
2 × 1 .6 × 1 0 −1 9
) × (1 0 ×1 0 3
)
= 9 .1 × 1 0 −3 1
= 5.9 × 107 m s–1
mv
15 r = qB
−3 1
9 .1 × 1 0 × 5 .9 × 1 0 7
= −1 9
1 .6 × 1 0 × 1 .5
= 2.2 × 10 m –4
16 a The electron will experience a force at right angles to its motion. This acts upwards in the initial moment
and causes the electron to curve in an upwards arc from its starting position.
b The radius of the electron path is dependent upon its velocity and the magnitude of the magnetic field that
is acting.
17 a The strength of the electric field between the charged plates is given by:
V
E=
d
500
= 3 .5 × 1 0 −2
= 1.4 × 104 V m–1

b Because the strength of the electric and magnetic fields is balanced, you can say that:
FB = FE
qvB = qE
E
v =
B
1 .4 × 1 0 4
= −3
1 .5 × 1 0
= 9.3 × 106 m s–1
2qV
18 v = m
((
2 1 .6 × 1 0 −1 9
) × ( 4 .5 ×1 0 3
))
= 9 .1 × 1 0 −3 1
= 4.0 × 107 m s–1

mv
19 r = qB
mv
B= qr
1
radius = × diameter
2
1
= × 8.4 × 10–2
2
= 4.2 × 10–2 m
−3 1
9 .1 × 1 0 × 4 .3 × 1 0 6
B= −1 9 −2
1 .6 × 1 0 × 4 .2 × 1 0
= 5.8 ×10–4 T
20 a F = qvB
= 1.6 × 10–19 × 6.4 × 106 × 9.1 × 10–3
= 9.3 × 10–15 N
mv
b r = qB
−3 1
9 .1 × 1 0 × 6 .4 × 1 0 6
= −1 9 −3
1 .6 × 1 0 × 9 .1 × 1 0
= 4.0 × 10 m –3
Chapter 4 answers
Section 4.1
MAGNETIC FLUX
A student places a horizontal square coil of wire of side length 4.0 cm into a uniform vertical magnetic field of
0.050 T. How much magnetic flux ‘threads’ the coil?
Thinking Working
Calculate the area of the coil perpendicular to the side length = 4.0 cm
magnetic field. = 0.04 m
area of the square = (0.04 m)2
= 0.0016 m2
Calculate the magnetic flux. ϕB = B⊥A

= 0.050 × 0.0016
= 0.00008 Wb
State the answer in an appropriate form. ϕB = 8.0 × 10–5 Wb

ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE ACROSS AN AIRCRAFT’S WINGS
Will a moving airplane develop a dangerous emf between its wing tips solely from the Earth’s magnetic field?
A fighter jet with a wing span of 25 m is flying at a speed of 2000 km h–1 at right angles to the Earth’s magnetic field
of 5.0 × 10–5 T.
Thinking Working
Identify the quantities required in the correct units. ε=?

l = 25 m
B = 5.0 × 10–5 T
v = 2000 km h–1
1000
= 2000 ×
3600
= 556 m s–1
Substitute into the appropriate formula and simplify. ε = lvB

= 25 × 556 × 5.0 × 10–5
= 0.695 V
State your answer as a response to the question. ε = 0.695 V

This is a very small emf and would not be dangerous.

FLUID FLOW MEASUREMENT
The rate of fluid flow within a vessel can be measured

using the induced emf when the fluid contains charged pipe
ions. A small magnet and sensitive voltmeter calibrated to
measure speed are used. This can be applied to measure + A
fluid flow in small pipes. If the diameter of a particular
small pipe is 1.00 cm, the strength of the magnetic field
applied is 0.10 T and the measured emf is 0.50 mV, what to voltmeter
N S
is the speed of the fluid flow?
electrodes – B uid
o
Thinking Working
Identify the quantities required and put them into ε = 0.50 mV = 5.0 × 10–4 V
SI units. l = 1.00 cm = 0.0100 m
v=?
B = 0.10 T
Rearrange the appropriate formula, substitute and ε = lvB

simplify. ε
v=
lB
−4
5 .0 × 1 0
=
0 .0 1 0 0 × 0 .1 0
= 0.50 m s–1
State your answer with the correct units. v = 0.50 m s–1
4.1 review
1 A. There is no change in magnetic flux in this scenario and so there cannot be an induced emf.
2 0 Wb. Since the plane of the coil is parallel to the magnetic field there is no flux passing through the coil.
3 ϕB = B⊥A = 2.0 × 10–3 × 0.042 = 3.2 × 10–6 Wb
4 The magnetic flux decreases from 3.2 × 10–6 Wb to 0 after one-quarter of a turn. Then it increases again to
3.2 × 10–6 Wb through the opposite side of the loop after half a turn. Then it decreases to 0 again after three-quarters
of a turn. After a full turn it is back to 3.2 × 10–6 Wb again.
5 ϕB = B⊥A = 1.6 × 10–3 × π × 0.052 = 1.3 × 10–5 Wb
6 ε = lvB = 0.12 × 0.150 × 0.800 = 0.0144 V or 1.44 × 10–2 V
7 ε = lvB
ε 0 .1 0 0
v= = = 0.84 m s–1
lB 0 .1 3 2 × 0 .9 0
8 ε = lvB
ε 0 .0 8 0
l= = = 0.10 m
vB 1 .6 × 0 .5 0
9 As the rod is held vertically and dropped downwards through a vertically upward field, the rod and magnetic field are
oriented parallel to each other. No emf will be produced, therefore the correct answer is 0 V. (As the rod has some
width, there would be an emf created across this width, but the question specifically dismisses this by stating it is
of ‘very small diameter.’)
10 ε = lvB = 20 × 1000 × 2.5 × 10–5 = 0.50 V
Section 4.2
INDUCED EMF IN A COIL
A student winds a coil of area 50 cm2 with 10 turns. She places it horizontally in a vertical uniform magnetic field
of 0.10 T.
(a) Calculate the magnetic flux perpendicular to the coil.
Thinking Working
Identify the quantities to calculate the magnetic flux ϕB = B⊥A

through the coil and convert to SI units where required. B = 0.10 T
A = 50 cm2 = 50 × 10–4 m2
Calculate the magnetic flux and state with appropriate ϕB = B⊥A = 0.10 × 50 × 10–4
units. = 5.0 × 10–4 Wb
(b) Calculate the magnitude of the average induced emf in the coil when the coil is removed from the magnetic field
in a time of 1.0 s.
Identify the quantities for determining the induced emf. Δφ B

ε = −N
Δt
N = 10 turns
ΔϕB = ϕ2 – ϕ1
= 0 – 5.0 × 10–4
= a change of 5.0 × 10–4 Wb
t = 1.0 s
Calculate the magnitude of the average induced emf, Δ φB

ignoring the negative sign that indicates the direction. ε = –N
Δt
Use appropriate units. 5 .0 × 1 0 −4
= 10 ×
1 .0
= 5.0 × 10–3 V

NUMBER OF TURNS IN A COIL
A coil of cross-sectional area 2.0 × 10–3 m2 experiences a change in the strength of a magnetic field from 0 to 0.20 T
over 1.00 s. If the magnitude of the average induced emf is measured as 0.40 V, how many turns must be on the coil?
Thinking Working
Identify the quantities to calculate the magnetic flux ϕB = B⊥A

through the coil when in the presence of the magnetic B = 0.20 T
field and convert to SI units where required. A = 2.0 × 10–3 m2
Calculate the magnetic flux when in the presence of the ϕB = B⊥A

magnetic field. = 0.20 × 2.0 × 10–3
= 4.0 × 10–4 Wb
Identify the quantities from the question required to Δφ B

ε = −N
complete Faraday’s law. Δt
N=?
ΔϕB = ϕ2 – ϕ1
= 4.0 × 10–4 – 0
= a change of 4.0 × 10–4 Wb
t = 1.0 s
ε = 0.40 V
Rearrange Faraday’s law and solve for the number of Δφ B

ε = −N
turns on the coil. Ignore the negative sign. Δt
εΔt
N= Δ φB
0 .4 0 × 1 .0
= −4
4 .0 × 1 0
= 1000 turns
4.2 review
1 ϕB = B⊥A = 2.0 × 10–3 × 0.02 × 0.03 = 1.2 × 10–6 Wb
2 Zero flux threads the loop when the loop is parallel to the magnetic field.
3 ΔϕB = 1.2 × 10–6 Wb
Δφ B 1 .2 × 1 0 −6
ε = −N = = 3.0 × 10–5 V
Δt 0 .0 4 0
4 C. The speed of the magnet reduces the time over which the change occurs but there is no change in the strength of
the magnetic field or the area of the coil, hence the total flux (area under the curve) is the same.
5 ϕB = 80 × 10–3 × 10 × 10–4
= 8 × 10−5 Wb
Δ φB 8 × 1 0 −5
ε= − = = 4 × 10–3 V
Δt 0 .0 2 0
6 The effect of using multiple coils is similar to placing cells in series—the emf of each of the coils adds together to
produce the total emf.
ΔϕB = 500 × 4 × 10–3 V = 2 V
7 ϕB = 5.0 × 10–3 × 200 × 10–4
= 1.0 × 10–4 Wb
Δφ B 1 .0 × 1 0 −4
ε = −N = 30 × = 6.0 × 10–3 V
Δt 0 .5 0
8 The student must induce an emf of 1.0 V in the wire by somehow changing the magnetic flux through the coil at an
appropriate rate. A change in flux can be achieved by changing the strength of the magnetic field or by changing
the area of the coil. The magnetic field can be changed by changing the position of the magnet relative to the coil.
The area can be changed by changing the shape of the coil or by rotating the coil relative to the magnetic field.
To calculate the required rate of change of flux to produce 1.0 V:
Δ φB ε
=
Δt N
Δ φB 1 .0
= = 0.01 Wb s–1
Δt 100
For example, if the shape was changed from 0.01 m2 to 0.02 m2 in a time of 0.1 s, then:
Δ φB (1 0 0 × 1 0 −3
× 0 .0 2 ) − (1 0 0 × 1 0 −3
× 0 .0 1 ) 0 .0 0 1
= = = 0.01 Wb s–1
Δt 0 .1 0 .1
Δφ B
9 ε = −N
Δt
ΔBA⊥
= –N
Δt
−εΔt
A⊥ =
NΔB
0 .0 2 0 × 0 .0 5 0
=
1 × 0 .1 0
= 0.010 m2
Δφ B
10 ε = −N
Δt
Δ φB 0 .4 0 × 5 0 × 1 0 −4
Δt = –N = 100 ×
ε 1 6 0 0 ×1 0 −3
= 0.125 s
Section 4.3
INDUCED CURRENT IN A COIL FROM A PERMANENT MAGNET
The south pole of a magnet is moved downwards away from a horizontal coil held above it. In which direction will the
induced current flow in the coil?
Thinking Working
Consider the direction of the change in magnetic flux. The magnetic field direction will be downwards towards
the south pole. The downwards flux from the magnet will
decrease as the magnet is moved away from the coil.
So the change in flux is decreasing downwards.
What will oppose the change in flux? The magnetic field that opposes the change would act
downwards.
Determine the direction of the induced current required In order to oppose the change, the current direction
to oppose the change. would be clockwise when viewed from above (using the
right-hand grip rule).

INDUCED CURRENT IN A COIL FROM AN ELECTROMAGNET
What is the direction of the current induced in the solenoid when the electromagnet is:
(i) switched on
(ii) left on
(iii) switched off?
– +
X Y
Thinking Working
Consider the direction of the change in magnetic flux for (i) Initially there is no magnetic flux through the
each case. solenoid. When the electromagnet is switched on, the
electromagnet creates a magnetic field directed to the
right. So the change in flux through the solenoid is
increasing to the right.
(ii) While the current in the electromagnet is steady,
the magnetic field is constant and the flux through the
solenoid is constant.
(iii) In this case, initially there is a magnetic field from
the electromagnet directed to the right. When the
electromagnet is switched off, there is no longer a
magnetic field so the change in flux through the solenoid
is decreasing to the right.
What will oppose the change in flux for each case? (i) The magnetic field that opposes the change in flux
through the solenoid is directed to the left.
(ii) There is no change in flux and so no opposition is
needed and there will be no magnetic field created by the
solenoid.
(iii) The magnetic field that opposes the change in flux
through the solenoid is directed to the right.
Determine the direction of the induced current required (i) In order to oppose the change, the current will flow
to oppose the change for each case. through the solenoid in the direction from Y to X (through
the meter from X to Y), using the right-hand grip rule.
(ii) There will be no induced emf or current in the
solenoid.
(iii) In order to oppose the change, the current will flow
through the solenoid in the direction from X to Y (through
the meter from Y to X), using the right-hand grip rule.

FURTHER PRACTICE WITH LENZ’S LAW
A coil is moved to the right and out of a magnetic field that is directed out of the page. In what direction will the
induced current flow in the coil while the magnet is moving?
Thinking Working
Consider the direction of the change in magnetic flux. Initially, the magnetic flux passes through the full area of
the coil and out of the page. Moving the coil out of the
field decreases the magnetic flux. So the change in flux is
decreasing out of the page.
What will oppose the change in flux? The magnetic field that opposes the change would act
out of the page again.
Determine the direction of the induced current required In order to oppose the change, the current direction
to oppose the change. would be anticlockwise (using the right-hand grip rule).

PEAK AND RMS AC CURRENT VALUES
A 1000 W kettle is connected to a 240 V AC power outlet. What is the peak power use of the kettle?
Thinking Working
Note that the values given in the question represent rms Prms = VrmsIrms
values. Power is P = VI so both V and I must be known to
Prms
calculate the power use. The voltage V is given, and the Irms =
Vrms
current I can be calculated from the rms power supplied.
1000
=
240
= 4.17 A
Substitute in known quantities and solve for peak power. Pp = 2Vrms × 2Irms = 2VrmsIrms
= 2 × Vrms × Irms
= 2 × 240 × 4.17
= 2000 W
4.3 review
1 C. The magnetic field of the induced current will always oppose the original change.
2 a A. When the external magnetic field is switched off this represents a change in flux through the coil that is
decreasing out of the page. In order to oppose this change, the induced current will create a magnetic field out
of the page.
b A. When the external magnetic field is reversed this represents a change in flux through the coil that is decreasing
out of the page, followed by increasing into the page. In order to oppose this change, the induced current will create
a magnetic field out of the page.
3 a Anticlockwise. The magnetic flux is increasing in strength downwards, so the field opposing that change will be
upwards. Using the right-hand grip rule, the direction of the induced current will be anticlockwise.
b Any combination of four factors that address the three ways of creating an induced emf or the relationship between
emf and current, such as:
1) strength of the magnet
2) speed of the magnet
3) area/diameter of the ring
4) orientation of the ring
5) type of copper making up the ring
6) resistance of the circuit containing the coil.
4 B. Applying Lenz’s law, the back emf opposes the change in magnetic flux that created it, so the induced back emf
will be in the opposite direction to the emf creating it. The net emf used by the motor is then less than the supplied
voltage.
5 B. When the coil begins rotating the flux is a maximum and decreases initially, having the shape of graph D. The
current graph (like the induced emf graph) will be zero initially and will increase, having the pattern shown in graph B.
6 Vp = 8.0 V
Vp–p = 2 × Vp = 2 × 8.0 = 16 V
Vp 8 .0
Vrms = = = 5.66 V
2 2
7
8V
t (s)
0
0.01 0.02
Doubling the magnetic field strength will double the emf, as will doubling the frequency. Halving the radius reduces
the area by one-quarter, and so reduces the emf by one-quarter. Thus the emf will remain the same magnitude
overall. Doubling the frequency of rotation, however, does reduce the period of the output graph by half.
8
1.4
0.02
I (A)
0
t (s)
-1.4
10
9 Vrms = = 7.07 V
2
6
Irms = = 4.24 V
2
Prms = Vrms × Irms
= 7.07 × 4.24 = 29.98 W or 30 W
Prms 600
10 Irms = = = 2.5 A
Vrms 240
Ip = 2 × Irms = 2 × 2 .5 0 = 3.54 A
Section 4.4
TRANSFORMER EQUATION—VOLTAGE
A transformer is built into a phone charger to reduce the 240 V supply voltage to the required 6 V for the charger.
If the number of turns in the secondary coil is 100, what is the number of turns required in the primary coil?
Thinking Working
State the relevant quantities given in the question. V2 = 6 V

Choose a form of the transformer equation with the V1 = 240 V
unknown quantity in the top left position.
N2 = 100 turns
N1 = ?
N1 V1
=
N2 V2
Substitute the quantities into the equation, rearrange N1 240

and solve for N1. =
100 6
100 × 240
N1 =
6
= 4000 turns

TRANSFORMER EQUATION—CURRENT
A phone charger with 4000 turns in the primary coil and 100 turns in its secondary coil draws a current of 0.50 A.
What is the current in the primary coil?
Thinking Working
State the relevant quantities given in the question. I2 = 0.50 A

Choose a form of the transformer equation with the N2 = 100 turns
unknown quantity in the top left position.
N1 = 4000 turns
I1 = ?
I1 N2
=
I2 N1
Substitute the quantities into the equation, rearrange I1 100

and solve for I1. =
0 .5 0 4000
0 .5 0 × 1 0 0
I1 =
4000
= 0.0125 A

TRANSFORMERS—POWER
The power drawn from the secondary coil of the transformer by a phone charger is 3 W. What power is drawn from
the mains supply if the transformer is an ideal transformer?
Thinking Working
The energy efficiency of a transformer can be assumed The power drawn from the mains supply is the power in
to be 100%. The power in the secondary coil will be the the primary coil, which will be the same as the power in
same as that in the primary coil. the secondary coil: P = 3 W

TRANSMISSION-LINE POWER LOSS
300 MW is to be transmitted from the Hazelwood power station to Melbourne along a transmission line with a total
resistance of 1.0 Ω. What would be the total transmission power loss if the voltage along the line was now to be 500 kV?
Thinking Working
Convert the values to SI units. P = 300 MW = 300 × 106 W

V = 500 kV = 500 × 103 V
Determine the current in the line based on the P

required voltage. P = VI ∴ I =
V
300 × 106
I =
500 × 103
= 600 A
Determine the corresponding power loss. P = I2R

= 6002 × 1
= 3.6 × 105 W or 0.36 MW

VOLTAGE DROP ALONG A TRANSMISSION LINE
Power is to be transmitted from the Loy Yang power station to Melbourne along a transmission line with a total
resistance of 1.0 Ω. The current is 600 A. What voltage would be needed at the Loy Yang end of the transmission line
to achieve a supply voltage of 500 kV?
Thinking Working
Determine the voltage drop along the transmission line. ΔV = IR

= 600 × 1.0
= 600 V
Determine the initial supply voltage. Vinitial = Vsupplied + ΔV

= 500 × 103 + 600
= 500.6 kV
4.4 review
1 B. The power equation is P = VI and the ‘2’ indicates the secondary coil.
2 D. A change in flux through the secondary coil is required for an emf to be induced in the second coil, but a DC input
to the primary coil will create a constant flux. Therefore the voltage output is zero.
N2 V2
3 =
N1 V1
N2 12
=
800 240
12 × 800
N2 =
240
= 40 turns
4 a In an ideal transformer there should be no power loss, so P1 = P2.
I2 N1
b =
I1 N2
V2 N2
5 a =
V1 N1
V2 200
=
8 .0 20
8 .0 × 2 0 0
V2 =
20
= 80 V
b Assuming an ideal transformer, the power output at the secondary coil must be equal to the power input at the
primary coil.
P1 = V1I1 = 8.0 × 2.0 = 16 W
P2 16
c I2 = = = 0.20 A
V2 80
N2 V2
6 a =
N1 V1
N2 12
=
800 240
800 × 12
N2 =
240
= 40 turns
I1 N2
b =
I2 N1
I2N2
I1 =
N1
2 .0 × 4 0
=
800
= 0.10 A
Ip = Irms × 2
= 0 .1 0 × 2
= 0.14 A
c P1 = V1 × I1
= 240 × 0.1
= 24 W
d A. A DC supply operates at a constant voltage, hence there is no changing flux through the secondary coil so no
output voltage will be produced and the transformer will not operate.
P 5 .0 × 1 0 3
7 I= = = 10 A
V 500
Ploss = I2R = 102 × 4.0 = 400 W

P 500 × 106
8 I= = = 2000 A
V 250 × 103
Ploss = I2R = 20002 × 10 = 4 × 107 W or 40 MW

P 500 × 106
9 a I= = = 5000 A
V 100 × 103
b Vdrop = I × R
Vdrop = 5000 × 2 = 10 000 V or 10 kV
Vsupplied = 100 − 10 = 90 kV
10 B is correct. A is incorrect because the ∆V in the formula indicates the voltage drop in the transmission lines; it does
not refer to the voltage being transmitted.
CHAPTER 4 REVIEW
1 a B changes from 8.0 × 10–4 T to 16 × 10–4 T which is a change of 8.0 × 10–4 T.
ϕB = ∆B × A = 8.0 × 10–4 × 40 × 10–4
= 3.2 × 10–6 Wb
Δφ B 3 .2 × 1 0 −6
ε = −N = = 3.2 × 10–3 V or 3.2 mV

Δt 1 .0 × 1 0 −3
b Clockwise. Doubling the magnetic field strength increases the flux through the coil out of the page. The induced
magnetic field will act into the page to oppose the increasing magnetic flux out of the page. Using the right-hand
grip rule, the induced current direction is clockwise around the coil.
2 a ϕB = 20 × 10–3 × π × 0.042
= 1 × 10−4 Wb
Δφ B 1 ×1 0 −4
ε = −N = 40 = 0.04 V
Δt 0 .1 0
b From Y to X. As the coil is removed, the magnetic flux through the coil changes from being directed downwards to
no magnetic flux. To oppose this change the coil must create a magnetic field that is directed downwards again.
Using the right-hand grip rule, this means the current must flow clockwise around the coil when viewed from above.
3 a ε = lvB = 0.20 × 2.0 × 10 × 10–3 = 4 × 10–3 V or 4.0 mV
b From X to Y. As the rod moves to the right the area of the loop decreases so the magnetic flux through the loop,
which is directed out of the page, decreases. In order to oppose this change the loop will create a magnetic field
directed out of the page again. Using the right-hand grip rule, the current will flow through the rod from X to Y.
4 ε = lvB = 8.0 × 4.0 × 5.0 × 10–5 = 1.6 × 10–3 V or 1.6 mV
5 I
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 t(s)
A change in the emf in S1 produces a current in S2. So no current flows in S2 between t = 1 s and t = 4 s. An increase
in emf at a constant rate (t = 0 to t = 1 s) would produce a constant current and a decrease in emf at a lower rate
(t = 4 to t = 7 s) would produce a lower current in the opposite direction. Either the graph shown or its inversion
is correct.
I2 V1
6 =
I1 V2
I2 14
=
3 .0 42
I2 = 1.0 A
N1 V1
7 =
N2 V2
N1 14
=
30 42
N1 = 10
There are 10 turns in the primary coil.
8 A. The spikes in the voltage output occur when the input voltage rises and falls i.e. when it changes.
Vp
9 a Vrms = 2
25
= 2
= 18 V
b Pp = IpVp = 15 × 25 = 375 W
10 C
Prms = VrmsIrms
Ip−p Vp−p
= ×
2 2 2 2
Ip−p × Vp−p
=
8
Ip–p × Vp–p = 8 × Prms = 8 × 60 = 480 W

Option C is the only option that meets this requirement.
11 In a quarter of a turn ∆ϕB = 80 × 10–3 × 10 × 10–4 = 8 × 10–5 Wb
1
Frequency is 50 Hz so quarter of a turn takes × 0.02 = 0.005 s
4
Δφ B 8 ×1 0 −5
ε = −N = 500 ×
Δt 0 .0 0 5
=8V
12 Doubling the frequency halves the Δt in Faraday’s law so it doubles the average emf to 16 V.
13 Any two of:
1. Using a DC power supply means that the voltage cannot be stepped up or down with transformers.
2. Hence there will be significant power loss along the 8 Ω power lines.
3. Damage to any appliances operated in the shed that are designed to operate on 240 V AC and not on 240 V DC.
14 As the coil area is reduced, the flux into the page will decrease. To oppose this the induced current will try to increase
the flux again in the same direction. Using the right-hand grip rule the direction of the induced current will be
clockwise.
15 AB and CD. Both the sides AB and CD cut across lines of flux as the coil rotates.
16 P = VI
150 × 103 = 10000 × I
150 × 103
I=
10000
= 15 A
17 Calculate the voltage drop:
V = IR
= 15 × 2.0
= 30 V
Calculate the final voltage: Initial voltage – voltage drop
V = 10000 – 30 = 9970 V
18 P = I2R
Using current calculated from Question 16, I = 15 A
P = 152 × 2.0
= 450 W
19 Without the first transformer, voltage in the transmission lines, V = 1000 V
Calculate I:
P = VI
150 kW = 1000I
150 × 103
I= = 150 A
1000
Power loss in the lines:

P = I2R
= 1502 × 2.0
= 45 kW
Power supplied = 150 kW – 45 kW =105 kW
This represents a 30% power loss—bad idea!
20 Anticlockwise. Initially there is no flux through the coil. As the coil begins to rotate, the amount of flux increases and to
the left. To oppose this change, an induced magnetic field will be directed to the right. Using the right-hand grip rule
this creates an anticlockwise current in the coil for the orientation shown in the diagram.
Chapter 5 answers
Section 5.1
APPLICATION OF NEWTON’S FIRST AND THIRD LAWS
The toddler adds extra blocks to the cart and drags it across the floor more slowly. The 5.5 kg cart travels at a constant
speed of 0.65 m s–1. The force of friction between the cart and the floor is 5.2 N and the handle is now at an angle of
30° above the horizontal.
(a) Calculate the net force on the cart.
Thinking Working
The cart has constant velocity. According to Newton’s first FC net = 0 N

law, the net force acting on the cart is zero.
(b) Calculate the force that the toddler exerts on the cart.
Thinking Working
Draw a diagram.
FCT
30°
FCF FCTx
If the net force is zero then the horizontal forces must FCF = FCT cos 30° = 5.2 N
be in balance. Therefore the horizontal component of
5 .2
the force on the cart by the toddler, FCTx, is equal to the FCT = = 6.0 N
cos 3 0 °
magnitude of the frictional force, FCF.
(c) Calculate the force that the cart exerts on the toddler.
Thinking Working
Apply Newton’s third law to find the force on the toddler The force of the cart on the toddler is 6.0 N at an angle of
by the cart. 30° below the horizontal.

APPLICATION OF NEWTON’S LAWS
A vehicle towing a trailer accelerates at 2.8 m s–2 in order to overtake a car in front. The vehicle’s mass is 2700 kg and
the trailer’s mass is 600 kg. The drag forces on the vehicle are 1100 N, and the drag forces on the trailer are 500 N.
(a) Calculate the thrust of the engine.
Thinking Working
Draw a sketch showing all the forces acting. FV tension FV thrust = ?
trailer vehicle
m = 600 kg m = 2700 kg 2.8 m s–2
FT drag FT tension FV drag

500 N
Since there is an acceleration, Newton’s Fsystem = msystema

second law may be applied to the whole
FV thrust – FV drag = (mv + mT)a
system.
Note that the vehicle and the trailer are FV thrust – 1100 – 500 = (2700 +600)2.8
considered to be joined by the coupling and FV thrust = 1.1 × 104 N in the direction of motion
so the tension forces are not included at
this stage. Consider the system as a whole.
(b) Calculate the magnitude of the tension in the coupling.
Thinking Working
Consider only one part of the system, for FT net = mTa

example the trailer, once again applying
FT tension – FT drag = mTa
Newton’s second law.
FT tension = 600 × 2.8 + 500
= 2.2 × 103 N

INCLINED PLANES
A much heavier skier of mass 85 kg travels down the same icy slope inclined at 20° to the horizontal. Assume that friction
is negligible and that the acceleration due to gravity is 9.8 m s–2.
(a) Determine the components of the weight of the skier perpendicular to the slope and parallel to the slope.
Thinking Working
Draw a sketch including the values provided.
Fg 20°
20°
Resolve the weight into a component perpendicular to The perpendicular component is:
the slope. F⊥ = Fg cos 20°
= 833 cos 20° = 783 N
Resolve the weight into a component parallel to the slope. The parallel component is
F‖ = Fg sin 20°
= 833 sin 20° = 285 N
(b) Determine the normal force that acts on the skier.
Thinking Working
The normal force is equal in magnitude to the FN = 783 N

perpendicular component.
(c) Calculate the acceleration of the skier down the slope.
Thinking Working
Apply Newton’s second law. Fnet

a=
The net force along the incline is the component of the m
weight parallel to the slope. 285
=
85
= 3.4 m s–2 down the slope
5.1 review
1 No. Phil’s inertia made him stay where he was (stationary) as the tram moved forwards. This made it look like Phil was
thrown backwards relative to the tram. This is an example of Newton’s first law. Objects will remain at rest unless a net
unbalanced force acts to change the motion.
2 Forces are balanced, so air resistance force is equal in magnitude to the weight of the ball.
Fa = Fg = mg = 0.01 × 9.8 = 0.098 N upwards
3 a Constant speed, so forces are balanced: Fd = 45 N.
b Fnet = ma = 80 × 1.5 = 120 N
Fd – 45 = 120
Fd = 165 N
4 a u = 0, v = 7.5, t = 5.0, a = ?
v = u + at
7.5 = 0 + 5.0a
a = 1.5 m s–2
b Fnet = ma = 80 × 1.5 = 120 N
c Constant speed, so forces are balanced, i.e. Fnet = 0. The frictional force will equal 60 N.
5 a Constant speed so net force is zero.
b The horizontal component of the pulling (tension) force is in balance with the frictional force of 60 N.
Th = T cos 25° = 60
60
T= = 66 N
cos 2 5 °
c The rope is exerting a force of 66 N on Matt.

6 F
a b
F
Force exerted on Force exerted on
racquet by ball ground by pig
c d
F F
Force exerted on Gravitational
ground by wardrobe force of attraction
that seal exerts
on Earth
7 The net force on the whole system is Fg (falling weight) – Ffr = 4.9 – 1.5 = 3.4 N
F 3 .4
The acceleration of the system is thus a = = = 1.4 m s–2
m 2 .5
The 2.0 kg block has the same acceleration, hence

Fnet = 2.0 × 1.4 = 2.8 N
T – 1.5 = 2.8
T = 4.3 N
8 a Fnet = thrust – drag forces = mtotala
thrust – 600 – 1025 = (2000 +250) × 1.5
thrust = 3375 + 600 + 1025
= 5000 = 5.0 × 103 N
b Fnet tree = tension – dragtree = mtreea
tension – 1025 = 250 × 1.5
tension = 375 + 1025 = 1400 N
The rope will not break as the tension is less than the breaking strength.
9 a A, the frictional force is opposite to the velocity.
b C, perpendicular to the slope.
c Fnet = 0 so Ff = Fg sin θ = 100 × 9.8 × sin 30° = 490 N up the hill.
d Acceleration a = g sin θ = 9.8 × sin 30° = 4.9 m s–2
e Acceleration is not affected by mass if there is no friction.
10 A, B and D. The weight and normal force act on the same body, so they cannot be an action–reaction pair.
All other options are true of normal reaction forces.
11 A. FN = Fg cos θ, thus the normal force is less than the weight. It is a component of the weight that causes the
acceleration.
Section 5.2
CALCULATING SPEED
A water wheel has blades 2.0 m in length that rotate at a frequency of 10 revolutions per minute. At what speed do
the tips of the blades travel? Express your answer in km h–1.
Thinking Working
Calculate the period, T. Remember to express frequency 10 revolutions per minute

in the correct units. Alternatively, recognise that 10 10
= = 0.167 Hz
revolutions in 60 seconds means that each revolution 60
takes 6 seconds. 1
T=
f
1
= =6s
0 .1 6 7
Substitute r and T into the formula for speed and solve 2π r

for v. v=
T
2 × π × 2 .0
=
6
= 2.09 m s–1
Convert m s–1 into km h–1 by multiplying by 3.6. 2.09 × 3.6 = 7.5 km h–1

CENTRIPETAL FORCES
An athlete in a hammer throw event is swinging the ball of mass 7.0 kg in a horizontal circular path. The ball is moving
at 25 m s–1 in a circle of radius 1.2 m.
(a) Calculate the magnitude of the acceleration of the ball.
Thinking Working
As the object is moving in a circular path, the centripetal v = 25 m s–1

acceleration is towards the centre of the circle. To find r = 1.2 m
the magnitude of this acceleration, write down the other
a=?
variables that are given.
Find the equation for centripetal acceleration that fits the v2

information you have, and substitute the values. a=
r
2
25
=
1 .2
= 521 m s–2
Calculate the magnitude only, so no direction is needed Acceleration of ball is 521 m s–2
in the answer.
(b) Calculate the magnitude of the tensile force acting in the wire.
Thinking Working
Identify the unbalanced force that is causing the object to m = 7.0 kg

move in a circular path. Write down the information that a = 521 m s–2
you are given.
Fnet = ?
Select the equation for centripetal force, and substitute Fnet = ma

the variables you have. = 7.0 × 521
= 3.6 × 103 N
Calculate the magnitude only, so no direction is needed The force of tension in the wire is the unbalanced force
in the answer. that is causing the ball to accelerate.
Tensile force FT = 3.6 × 103 N

OBJECT ON THE END OF A STRING
During a game of Totem Tennis, the ball of mass 200 g is swinging freely in a horizontal circular
path. The cord is 2.00 m long and is at an angle of 50.0° to the vertical shown in the diagram.
50.0˚
2.00 m
r=?
(a) Calculate the radius of the ball’s circular path.
Thinking Working
The centre of the circular path is not the top end of the r = 2.00 sin 50.0° = 1.53 m
cord, but is where the pole is level with the ball. Use
trigonometry to find the radius.
(b) Draw and identify the forces that are acting on the ball at the instant shown in the diagram.
Thinking Working
There are two forces acting—the tension in the cord, Ft ,

and gravity, Fg. These forces are unbalanced.
Ft
Fg
(c) Determine the net force that is acting on the ball at this time.
Thinking Working
First calculate the weight force, Fg. Fg = mg

= 0.200 × 9.8
= 1.96 N
The ball has an acceleration that is towards the centre of

its circular path. This is horizontal and towards the left
at this instant. The net force will also lie in this direction 50.0˚
at this instant. A force triangle and trigonometry can be
Ft = ?
used here.
Fg = 1.96 N
Fnet = ?
Fnet = 1.96 tan 50.0° = 2.34 N towards the left
(d) Calculate the size of the tensile force in the cord.
Thinking Working
Use trigonometry to find Ft . 1 .9 6

Ft =
cos 5 0 .0 °
= 3.05 N
5.2 review
1 B. A sideways force of friction between the road and tyres is enabling the car to travel in a circle.
1
2 T=
f
1
=
5
= 0.2 s
3 A and D. The speed is constant, but the velocity is changing as the direction is constantly changing. The acceleration is
directed towards the centre of the circle.
4 a 8.0 m s–1
b 8.0 m s–1 south
(8 .0 )
2
v2
c a= = = 7.0 m s–2 towards the centre, i.e. west
r 9 .2
5 Fnet = ma = 1200 × 7.0 = 8.4 × 103 N west
6 a 8.0 m s–1 north

b towards the centre, i.e. east
7 The force needed to give the car a larger centripetal acceleration will eventually exceed the maximum frictional force
that could act between the tyres and the road surface. At this time, the car would skid out of its circular path.
v2
8 a a =
r
(2 .0 )
2
=
1 .5
= 2.67 m s–2
b The skater has an acceleration so forces are unbalanced.
c Fnet = ma = 50 × 2.7
= 135 N
9 a v = 50 km h–1
50
= = 13.89 m s–1
3 .6
2π r
=
T
2 πr 2 ×π ×6 2
T= = = 28 s
v 1 3 .8 9
mv 2
b Fnet =
r
1 .6 × 1 3 .8 9 2
=
62
= 5.0 N
1
10 a T =
f
1
=
2 .0
= 0.5 s
2π r
b v =
T
2 × π × 0 .8 0
=
0 .5
= 10 m s–1
v2
c a=
r
(1 0 )
2
=
0 .8
= 125 m s–2
d Fnet = ma
= 2.5 × 125
= 310 N
11 a r = 2.4 cos 60° = 1.2 m
b The forces are her weight acting vertically and the tension in the rope acting along the rope towards the top of the
maypole.
c She has an acceleration directed towards point B, the centre of her circular path.
d Use a force triangle for the girl, showing the net force towards B.
mg 294
Fnet = = = 170 N towards B
tan 6 0 ° 1 .7 3
2
mv
e Fnet =
r
3 0 × v2
170 =
1 .2
v = 2.6 m s–1
Section 5.3
BANKED CORNERS
A curved section of track on an Olympic velodrome has radius of 40 m and is banked at an angle of 37° to the
horizontal. A cyclist of mass 80 kg is riding on this section of track at the design speed.
(a) Calculate the net force acting on a cyclist at this instant as they are riding at the design speed.
Thinking Working
Draw a force diagram and include all forces acting on the

cyclist.
37°
FN
Fg
Fnet
Calculate the weight force, Fg. Fg = mg

= 80 × 9.8
= 784 N
Use the force triangle and trigonometry to work out the Fnet
tan θ =
net force, Fnet. Fg
Fnet
tan 37° =
784
Fnet = 0.75 × 784
= 590 N
As force is a vector, a direction is needed in the answer. Net force is 590 N towards the centre of the circle
(b) Calculate the design speed for this section of the track.
Thinking Working
Write down all the known values. m = 80 kg

r = 40 m
θ = 37°
Fg = 784 N
Fnet = 590 N
v=?
Use the design speed formula. v = rg tan θ

= 4 0 × 9 .8 × tan 3 7 °
= 17 m s−1
5.3 review
1 In all circular motion, the acceleration is directed towards the centre of the circle.
2 The design speed depends on tan θ and the radius of the curve, therefore the architect could make the banking angle
larger or increase the radius of the track.
3 The car will travel higher up the banked track as the greater speed means that a greater radius is required in the
circular path. When travelling faster than the design speed the normal force is not sufficient to keep the car moving in
a circle and causes the car to move outward from the centre.
4 On the horizontal track, the car is depending on the force of friction to turn the corner. The normal force is equal to
the weight of the car so these vertical forces are balanced. When driving on the banked track, the normal force is not
vertical and so is not balanced by the weight force. In both cases, the forces acting on the car are unbalanced.
5
FN
Fnet
C
Fg
42˚
6 v = rg tan θ
= 2 8 × 9 .8 × tan 3 3 °
= 13.3 m s−1
= 13.3 × 3.6
= 48 km h−1
mg
7 a FN =
cos 33°
539
=
cos 33°
= 640 N
b On a horizontal track, FN is equal and opposite to the weight force, so FN = mg = 539 N. This is less than the normal
force on the banked track (643 N).
⎛ v2 ⎞
8 θ = tan–1 ⎜ ⎟
⎝ rg ⎠
⎛ 40 ⎞ 2
= tan–1 ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 1 5 0 × 9 .8 ⎠
= 47°
mv 2
9 a Fnet =
r
1200 × 182
=
80
= 4860
= 4.9 kN
⎛ v2 ⎞
b θ = tan–1 ⎜ ⎟
⎝ rg ⎠
⎛ 18 ⎞2
= tan–1 ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 8 0 × 9 .8 ⎠
= 22°
⎛ v2 ⎞
10 Since the angle of bank (θ) is fixed, an increasing v increases r for constant θ as θ = tan–1 ⎜ ⎟ .
⎝ rg ⎠
A greater radius will make the car travel higher up the banked track. The driver would have to turn the front wheels
slightly towards the bottom of the bank.
Section 5.4
VERTICAL CIRCULAR MOTION
A student arranges a toy car track with a vertical loop of radius 25.0 cm, as shown.
A toy car of mass 150 g is released from rest at a height of 1.20 m at point X. The car rolls down the track and travels
around the loop. Assume g is 9.80 m s–2, and ignore friction for the following questions.
mass = 150 g
X
Z
1.20 m
25.0 cm
C
g = 9.80 m s –2
(a) Calculate the speed of the car as it reaches the bottom of the loop, point Y.
Thinking Working
Note all the variables given to you in the question. At X:

m = 150 g = 0.150 kg
Δh = 1.20 m
v=0
g = 9.80 m s–2
Use an energy approach to calculate the speed. Calculate The initial speed is zero, so Ek at X is zero.
the total mechanical energy first. Mechanical energy, Em, at X is:
Em = Ek + Eg
1
= mv2 + mgΔh
2
= 0 + (0.150 × 9.80 × 1.20)
= 1.76 J
Use conservation of energy (Em = Ek + Eg) to determine At Y:

the velocity at point Y. As the car rolls down the track, it Em = 1.76 J
loses its gravitational potential energy and gains kinetic
h=0
energy. At the bottom of the loop (Y), the car has zero
potential energy. Eg = 0
Em = Ek + Eg
1
= mv2 + mgΔh
2
1.76 = 0.5 × 0.150v2 + 0
v2 = 23.5
v = 2 3 .5
= 4.85 m s–1
(b) Calculate the normal reaction force from the track at point Y.
Thinking Working
To solve for FN, start by working out the net, or centripetal, mv 2

force. At Y, the car has a centripetal acceleration towards Fnet =
r
C (i.e., up), so the net (centripetal) force must also be 0 .1 5 0 × 4 .8 5 2
vertically up at this point. =

0 .2 5 0
= 14.1 N up
Calculate the weight force, Fg, and add it to a force

At point Y
diagram.
FN = ?
Fnet = 14.1 N
Fg = 1.47 N
Fg = mg
= 0.150 × 9.80
= 1.47 N down
Work out the normal force using vectors. Note up as FN = 14.1 + 1.47
positive and down as negative for your calculations. = 15.6 N up
These forces are unbalanced, as the car has a centripetal
acceleration upwards (towards C). The upwards (normal)
force must be larger than the downwards force.
(c) What is the speed of the car as it reaches point Z?
Thinking Working
Calculate the velocity from the values you have, using At Z:

Em = Ek + Eg. m = 0.150 kg
Δh = 2 × 0.250 = 0.500 m
Mechanical energy is conserved, so use the value from
part (a).
At Z:
Em = Ek + Eg
1
= mv2 + mgΔh
2
1
1.76 = × 0.15 × v2 + 0.150 × 9.8 × 0.500
2
1.76 = 0.075 × v2 + 0.735

0.075v2 = 1.76 – 0.735
v = 1 3 .6 7
= 3.70 m s–1
(d) What is the normal force acting on the car at point Z?
Thinking Working
To find FN, start by working out the net, or centripetal, mv 2

force. At Z, the car has a centripetal acceleration towards Fnet =
r
C (i.e., down), so the net (centripetal) force must also be 0 .1 5 0 × 3 .7 0 2
vertically down at this point. =

0 .2 5 0
= 8.21 N down
Work out the normal force using vectors. Note up as

At point Z
positive and down as negative for your calculations.
Fg = 1.47 N
FN = ?
Fnet = 8.21 N
Fnet= Fg + FN
–8.21 = –1.47 + FN
FN = –8.2 + 1.47
= –6.73
= 6.73 N down
5.4 review
v2
1 a It has a constant speed so its centripetal acceleration a = is also constant in magnitude.
r
b At the bottom of its path, the yo-yo has an upwards acceleration and so the net force is up. This indicates that the
tension force is greater than Fg.
c At the top of its path, the yo-yo has a downwards acceleration and so the net force is down. This indicates that the
tension force is less than Fg.
d At the bottom of its circular path.
2 At this point
v2
a= = g so,
r
v = rg
= 1 .5 × 9 .8 0
= 3.8 m s–1
3 a The weight force from gravity and the normal force from the road.
b 14.4 km h–1 = 4 m s–1
mv 2 800 × 42
Fnet = = = 1280 N (or 1.3 × 103 N)
r 10
c Yes. When the driver is moving over a hump, the normal force is less than her weight mg. Her apparent weight is
given by the normal force that is acting and so the driver feels lighter at this point.
d At point of lift-off, FN = 0 and a = g
v2
a= = g so,
r
v = rg
= 1 0 × 9 .8 0
= 9.9 m s–1
= 36 km h–1
4 a At X, mechanical energy is:

Em = Ek + Eg
1
= mv2 + mgΔh
2
= 0.5 × 500 × 2.002 + 500 × 9.80 × 50.0
= 1000 + 245 000
= 246 000 J
At Y: Eg is zero so its kinetic energy is 246 000 J

1
mv2 = 246 000
2
0.5 × 500 × v2 = 246 000

v = 984
= 31.4 m s–1
b At Z, mechanical energy = 246 000 J
Em = Ek + Eg
246 000 = Ek + 500 × 9.80 × 30.0
246 000 = Ek + 147 000
Ek = 99 000 J
0.5 × 500v2 = 99 000
v = 19.9 m s–1
c At Z: Fg = mg = 500 × 9.8 = 4900 N down
mv 2 5 0 0 × 1 9 .9 2
Fnet = = = 13 200 N down

r 15
Fnet = FN + Fg
13 200 = FN + 4900
FN = 8300 N down
5 For the cart to just lose contact at Z, FN = 0
v2
a= = g so,
r
v = rg
= 1 5 .0 × 9 .8 0
= 12.1 m s–1
6 Fnet = FN + Fg
mv 2
= FN + 80 × 9.80
r
80 × 352
= FN + 784
100
FN = 980 – 784 = 196 N down

mv 2
7 Fnet = = FN + Fg, and FN = 0 when losing contact with seat
r
80 × v 2
= 0 + 80 × 9.8
100
784 × 100
v2 =
80
= 980
v = 31.3 m s–1
Alternatively, use
v2
a= = g so,
r
v= rg
= 1 0 0 × 9 .8 0
= 31.3 m s–1
v2
8 a= so,
r
v= rg
= 4 0 0 × 8 8 .2
= 188 m s–1
v2
9 a a=
r
2
6 .0
=
2 .0
= 18 m s–2 up
mv 2
b Fnet =
r
5 5 × 6 .0 2
=
2 .0
= 990 N up
Fg = mg
= 55 × 9.8
= 540 N down
Fnet = FN + Fg (and take down as negative)
990 = FN – 540
FN = 990 + 540
= 1530 N up
10 a If the ball is just losing contact with track, FN = 0 so Fnet = Fg and therefore a = 9.8 m s–2 down.
b v = rg
= 0 .5 × 9 .8
= 2.2 m s−1
mv 2
11 a Fnet =
r
5 0 0 × 6 .0 2
=
5 .0
= 3600
= 3.6 × 103 N down
b Fnet = FN + Fg (and taking down as negative)
–3600 = FN – 4900
FN = –3600 + 4900
= 1300 N
= 1.3 × 103 N up
c v = rg
= 5 .0 × 9 .8
= 7.0 m s–1
Section 5.5
PROJECTILE LAUNCHED HORIZONTALLY
A golf ball of mass 100 g is hit horizontally from the top of a 30.0 m high cliff with a speed of 20.0 m s–1.
Using g = 9.80 m s–2 and ignoring air resistance, calculate the following values.
g = 9.80 m s–2
20.0 m s–1
A
–
30.0 m B
+
(a) Calculate the time that the ball takes to land.
Thinking Working
Let the downward direction be positive. Write out the Down is positive.
information relevant to the vertical component of the Vertically:
motion. Note that the instant the ball is hit, it is travelling
u = 0 m s–1
only horizontally, so its initial vertical velocity is zero.
s = 30.0 m
a = 9.80 m s–2
t=?
In the vertical direction, the ball has constant acceleration, 1

so use equations for uniform acceleration. Select the s = ut + at2
2
equation that best fits the information you have.
Substitute values, rearrange and solve for t. 30.0 = 0 + 4.90t2

3 0 .0
t=
4 .9 0
= 2.47 s
(b) Calculate the distance that the ball travels from the base of the cliff, i.e. the range of the ball.
Thinking Working
Write out the information relevant to the horizontal Horizontally:

component of the motion. As the ball is hit horizontally, u = 20.0 m s–1
the initial speed gives the horizontal component of the
t = 2.47 s from part (a)
velocity throughout the flight.
s=?
Select the equation that best fits the information you s

As horizontal speed is constant, you can use vav =
have. t
Substitute values, rearrange and solve for the variable s. s

20.0 =
2 .4 7
s = 20.0 × 2.47
= 49.4 m
(c) Calculate the velocity of the ball as it lands.
Thinking Working
Find the horizontal and vertical components of the ball’s Horizontally: u = v = 20.0 m s–1
speed as it lands. Vertically, with down as positive:
Write out the information relevant to both the vertical and u=0
horizontal components.
a = 9.8 m s–2
s = 30.0 m
t = 2.47 s
v=?
To find the final vertical speed, vv, use the equation for Therefore, use v = u + at
uniform acceleration that best fits the information you
have.
Substitute values, rearrange and solve for the variable vv = u + at

you are looking for, in this case v. = 0 + 9.80 × 2.47
= 24.2 m s–1 down
Add the components as vectors.

20.0 m s–1
θ
24.2 m s–1
v
Use Pythagoras’ theorem to work out the actual speed, v,

v= v h2 + v v 2
of the ball.
= 2 0 .0 2
+ 2 4 .2 2
= 986
= 31.4 m s–1
Use trigonometry to solve for the angle, θ. ⎛ 2 4 .2 ⎞

θ = tan–1 ⎜
⎝ 2 0 .0 ⎟⎠
= 50.4°
Indicate the velocity with magnitude and direction relative Final velocity of ball is 31.4 m s–1 at 50.4° below the
to the horizontal. horizontal.
5.5 review
1 A and D. Assuming zero air resistance, the only force acting on the stone is gravity, and as a result of the gravity, its
vertical speed increases. The resultant overall speed, which is a combination of its horizontal and vertical components,
will therefore also increase.
s
2 a vav =
t
s
2=
0 .7 5
s = 1.5 m
b Vertically, with down as positive: u = 0, a = 9.8, t = 0.75, v = ?

v = u + at
= 0 + 9.8 × 0.75
= 7.35 m s–1
c v = 2 .0 2 + 7 .3 5 2
= 7.6 m s–1
3 a Vertically with down as positive: u = 0, a = 9.8, s = 1.2, t = ?
1
s = ut + at2
2
1
1.2 = 0 + × 9.8 × t2
2
1 .2
t=
4 .9
= 0.49 s
s
b vav =
t
s
4=
0 .4 9
s = 2.0 m
c a = 9.8 m s–2 down
4 a Vertically, with down as positive: u = 0, a = 9.8, s = 4.9, t = ?
1
s = ut + at2
2
1
4.9 = 0 + × 9.8 × t2
2
t = 1.0 s
b Horizontally: u = 20 m, t = 1, s = ?
s = vav × t
= 20 × 1.0
= 20 m
c The acceleration of the ball is constant at any time during its flight, and is equal to the acceleration due to gravity
= 9.8 m s–2 down
d After 0.80 s, the ball has two components of velocity:
vx = 20 m s–1
and vy= u + at = 0 + 9.8 × 0.80 = 7.84 m s–1
The speed of the ball at 0.80 s is given by:
2 0 2 + 7 .8 4 2 = 21.5 m s–1
e The ball will hit the ground 1.0 s after it is struck.
vx = 20 m s–1
and vy = u + at = 0 + 9.8 × 1.0 = 9.8 m s–1
The speed of the ball at 1.0 s is given by:
2 0 2 + 9 .8 2 = 22.3 m s–1
5 a Vertically with down as positive: u = 0, a = 9.8, s = 80, v = ?
v2 = u2 + 2as
= 0 + 2 × 9.8 × 80
v = 39.6 m s–1
Horizontally: 25 m s–1
v = 2 5 2 + 3 9 .6 2 = 47 m s–1
3 9 .6
b tan θ =
25
θ = 58°
6 B and C. No atmosphere means no drag, and so the balls travelled in parabolic paths and went much further than
they would on Earth.
7 The hockey ball travels further. A polystyrene ball is much lighter and is therefore more strongly affected by air
resistance than the hockey ball.
8 a Vertically with down as positive: u = 0, a = 9.8, s = 2.0, t = ?

1
s = ut + at2
2
1
2.0 = 0 + × 9.8 × t2
2
2 .0
t =
4 .9
= 0.64 s
b There is no difference in the time to fall for either ball. Therefore, 0.64 s.
c Ball X:
s
vav =
t
s
5=
0 .6 4
s = 3.2 m
Ball Y:
s
vav =
t
s
10 =
0 .6 4
s = 6.4 m
Difference is 6.4 – 3.2 = 3.2 m
9 a
v=?
vv
θ
50
Vertically with down as positive: u = 0, a = 9.8, s = 20, v = ?
v2 = u2 + 2as
= 0 + 2 × 9.8 × 20
v = 19.8 m s–1
Horizontally: u = v = 50 m s–1
v = 1 9 .8 2 + 5 0 2
= 54 m s–1
b
19.8
θ=?
50
1 9 .8
tan θ =
50
θ = 22°
10 a The horizontal velocity of the ball remains constant and vh = 10 m s–1 forwards.
b Vertically with down as positive: u = 0, a = 9.8, s = 1.0, v = ?
v2 = u2 + 2as
= 02 + 2 × 9.8 × 1.0
vv = 4.4 m s–1 down
c vv = 4 .4 2 + 1 0 2 = 10.9 m s–1
4 .4
tan θ =
10
θ = 24°
v = 10.9 m s–1 at 24° below the horizontal
d Vertically with down as positive: u = 0, a = 9.8, s = 1.0, t = ?

1
s = ut + at2
2
1
1.0 = 0 + × 9.8 × t2
2
1
t=
4 .9
t = 0.45 s
e Horizontally: v = u = 10, t = 0.45, s = ?
s = vav × t
= 10 × 0.45
= 4.5 m
f
Fg
Section 5.6
LAUNCH AT AN ANGLE
A 50 kg athlete in a long-jump event leaps with a velocity of 6.50 m s–1 at 20.0° to the horizontal.
g = 9.80 m s–2
+
– 6.50 m s–1
20.0°
For the following questions, treat the athlete as a point mass, ignore air resistance and use g = 9.80 m s–2.
(a) What is the athlete’s velocity at the highest point?
Thinking Working
First find the horizontal and vertical components of the

initial speed.
6.50 m s–1 uV
20.0°
uH
Using trigonometry:
uH = 6.50 cos 20.0°
Taking up as positive:
uV = 6.50 sin 20.0°
Projectiles that are launched obliquely move only At maximum height: v = 6.11 m s–1 horizontally to the
horizontally at the highest point. The vertical component right.
of the velocity at this point is therefore zero. The actual
velocity is given by the horizontal component of the
velocity throughout the motion.
(b) What is the maximum height gained by the athlete’s centre of mass during the jump?
Thinking Working
To find the maximum height that is gained, you must Vertically, taking up as positive:
work with the vertical component. Recall that at the u = 2.22
maximum height, the vertical component of velocity is
a = –9.80
zero.
v=0
s=?
Substitute these values into an appropriate equation for v2 = u2 + 2as

uniform acceleration. 0 = 2.222 + –9.8 × s
Rearrange and solve for s. 2 .2 2 2
s=
1 9 .6
= 0.25 m
(c) Assuming a return to the original height, what is the total time the athlete is in the air?
Thinking Working
As the motion is symmetrical, the time required to Taking up as positive

complete the motion will be double that taken to reach Vertically:
the maximum height. First, the time it takes to reach the
u = 2.22
highest point must be found.
a = –9.80
v=0
t=?
Substitute these values into an appropriate equation for v = u + at

uniform acceleration. 0 = 2.22 – 9.80t
Solve for t needed to reach maximum height. 2 .2 2

t =
9 .8 0
= 0.227 s
The time to complete the motion is double the time it Total time = 2 × 0.227
takes to reach the maximum height. = 0.45 s
5.6 review
1 B. A javelin travels fastest at launch, then slows on the way up, is slowest at the highest point, then speeds up on the
way down. At the highest point, the vertical component of the velocity is zero.
2 The optimal launch angle to give the greatest range for any projectile on the ground is 45°.
3 At the highest point the ball has zero vertical velocity. The horizontal velocity is constant throughout the flight when air
resistance is ignored. So the overall velocity at the highest point is equal to the horizontal speed:
vH = v cos θ = 20 cos 30° = 17.3 m s–1
4 a vH = v cos θ = 15 cos 25° = 13.6 m s–1
b vV = v sin θ = 15 sin 25° = 6.34 m s–1
c The acceleration is constant and is due to the force of gravity. The acceleration is 9.8 m s–2 down.
d At the highest point the ball has zero vertical velocity. The horizontal velocity is constant throughout the flight when
air resistance is ignored. So the overall velocity at the highest point is equal to the horizontal velocity: 13.6 m s–1.
5 a vH = v cos θ = 8 cos 60° = 4.0 m s–1

b vV = v sin θ = 8 sin 60° = 6.9 m s–1
c Vertically, with up as positive: u = 6.9, a = –9.8, v = 0, t = ?
v = u + at
0 = 6.9 – 9.8t
t = 0.70 s
d Vertically with up as positive: u = 6.9, a = –9.8, v = 0, s = ?
v2 = u2 + 2as
0 = 6.92 + 2 × –9.8 × s
6.92 = 19.6s
s = 2.4 m
Total height = 2.4 + 1.5 = 3.9 m
e The speed is given by the horizontal component of the velocity (as the vertical velocity is zero at this point),
so 4.0 m s–1.
6 a vH = 28 cos 30° = 24.2 m s–1 (and remains constant throughout the flight)
b 24.2 m s–1
c 24.2 m s–1
7 Taking up as positive
a vV= 28 sin 30° = 14.0 m s–1
b Vertically: u = 14, a = −9.8, t = 1, v = ?
v = u + at
= 14 – 9.8 × 1.0
= 4.20 m s–1
c Vertically: u = 14, a = −9.8, t = 2 s, v = ?
v = u + at
= 14 – 9.8 × 2
= −5.60 = 5.60 m s–1 down
8 v= 5 .6 0 2
+ 2 4 .2 2
= 24.8 m s–1
9 The flight of the ball is symmetrical. Therefore the ball will strike the ground at the same speed as that when it was
launched: 28 m s–1 (at an angle of 30° to the horizontal).
10 Vertically with up as positive: u = 14 m, a = −9.8, v = 0, t = ?
v = u + at
0 = 14 – 9.8t
t = 1.43 s
Total time is therefore 2 × 1.43 = 2.86 s
s
vav =
t
s
24.2 =
2 .8 6
s = 69.2 m
11 C. Air resistance is a force that would be acting in the opposite direction to the velocity of the ball, thereby producing a
horizontal and vertical deceleration of the ball during its flight.
Section 5.7
CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM
In a head-on collision on a freeway, a car of mass 1.0 × 103 kg travelling east at 20 m s–1 crashes into a bus of mass
5.0 × 103 kg travelling west at 8.0 m s–1. Assume the car and bus lock together on impact, and ignore friction.
(a) Calculate the final common velocity of the vehicles.
Thinking Working
First assign a direction that will be considered positive. In this case we consider vectors directed eastwards to be
positive.
Use the law of conservation of momentum. Σpi = Σpf

mcuc + mbub = (mc +mb)v
1.0 × 103 × 20 = 5.0 × 103 × –8.0 = (1.0 × 103 + 5.0 × 103) × v
–20 × 103 = 6 × 103v
v = –3.33 m s–1
so, v = 3.3 m s–1 west
(b) Calculate the change in momentum of the car.
Thinking Working
The change in momentum of the car is its final Δpc = pc(final) – pc(initial)
momentum minus its initial momentum. = mc(v – uc)
= 1.0 × 103(–3.33 – 20)
= –2.3 × 104 kg m s–1
That is, Δpc = 2.3 × 104 kg m s–1 west
(c) Calculate the change in momentum of the bus.
Thinking Working
The change in momentum of the bus is its final Δpb = pb(final) – pb(initial)
momentum minus its initial momentum. = mb(v – ub)
= 5.0 × 103(–3.33 – –8.0)
= –2.3 × 104 kg m s–1
That is, Δpc = 2.3 × 104 kg m s–1 east
(d) Verify that the momentum of the system is constant.
Thinking Working
The total change in momentum is the vector sum of the Σpc + Σpb = –2.3 × 104 + 2.3 × 104 = 0
momentum changes of the parts. This is expected to be Therefore the momentum of the system is constant,
zero from the conservation of momentum. as expected.

CONSERVATION OF ENERGY
Use the law of conservation of energy to determine the height of the lift hill required to ensure that the speed of the
car at the top of the 18.0 m loop is 25.0 m s–1. Assume that the velocity of the car at the top of the lift hill is zero; then
it begins to roll down the hill. Give your answer correct to three significant figures.
h=?
18 m
Thinking Working
Calculate the total mechanical energy of the car at the 1

Em = mgΔh + mv2
top of the loop in terms of the mass m. 2
1
= (m × 9.8 × 18) + ( × m × 252)
2
= 176.4m + 312.5m
= 488m J
Use conservation of energy to find the height required for mgΔh = 488.9m
the lift hill, remembering that the total potential energy 4 8 8 .9
Δh =
at the lift hill is equal to the total energy at the top of 9 .8
the loop = 49.9 m
5.7 review
1 The billiard balls form an isolated system. Momentum is conserved, so if the momentum is zero after the collision, it
was initially zero as well. This is possible because the two balls were initially travelling in opposite directions and their
momentum vectors cancelled out to give zero.
2 Let motion towards the east be positive.
m1u1 + m2u2 = (m1 +m2)v
175 × 3.5 + 100 × (–5.0) = 275 × v
1 1 2 .5
v=
275
= 0.41 m s–1 east

3 m1u1 + m2u2 = (m1 +m2)v
110 × 15 + 90 × –5 = 200 × v
1200 = 200v
v = 6.0 m s–1 (speed only so no direction needed)
36
4 a sports car’s speed = = 10 m s–1
3 .6
p = mv = 1.0 × 103 × 10 = 1.0 × 104 kg m s–1 east

18
b station wagon’s speed = = 5 m s–1
3 .6
p = mv = 2.0 × 103 × 5.0 = 1.0 × 104 kg m s–1 west

c Total momentum = 1.0 × 104 kg m s–1 east + 1.0 × 104 kg m s–1 west = 0
5 a Σpi = Σpf
From Question 4c, Σpi = 0 so Σpf = 0, i.e. common velocity = 0
b It hasn’t gone anywhere. The vehicles had a total of zero momentum before the collision and so there still is zero
momentum after the collision.
c The change in momentum of the sports car is ∆pc = pc (final) – pc (initial) = 0 – 1.0 × 104 kg m s–1 east
= 1.0 × 104 kg m s–1 west
d The change in momentum of the station wagon is ∆pw = p w (final) – p w (initial) = 0 – 1.0 × 104 kg m s–1 west
= 1.0 × 104 kg m s–1 east
6 Using the conservation of momentum, where the direction of positive velocity is to the right:
Σpi = Σpf
Taking to the right as positive:
m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v1 +m2v2
0.2 × 9.0 + 0.1 × 0 = 0.2 × 3.0 + 0.1 × v
1.8 = 0.6 + 0.1v
0.1v = 1.2
v = 12 m s–1
i.e. the velocity of the 100 g ball after the collision is 12 m s–1 to the right
7 Before firing, Σpi = 0 as neither the cannon nor shell are moving.
Taking the shell’s direction of travel after firing as positive:
Σpi = Σpf
m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v1 +m2v2
10.0 × 0 + 1000 × 0 = 10.0 × 500 + 1000 × v
0 = 5000 + 1000v
v = −5
and so the recoil velocity of the cannon is v = 5.0 m s–1 in the opposite direction to the shell.
8 Taking to the right as positive:
Σpi = Σpf
0.1 × 40 + 0.08 × 0 = (0.1 + 0.08) × v
4 = 0.18v
v = 22 m s–1 to the right
1
9 Ek = mv2
2
1
= × 0.0400 × (370)2
2
= 2740 J
10 Eg = mgΔh
= 0.0400 × 9.8 × 1000
= 392 J
1 1
11 a Ek = mv2 = × 0.157 × (20.5)2 = 33.0 J
2 2
b Eg = Ek = 33.0 J
c Eg = mgΔh
33.0 = 0.157 × 9.8 × Δh
Δh = 21.4 m
CHAPTER 5 REVIEW
1 B. The ball will increase in speed at a constant rate, that is, with constant acceleration.
2 a The only force acting on the block on the table is tension:
FT = m1a = 5a
The forces acting on the falling block are tension and weight:
Fg – FT = m2a
Substitute the expression for FT into the equation above:
10 × 9.8 – 5a = 10a
98 = 15a
a = 6.5 m s–2
b FT = 5a = 5 × 6.5 = 32.5 N
3 Fnet = thrust – drag forces = mtotala
thrust – (800 + 700) = (1000 + 200) × 2.5
thrust = 3000 + 1500
= 4500 = 4.5 × 103 N
4 a a = g sin θ
= 9.8 sin 30°
= 4.9 m s–2
b As FN = Fg cos θ, the normal reaction force must be less than the weight force.
FN = Fg cos θ
FN = Fg cos 30°
FN = 0.87 Fg
5 a a = g sin θ
= 9.8 sin 30°
= 4.9 m s–2
b u= 0 m s–1, s = 2.5 m, a = 4.9 m s–2, v = ?
v2 = u2 + 2as
= 0 + 2 × 4.9 × 2.5
v = 24.5 m s–1
6 a FN = mg cos θ
= 57 × 9.8 × cos 65°
= 236 N
b a = g sin θ
= 9.8 sin 65°
= 8.88 m s–2 down the ramp
c Fnet = ma = 57 × 8.88
= 506 N down the ramp
d u = 0, s = 5.0, a = 8.88, v = ?
v2 = u2 + 2as
= 0 + 2 × 8.88 × 5.0
= 89
v = 9.4 m s–1 (speed only)
e Fnet = 0 so forces parallel to incline are balanced.
Ff = mg sin θ = 506 N up the ramp
100
7 a Convert speed to m s–1: speed = = 27.78 m s–1
3 .6
50
Length of the slide: s = = 53.2 m
sin 70°
To find a, use v2 = u2 +2as

(2 7 .7 8 )
2
v 2 − u2
a= = = 7.25 m s–2
2 s 2 × 5 3 .2 0
Fnet = ma
= 70.0 × 7.25 = 508 N
b Fnet = mg sin 70° – Ffriction

Ffriction = 70.0 × 9.80 × sin 70° – 508
= 137 N
c The reaction to the force of the slide on the teenager due to friction is the force of the teenager on the slide.
d The reaction of the weight force on the teenager is the force of gravitational attraction from the teenager on
the Earth.
2π r
8 a v =
T
2 π × 0 .8 0 0
=
1 .3 6
= 3.70 m s–1
v2
b a=
r
2
3 .7 0
=
0 .8 0 0
= 17.1 m s–2 towards the centre of the circle

c Fnet = ma
= 0.0250 × 17.1 = 0.430 N (size only needed)
9 a
Ft
Fg
b Use a force triangle for the ball.

mg
FT =
sin 3 0 .0 °
0 .0 2 5 0 × 9 .8 0
=
0 .5 0
= 0.49 N
v2
10 a a =
r
52
=
10
= 2.5 m s–2 towards the centre of the circle

b The centripetal force is created by the friction between the tyres and the ground.
2π r
11 a v =
T
2 × π × 3 .8 4 × 1 0 8
=
2 7 .3 × 2 4 × 6 0 × 6 0
= 1.02 × 103 m s–1
mv 2
b F=
r
7 .3 6 × 1 0 22
× (1 .0 2 × 1 0 3 )2
=
3 .8 4 × 1 0 8
= 1.99 × 10 20
N
12 Orbital radius = 6.37 × 106 m + 3.6 × 104 m

= 6.406 × 106 m
Orbital distance = 2πr
= 2π × 6.406 × 106 m
= 4.025 × 107 m
T = (23 × 60 × 60) + (56 × 60) + 5
= 86 165 s
2π r
v =
T
4 .0 2 5 × 1 0 7
=
86165
= 467 m s–1
v2
a =
r
( 4 .6 7 )
2
×1 0 2
=
6 .4 0 6 × 1 0 6
= 3.40 × 10–2 m s–2

13 a 10 m s–1 south
b 10 m s–1. Note direction is not required as question asked for speed.
2π r
c v =
T
2π r
T=
v
2 × π × 20
=
10
= 13 s
v2
d a =
r
102
=
20
= 5.0 m s–2 west

e Fnet = ma
= 1500 × 5
= 7.5 × 103 N west
mv 2
14 Recall the equation for force on a moving charge. This provides the centripetal force, so is equal to .
r
mv 2
qvB =
r
mv
r = qB
−2 7
1 .6 7 × 1 0 × 3 .5 0 × 1 0 6
= −1 9
1 .6 0 × 1 0 × 0 .2 5
= 0.146 m
15 A. From the triangle, FN > Fg.
37°
FN
Fg
Fnet
16 Use a force triangle with weight, normal and net force (acting horizontally).
v = rg tan θ
= 3 0 × 9 .8 × tan 4 0 °
= 15.7 m s–1
17 a (i) At top:
mv 2
Fnet =
r
5 0 × 5 .0 2
=
10
= 125 N down
FN = Fg – 125
= 490 – 125
= 365 N up
(ii) At bottom:
mv 2
Fnet =
r
5 0 × 5 .0 2
=
10
= 125 N up
FN = Fg + 125
= 490 + 125
= 615 N up
b D. At the top of the ride, FN < Fg so he would feel lighter than usual.
18 The forces acting on the water when the bucket is directly overhead are the force of gravity (weight) and the normal
force from the base of the bucket on the water.
Both of these forces are downwards acting forces.
The acceleration of the water is towards the centre of the circle, i.e. downwards and is greater than the acceleration
due to gravity.
s
19 a vav =
t
s = vav × t
= 2.5 × 1
= 2.5 m
b 9.8 m s–2 downwards (due to gravity)
20 a 10 m s–1. As there are no forces acting horizontally, the horizontal velocity is constant.
b Vertically with down as positive: u = 0, s = 0.97, a = 9.8, v = ?
v2 = u2 + 2as
= 0 + 2 × 9.8 × 0.97
v = 4.4 m s–1
c v = 1 0 2 + 4 .4 2
= 11 m s–1 (speed only so no direction required)
21 a uH = 16 cos 50°
= 10.3 m s–1
b uV = 16 sin 50°
= 12.3 m s–1
c Vertically with up as positive: u = 12.3, a = –9.8, v = 0, s = ?
v2 = u2 + 2as
0 = 12.32 + 2 × –9.8 × s
s = 7.7 m
Total height from ground is 1.2 + 7.7 = 8.9 m
1
22 a Ek = mv2
2
1
= × 0.1 × 6.02
2
= 1.8 J
b Eg = mg∆h
= 0.1 × 9.8 × 2
= 1.96 J
c Em = 1.8 + 1.96 = 3.76 J

1
Upon landing Em = Ek = mv2
2
1
3.76 = × 0.1 × v2
2
v = 8.7 m s–1
23 a Both the boy and the sled are stationary so their momentum = 0
b pboy (final) = m × v = 50 × 4.0 = 200 kg m s–1 east
c Since momentum is conserved, the momentum of sled = 200 kg m s–1 west to maintain a total momentum of 0
after the jump.
24 psled = 200 kg m s–1 west = m × v = 200v
v = 1.0 m s–1 west
25 Taking to the west as positive:
mbub + msus = (mb + ms)v
50 × 4.4 + 200 × 1 = (50 + 200) × v
420 = 250v
v = 1.68 m s–1
26 a ps (initial) = 200 kg m s–1 west
ps (final) = 200 × 1.68
= 336 kg m s–1 west
∆ps = 336 – 200
b pb (initial) = 50 × 4.4
pb (final) = 50 × 1.68
∆pb = 84 − 220
= −136 west or 136 kg m s–1 east (opposite to ∆ps)
Chapter 6 answers
Section 6.1
6.1 review
1 D. They believed that all waves needed to travel in some sort of medium, so just as air is the medium for sound they
invented another to be the medium for light.
2 A and D. An aircraft taking off is accelerating, as is a car going around a curve. These would be non-inertial frames of
reference as they are accelerating.
3 A hanging pendulum in the spaceship will move from its normal vertical position when the spaceship accelerates.
4 The speed of the ball is greater for Jana than it is for Tom.
The speed of the sound is greater forwards than it is backwards for Jana, while for Tom it is the same forwards and
backwards.
The speed of light is the same for Jana and Tom.
5 a 340 + 30 = 370 m s–1
b 340 – 40 = 300 m s–1
c 340 + 20 = 360 m s–1
d 340 m s–1
6 A. In order for the same events to be simultaneous in one inertial frame and not simultaneous in another inertial
frame, time must act differently in each inertial frame of reference.
5
7 a In Anna and Ben’s frame: t = = 25 m s–1, so in Chloe’s frame v = 10 – 25 = 15 m s–1 backwards
0 .2
b d = vt = 15 × 0.2 = 3 m backwards
c 0.2 s
d 5
8 a t= = = 0.1 s
v 50
b 50 m s–1 in all frames

c d = vt = 10 × 0.1 = 1 m
d 50 m s–1 as always
4
e The light had to travel ≈4 m, so t = = 0.08 s (approx.)
50
9 Atomic clocks enabled extremely short events to be timed to many decimal places. Differences in time for the same
event to occur, when measured by observers in different inertial frames of reference, indicate that time is not uniform
between the two inertial frames. These measurements support Einstein’s special theory of relativity.
10 Muons have very short lives. On average, muons live for approximately 2.2 μs. Their speeds are measured as they
travel through the atmosphere. A muon’s speed is very similar to the speed of light. According to Newtonian laws,
muons should not reach the Earth’s surface. However, many do.
Section 6.2
TIME DILATION
Assume Gedanken conditions exist in this example. A stationary observer on Earth sees a very fast scooter passing by,
travelling at 2.98 × 108 m s–1. On the wrist of the rider is a watch on which the stationary observer sees 60.0 s pass.
Calculate how many seconds pass by on the stationary observer’s clock during this observation.
Use c = 3.00 × 108 m s–1.
Thinking Working
Identify the variables: the time for the stationary observer t=?
is t, the proper time for the moving clock is t0 and the t0 = 60.0 s
velocities are v and the constant c.
v = 2.98 × 108 m s–1
c = 3.00 × 108 m s–1
Use Einstein’s time dilation formula and the t = t0γ

Lorentz factor. t0
=
v2
1−
c2
Substitute the values for t0, v, and c into the equation 6 0 .0

and calculate the answer t. t =
(2 .9 8 )
2
×1 0 8
1 −
( 3 .0 0 )
2
×1 0 8
6 0 .0
=
0 .1 1 5 2 8
= 520 s
6.2 review
1 In a device called a light clock, the oscillation of light is used as a means of measuring time, as the speed of light is
constant no matter from which inertial frame of reference it is viewed.
2 ‘Proper time’ is the time measured at rest with respect to the event. Proper times are always less than any other
times.
3 t = t0γ
t0
=
v2
1−
c2
1 .0 5
=
2
(1 .7 5 × 1 0 8 )
1 − 2
(3 × 1 0 )8
1 .0 5
=
0 .8 1 2 2 3
= 1.29 s
4 t = t0γ
t0
=
v2
1−
c2
t0
75.0 =
2
1 − (2 .3 0 × 1 0 )
8
8 2
(3 × 1 0 )
t0 = 75.0 × 0.642
= 48.15 s
5 t = t0γ
t0
=
v2
1−
c2
t0
5.50 =
2
1 − (2 .7 5 × 1 0 )
8
2
(3 × 1 0 8 )
t0 = 5.50 × 0.3996
= 2.20 s
t0 1
6 t= γ
= = 1.15 s
1 − 0 .5 2
7 a Simply the height of the clock, 1 m

d 1
b t= = = 3.33 × 10–9 s
v 3 .0 × 1 0 8
c d = vt = ctc
d As the distance the ship moves in Chloe’s frame is 0.9ctc and the height of the clock is 1 m, the distance d which
the light travels is given by
d² = (0.9ctc)² + 1² = 0.81c²tc2 + 1.
As this also equals c²tc² (from part c), we find that
0.81c²tc2 + 1 = c²tc²
0.19c²tc² = 1 and so
1
tc² = , giving tc = 7.6 × 10–9 s.
0 .1 9 c2
tC 7 .6
e = = 2.3 which is the same as γ for v = 90% of c.
tA 3 .3
8 a t = t0γ
t0
=
v2
1−
c2
−6
2 .2 × 1 0
=
(0 .9 9 2 c )
2
1 −
c2
−6
2 .2 × 1 0
=
1 − 0 .9 9 2 2
= 1.74 × 10–5 s or 17.4 μs

b Non-relativistic:
d = vt = 0.992 × 3 × 108 × 2.2 × 10–6 = 655 m
Relativistic:
d = vt = 0.992 × 3 × 108 × 1.74 × 10–5 = 5178 m
d
9 t =
v
−2
2 .5 0 × 1 0
=
2 .8 3 × 1 0 8
= 8.83 × 10–11 s
So the moving particle lasts for 8.83 × 10–11 s.
t = t0γ
t0
t =
v2
1−
c2
t0
8.83 × 10–11 =
(2 .8 3 × 1 0 8 )2
1 −
c2
t0 = 2.93 × 10 s. So the particle lives for 2.93 × 10–11 s in the rest frame. This is reasonable, as the ‘normal’ lifetime
–11
should be shorter than when observed to be travelling at high speeds.

10 The equator clock is moving faster relative to the poles. It is also accelerating and hence will run slower. The effect is
well below what we can detect as the speed of the equator is ‘only’ about 460 m s–1, which is about 1.5 millionths of c.
Section 6.3
LENGTH CONTRACTION
Assume Gedanken conditions exist in this example. A stationary observer on Earth sees a very fast scooter travelling by
at 2.98 × 108 m s–1. The stationary observer measures the scooter’s length as 45.0 cm. Calculate the proper length of
the scooter, measured when the scooter is at rest. Use c = 3.00 108 m s–1.
Thinking Working
Identify the variables: the length measured by the L0 = ?

stationary observer is L, the proper length for the scooter L = 0.450 m
is L0 and the velocities are v and the constant c.
v = 2.98 × 108 m s–1
c = 3.00 × 108 m s–1
Use Einstein’s length contraction formula and the Lorentz L0

factor. L =
γ
v2
= L0 1−
c2
Substitute the values for L, v and c into the equation and 0 .4 5 0

calculate the answer, L0. L0 =
(2 .9 8 )
2
×1 0 8
1 −
( 3 .0 0 )
2
×1 0 8
0 .4 5 0
=
0 .1 1 5 2 8
= 3.90 m

LENGTH CONTRACTION FOR DISTANCE TRAVELLED
Assume Gedanken conditions exist in this example. A stationary observer on Earth sees a very fast train approaching a
tunnel at a speed of 0.986c. The stationary observer measures the tunnel’s length as 123 m long. Calculate the length
of the tunnel as seen by the train’s driver.
Thinking Working
Identify the variables: the length seen by the driver is L, L=?

the proper length for the tunnel is L0 and the velocity is v. L0 = 123 m
v = 0.986c m s–1
Use Einstein’s length contraction formula and the Lorentz L0

factor. L =
γ
= L0 v2
1−
c2
Substitute the values for L0 and v into the equation. 0 .9 8 6 2

× c2
Cancel c and calculate the answer, L. L = 123 1 −
c2
= 123 × 1 − ( 0 .9 8 6 )
2
= 123 × 0.16675
= 20.5 m
6.3 review
1 The length that a stationary observer measures in their own frame of reference. That is, the object (or distance) that is
being measured is at rest with the observer.
2 A. Width and height are not affected as they are at right angles to the direction of motion, so a stationary observer will
see a moving object with a contracted length.
3 Correct to three significant figures:

L0
L=
γ
= L0 v2
1−
c2
(1 .7 5 )
2
×1 0 8
= 1.00 × 1 −
( 3 .0 0 )
2
×1 0 8
= 1.00 × 0.81223
= 0.812 m
L0
4 L=
γ
= L0 v2
1−
c2
(2 .3 0 )
2
×1 0 8
= 5.25 × 1 −
( 3 .0 0 )
2
×1 0 8
= 5.25 × 0.64205
= 3.37 m
3 .5 0
5 a γ= = 2.33
1 .5 0
v2 1
thus 1− = = 0.429
c2 2 .3 3
2
v
= 1 – 0.184
c2
v2 = c2 × 0.816
v = 0.9c or 2.71 × 108 m s–1
L0
b L=
γ
= L0 v2
1−
c2
(2 .7 1 )
2
×1 0 8
= 1.50 × 1 −
( 3 .0 0 )
2
×1 0 8
= 1.50 × 0.42894
= 0.643 m
The fast-moving garage appears even shorter than its proper length to the car driver.
6 Proper time, t0, because the observer can hold a stopwatch in one location and start it when the front of the carriage
is in line with the watch and stop it when the back of the carriage is in line with it.
7 C. When the speed increases towards the speed of light, the distance travelled decreases.
800
8 a γ= =2
400
v2 1
thus 1− = = 0.5
c 2 2
v2
= 1 – 0.25
c2
v2 = c2 × 0.75
v = 0.866c or 2.60 × 108 m s–1.
L 1
b γ = 2 so =
L0 γ
1
=
2
= 0.5
Alternatively, recognise that if the track length has been halved, then Dan appears half his thickness as well.
9 L = L0 v2
1−
c2
(6 6 0 )
2
= 23.5 × 1 −
( 3 .0 0 )
2
×1 0 8
= 23.5 × 1.0000
= 23.5 m
At this speed, there is no difference in length.
10 a L = L0 v2
1−
c2
(0 .9 0 0 )
2
c2
= 2.75 × 1 − 2
c
= 2.75 × (1 − (0 .9 0 0 ) ) 2
= 2.75 × 0.43589
= 1.20 m
b The length of the fishing rod is the proper length = 2.75 m.
CHAPTER 6 REVIEW
v2
1 No object can travel at or beyond the speed of light, so the value of will always be less than 1.
c2
The number under the square root sign will also, therefore, be a positive number less than one.
The square root of a positive number less than one will always be less than one as well.
v2
Note, however, when v is very small that 2 is also very small and so the number under the square root sign will be
c
very close to one. The result is a number very close to one. Some calculators may not be able to distinguish a number
so close to one, but this is just due to the limitations of the calculator.
v2 (0 .0 0 0 1 6 7 c)2
2 The speed is 0.000167 of c and so γ ≈ 1 + 2 =1+ = 0.000000014 = 1.4 × 10–8
2c 2 c2
3 A (postulate 2) and C (postulate 1)
4 At the poles. The Earth has a very small circular acceleration which is negligible for most purposes, however at the
poles it is even less.
5 C. There is no ‘fixed space’ in which to measure absolute velocities; we can only measure them relative to some other
frame of reference.
6 Space and time are interdependent—motion in space reduces motion in time.
7 Both observers will see the light travel at 3 × 108 m s–1. According to Einstein’s second postulate, the speed of light
will always be the same no matter what the motion of the light source or observer.
8 A and B. We are in the same frame in either case. C and D may be true, but they are not sufficient conditions as we
must be in the same frame. (C did not specify with respect to what we were stationary.)
9 B. Crews A and B will see each other normally as there is no relative velocity between them. They will both see C and
the Earthlings moving in slow motion as the Earth has a high relative velocity.
10 You could not tell the difference between (i) and (iii), but in (ii) you could see whether an object like a pendulum
hangs straight down.
11 In your frame of reference time proceeds normally. Your heart rate would appear normal. As Mars is moving at a high
speed relative to you, people on Mars appear to be in slow motion as time for them, as seen by you, will be dilated.
12 t = t0γ
t0
=
v2
1−
c2
2 0 .0
=
(2 .0 0 )
2
×1 0 8
1 −
(3 × 1 0 8 )2
= 26.8 s
13 a t = t0γ
t0
=
v2
1−
c2
t0
1.5 = 2
(2 .2 5 × 1 0 8 )
1 −
(3 × 1 0 8 )2
t0 = 1.5 × 0.6614
= 0.992 s
b 0.992 s (the swimmer sees the pool clock as t0)
14 C. The remaining twin ages faster during both the acceleration and deceleration phases because the twin that travels
experiences non-inertial frames of reference when accelerating and decelerating. This is when the travelling twin sees
the twin at home ageing rapidly.
L0 L 1
15 a L = and =
γ L0 2
v2
Thus 1− = 0.5
c2
v2
= 1 – 0.25
c2
v2 = c2 × 0.75
v = 0.866c or 2.598 × 108 m s–1.
b No, it can’t have doubled to over c! The contraction has doubled so this time γ = 4.
v2
Then 1− = 0.25
c2
v2
= 1 – 0.0625
c2
v2 = c2 × 0.9375
v = 0.968c or 2.90 × 108 m s–1.
16 a t = t0γ
1 .0 0
=
v2
1 −
c2
1 .0 0
= 2
(2 .4 × 1 0 8 )
1 −
(3 × 1 0 8 )2
= 1.67 s
b Length:
L0
L=
γ
from part a, γ = 1.67
3 .0 0
L =
1 .6 7
= 1.80 m
The height is unchanged at 1.0 m
d 5
17 a t = = = 5.6 years
v 0 .9
1 1
b γ= = = 2.29
(0 .9 c )
2 2
v
1− 1 −
c2 c2
t
t0 =
γ
5.6
=
2.29
= 2.45 years
c Raqu sees the distance as only
L0 5
L= = = 2.183 ly
γ 2 .2 9
v
18 a At 8000 m s–1, = 2.7 × 10–5 and γ will have a value of
c
(2 .7 )
2
−5
v2 ×1 0
γ≈1+ =1+ = 1 + 3.6 × 10–10.
2c2 2
The difference (in mm) will therefore be 4 × 109 × 3.6 × 10–10 = 1.4 mm—hardly a problem!
b No, as the motion is perpendicular to the north–south direction this dimension is not affected.
1 1 1
19 a γ = = = = 10.01
(0 .9 9 5 c ) 1 − (0 .9 9 5 )2
2 2
v
1− 1 −
c2 c2
b No, they don’t experience any difference in their own time frame.
25
c t= = 25.1 years
0 .9 9 5
About 25.1 years from our frame of reference.

d 2.51 years as γ = 10
e No! They see the distance between Earth and Vega foreshortened because of the high relative speed, so to them
the distance is only about 2.5 ly.
20 Earth observer: the observer will not measure the proper time of the muon’s life span. Instead he or she will see that
the muon’s time is slow according to the equation t = t0γ where t0 is the rest lifespan of the muon. The result is that
the observer sees the muon live a much longer time, t, and therefore makes it to the surface.
Muon: the muon will see the Earth approach at a very high speed (approx. 0.992c) and will see the distance
L0
contracted. It will not be 15 km, but instead be much shorter according to the equation L = . The distance the
γ
muon travels is L.
Chapter 7 answers
Section 7.1
CALCULATING THE IMPULSE AND AVERAGE FORCE
Prior to the accident, the driver had stopped to refuel. Calculate the impulse of the braking system on the 1485 kg car
if the vehicle was travelling at 95.5 km h–1 in a north-easterly direction and the driver took 12.5 s to come to a halt.
Also find the average braking force.
Thinking Working
Convert speed to m s–1. 9 5 .5

95.5 km h–1 = m s–1 = 26.5 m s–1
3 .6
Calculate the change in momentum. Δp = m(v – u )

The negative sign indicates that the change in = 1485(0 – 26.5)
momentum, and therefore the impulse, is in the direction = 3.94 × 104 kg m s–1
opposite to the initial momentum, as would be expected.
The impulse is equal to the change in momentum. impulse = 3.94 × 104 kg m s–1 south-west
Transpose Δp = FaveΔt to find the force. Δp

Fave =
Δt
−3 .9 4 × 1 0 4
=
1 2 .5
= 3.15 × 103 N south-west

RUNNING SHOES
A running-shoe company plots the following force–time graph for an alternative design intended to reduce the peak
force on the heel. Calculate the magnitude of the impulse.
Force (kN)
2.00
1.75
1.00
115
0.00
0 15 30 45 60 75 90 105 120
Time (ms)
Thinking Working
Recall that impulse = FaveΔt. impulse

When the force is not constant, this is the area under the 1
= base × height
force–time graph. 2
1
= × 115 × 10–3 × 1.75 × 103
2
= 101 N s

BRAKING FORCE
The same 2500 kg truck travelling at 30.0 m s–1 needs to stop in 1.5 s because a vehicle up ahead stops suddenly.
Calculate the magnitude of the braking force required to stop the truck.
Thinking Working
The change in momentum, Δp = FaveΔt. Δp = m(v – u )

Calculate the change in momentum. = 2500(0 – 30.0)
The negative sign indicates that the change in = –7.5 × 104 kg m s–1
momentum, and therefore the braking force, is in the
direction opposite to the initial momentum, as would be
expected.
Transpose Δp = FaveΔt to find the force. Δp

Fave =
The sign of the momentum can be ignored since you are Δt
finding the magnitude of the force. 7 .5 × 1 0 4
=
1 .5
= 5.0 × 104 N
7.1 review
1 Ball A, ball C, ball B.
Remember to choose a direction for positive velocity and consider the initial and final momentum of each ball. The
ball with the greatest change in momentum is the ball with the greatest final momentum, since they all have the same
initial momentum.
144
2 Final speed of ball =
3 .6
= 40 m s–1
Δp 0 .0 5 7 ( 4 0 − 0 )
F = =
Δt 0 .0 6 0
= 38 N
155
3 Speed of ball = = 43.06 m s–1
3 .6
impulse = Δp = m(v – u ) = 0.160(0 – 43.06) = –6.89 N s

The magnitude of the impulse is 6.89 N s.
4 A, C and D. Any factor that increases the time of deceleration will decrease the force. Similarly, any factor that
decreases the impulse—by decreasing the change in velocity or the mass—will decrease the force.
5 impulse = Δp
taking up as positive
Δp = 0.625 (24.5 – (–32.0))
= 35.31 kg m s–1
Δp = FΔt
3 5 .3 1
F= = 2.14 × 103 N
0 .0 1 6 5
5 0 .0
6 a Speed = = 13.89 m s–1
3 .6
p = mv
= 100 × 103 × 13.89
= 1.39 × 106 kg m s–1
b 1.39 × 106 kg m s–1. Since the final momentum is zero, the magnitude of the impulse is equal to the magnitude of
the initial momentum. The object with which the train collides and time it takes to stop does not affect the impulse.
7 Jacinta is correct. Because the higher pressure ball bounces back further, its change in momentum is more. Since the
impulse is the force applied multiplied by the interaction time, it would be expected that the higher the impulse, the
higher the force. You would also expect that the interaction time for the harder ball would be less, further increasing
the force, and hence the pain of the player. Sarah is quite right that both balls have the same initial momentum, but
she has not taken the final momentum into account.
8 impulse = area under force–time graph.
1
= base × height
2
1
= × 200 × 10–3 × 2 × 103
2
= 200 N s
Δp
9 Fave =
Δt
2 .0 × 1 0 2
average force = −3 = 1.0 × 103 N

2 0 0 ×1 0
10 First find the initial and final velocity using energy considerations.
1
mgh = mv2
2
vi = 2gh = 2 × 9 .8 × 2 .5 1 = 7.01 m s–1

vf = 2gh = 2 × 9 .8 × 1 .4 6 = −5.35 m s–1
Δp = mΔv = 0.0575 × (−5.35 − 7.01) = 0.711 kg m s–1
Δp = Fave Δt
Δp 0 .7 1 1
Fave = = = 12.9 N
Δt 0 .0 5 5
Section 7.2
WHEN THE FORCE APPLIED IS AT AN ANGLE TO THE DISPLACEMENT
A boy drives a toy car by pulling on a cord that is attached to the car at 45° to the horizontal. The boy applies a force of
15.0 N and pulls the car for 10.0 m down a pathway against a frictional force of 6.0 N.
Ft = 15 N
45º
Ff = 6.0 N
(a) Determine the work done on the car by the boy pulling on the cord.
Thinking Working
Complete the diagram of the forces in action. Ft
45º
Ff
Fbc = Ft cos 45º
Find the component of the force applied by the boy, Fb, Fbc = 15.0 × cos 45° = 10.6 N
that is in the direction of the displacement, i.e. Fbc.
Find the work done by the boy. W = Fbcs

(This includes work done on the car, and work done = 10.6 × 10.0
against friction.) = 106 J
(b) Calculate the work done on the toy car.
Thinking Working
The work done on the car is the net force multiplied W = Fnets
by the displacement. This is the increase in the kinetic = (Fbc – Ff)s
energy of the car.
= (10.6 – 6.00) × 10.0
= 46 J
(c) Calculate the energy transformed to heat and sound due to the frictional force.
Thinking Working
The energy transformed to heat and sound due to the Energy = 106 J – 46.0 J = 60.0 J
frictional force is the difference between the work done
by the boy and the energy gained by the toy car.
This is equal to the work done against friction, which Wf = Ffs

could also be calculated from the frictional force. = 6.00 × 10.0
= 60.0 J

CALCULATING WORK FROM A FORCE–DISTANCE GRAPH
The force required to elongate a piece of rubber tubing was recorded in the graph below. Calculate the work done
when the rubber was stretched by 2.0 m.
Force vs extension of rubber tubing
Force (N)
100
80
60
40
20
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
Extension (m)
Thinking Working
Once again the work done is the area under the curve for 1 1
area = × 0 .5 0 × 3 0 + × 1 .5 × 5 0 + 3 0 × 1 .5
an extension of 2.0 m. 2 2
Divide the area into 2 triangles and a rectangle. work done = 90 J
Force vs extension of rubber tubing
Force (N)
100
80
60
40
20
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
Extension (m)
7.2 review
1 A. No work is done in A because the force applied by Janet to hold the suitcase up is perpendicular to the
displacement of the suitcase as she and the suitcase move on the travelator.
James does work on the bag when he climbs the stairs.
Jeremy does work as he lifts the suitcase, but not by holding it up.
Jason applies a force to the suitcase and the displacement is in the same direction.
2 Fhorizontal = F cos 60°
= 30 cos 60°
= 15 N
W = Fnets
= 15 × 2.4
= 36 J
3 W = Ff s
= 10 × 2.4
= 24 J
4 W = Fnets
= (15 – 10) × 2.4
= 12 J
5 Work represented by one square is 10 × 1 × 10–3 = 10–2 J
There are 27± 0.5 squares under the curve up to 7 mm compression.
W = 27 × 10–2
= 0.27 J
6 D. Work is only done if the force is in the same direction as the displacement.
7 W = Fs
= 150 × 9.8 × 1.20
= 1.8 × 103 J
8 The magnetic force is at right angles to the velocity and displacement, hence the magnetic force does no work on the
particle. It simply provides a centripetal force to keep the proton in a circular path.
9 vertically, taking up as positive:
u = 30 sin 45° = 21.2 m s–1
v = 0 (at the top), a = –9.8, s = ?
v2 = u 2 + 2as
0 = 21.22 – 19.6s
s = 22.9 m up
stotal = 22.9 m up + 22.9 m down + 1.9 m down (to the ground) = 47.7 m
W = Fg × stotal
= 0.8 × 9.8 × 47.7
= 374 J
10 The net force on the mower must be zero, since it is travelling at constant speed.
The force required to oppose friction must be 68 cos 60° = 34 N.
W = Fnet s
= 34 × 15
= 510 J
Section 7.3
CALCULATING THE SPRING CONSTANT, STRAIN POTENTIAL ENERGY AND WORK
An alloy sample is tested under tension, giving the graph shown below where X indicates the elastic limit and Y the
breaking point.
400 Y
X
300
Force (N)
200
100
0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0

Extension (cm)
(a) Calculate the spring constant k for the sample.
Thinking Working
The spring constant is the gradient of the linear section of ΔF

the force extension curve in units N m–1. k =
Δx
300
= −2
1 .5 × 1 0
= 2.0 × 104 N m–1
(b) Calculate the strain potential energy that the alloy can store before permanent deformation begins.
Thinking Working
The strain potential energy is the area under the curve up 1

Es = height × base of triangle
to the elastic limit. 2
1 −2
= × 3 0 0 × 1 .5 × 1 0
2
= 2.25 J
This value can also be obtained using the formula for 1

Es = kΔx2
strain potential energy. 2
1 2
= × 2 .0 × 1 0 4
× ⎛⎜⎝1 .5 × 1 0 −2 ⎞
⎟⎠
2
= 2.25 J
(c) Calculate the work done to break the sample.
Thinking Working
Estimate the number of squares under the curve up to Number of squares = 29

the breaking point.
Calculate the energy per square. The energy per square is Energy for one square = 50 × 1.0 × 10–2
given by the area of each square. = 0.5 J
Multiply the number of squares by the energy per square. Work = energy per square × number of squares
= 0.5 × 29 = 14.5 J
7.3 review
1 C, B, A. Stiffness is determined by the gradient on the force–extension graph.
ΔF
2 Spring constant, k =
Δx
20
Stiff spring constant = = 200 N m–1
0 .1
10
Weak spring constant = = 50 N m–1
0 .2
1
3 For the stiff spring: Es = × 200 × 0.202 = 4.0 J
2
1
For the weak spring: Es = × 50 × 0.202 = 1.0 J
2
Energy difference = 4.0 – 1.0 = 3.0 J

F 4 .0
4 Δx = = = 0.08 m or 8.0 cm
k 50
5 F = kΔx
= 120 × 0.25
= 30 N
1
6 Es = kΔx2
2
1
= × 120 × 0.252
2
= 3.75 J
7 Each square = 0.05 × 10 = 0.5 J
Strain potential energy = 14 squares × 0.5 = 7 J
8 The work done by the archer is what becomes the strain potential energy. Therefore work done by archer = 7 J.
9 No. Hooke’s law is not obeyed as the force vs distance graph is not a straight line (not linear).
OR
Yes. Hooke’s law is obeyed up to a stretch of 0.05 m (i.e. a distance of 0.15 m) on the graph where the line changes
from being linear.
10 The elastic limit is at the point where the distance is 0.15 m and the force is 30 N.
Section 7.4
ELASTIC OR INELASTIC COLLISION?
A 200 g snooker ball with initial velocity 9.0 m s–1 to the right collides with a stationary snooker ball of mass 100 g.
After the collision, both balls are moving to the right and the 200 g ball has a speed of 3.0 m s–1. Show calculations to
test whether or not the collision is inelastic.
Thinking Working
Use conservation of momentum to find the final velocity Taking to the right as positive:
of the 100 g ball. pi(ball 1) + pi(ball 2) = pf(ball 1) + pf(ball 2)
= 0.2 × 9.0 + 0
= 0.2 × 3.0 + 0.1 × vf(ball 2)
vf = 12 m s–1
Calculate the initial kinetic energy before the collision. 1 1

Eki = m1v1i2 + 2
m2v2i
2 2
1
= × 0 .2 0 × 9 .0 2
+0
2
Eki = 8.1 J
Calculate the final kinetic energy of the balls after the 1 1

Ekf = m1v1f2 + 2
m2v2f
collision. 2 2
1 1
= × 0 .2 × 3 .0 2
+ × 0 .1 0 × 1 2 2
2 2
Ekf = 0.90 + 7.2
= 8.1 J
Compare the kinetic energy before and after collision to The kinetic energy after the collision is the same as the
determine whether or not the collision is inelastic. kinetic energy before the collision.
The collision is perfectly elastic.

CHANGES IN GRAVITATIONAL POTENTIAL ENERGY USING A FORCE GRAPH
Use the graph in Figure 7.4.2 to estimate the gravitational potential energy of the 10 kg object relative to the surface
of the Earth, for the 10 kg object at 2.0 × 107 m.
Thinking Working
Find the energy represented by each square in the graph. One square represents
10.0 × 0.25 × 107 = 2.5 × 107 J
Identify the two values of distance that are relevant to the The relevant distances are the radius of the Earth, which
question. is 6.4 × 106 m, and the distance of the object, which is at
2.0 × 107 m from the centre.
Count the squares under the curve for the relevant area Work done = potential energy gained
between the two distance values identified above, and 18 squares (approx.) × 2.5 × 107 = 4.5 × 108 J
multiply by the energy.

CHANGES IN GRAVITATIONAL POTENTIAL ENERGY USING A GRAVITATIONAL FIELD STRENGTH VS DISTANCE GRAPH
A satellite of mass 1100 kg is in an elliptical orbit around the Earth. At its closest approach (perigee), it is just 600 km
above the Earth’s surface. Its furthest point (apogee) is 2600 km from the Earth’s surface. The Earth has a mass of
6.0 × 1024 kg and a radius of 6.4 × 106 m. The gravitational field strength of the Earth is shown in the graph.
Gravitational field strength as a function
of distance for Earth
13
12
Gravitational field strength (N kg –1)
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
6 7 8 9 10
Distance (× 10 6 m)
(a) Calculate the change in potential energy of the satellite as it moves from the closest point (perigee) to the furthest
point (apogee) from the Earth.
Thinking Working
Convert distances given as altitudes to distances from the Perigee = 6.4 × 106 + 600 × 103 = 7.0 × 106 m
centre of the Earth. Apogee = 6.4 × 106 + 2600 × 103 = 9.0 × 106 m
Find the energy represented by each square. One square represents

1.0 × 0.20 × 106 = 2.0 × 105 J kg–1
Count the squares under the curve for the relevant area, Work done per kg = potential energy gained per kg
and multiply by the energy per kg represented by each of mass
square. 64 squares (approx.) × 2.0 × 105 = 1.3 × 107 J kg–1
Calculate the potential energy gained by the satellite by Energy gained = Eg

multiplying by the mass. = 1.3 × 107 × 1100
= 1.4 × 1010 J
(b) The satellite was moving with a speed of 8.0 km s–1 at its closest point to Earth. How fast was it travelling at its
furthest point?
Thinking Working
First calculate the kinetic energy at the closest point 1

Ekp = mvp2
(perigee). 2
1 2
= × 1 1 0 0 × ⎛⎜⎝ 8 .0 × 1 0 3 ⎞
⎟⎠
2
= 3.5 × 1010 J
The gain in gravitational potential energy at the apogee is Eka = Ekp – Eg

at the expense of kinetic energy. = 3.5 × 1010 – 1.4 × 1010
Calculate the kinetic energy at the furthest point (apogee). = 2.1 × 1010 J
Calculate the speed of the satellite at the apogee. 1

Eka = mva2
2
2Eka
va = m
2 × 2 .1 × 1 0 10
= 1100
= 6.2 km s–1
7.4 review
1 Eg = mgΔh
= 115 × 9.8 × 2228 = 2.51 × 106 J
2 A and E. As potential energy decreases, kinetic increases, but there are losses because the meteor is burning up.
1
3 Ek = mv2
2
1
= × 500 × 2502
2
= 1.6 × 107 J
4 shaded area = 53 ± 1 squares
energy for one square = 100 × 0.1 × 106 = 1.0 × 107 J
loss in potential energy = gain in kinetic energy = 5.3 × 108 J
5 Total kinetic energy on landing = 1.6 × 107 + 5.3 × 108 = 5.5 × 108 J
1
5.5 × 108 = × 500 × v2
2
2 × 5 .5 × 1 0 8
v =
500
= 1.5 × 103 m s–1
6 The altitudes convert to distances of:
6.4 × 106 + 6 × 105 = 7.0 × 106 m and 6.4 × 106 + 2.6 × 106 = 9.0 × 106 m
There are 25 squares under the curve between these two distances
The energy per kg for one square is 1.0 × 0.5 × 106 = 5 × 105 J kg–1
The gain in potential energy = 25 × 5.0 × 105 × 20 × 103
= 2.5 × 1011 J
7 A, C and D. The cars travel at constant speed and so have constant kinetic energy. As the descending car loses
gravitational energy, the ascending car gains energy, and the motor applies a force over a distance to drag the cable,
thus doing work.
8 B and D. A is not correct. It would only be correct if the Earth’s gravitational force did not vary with distance from the
centre of the Earth. You can only use Eg = mgΔh in regions where the field strength is approximately constant.
1
B is correct because the velocity is proportional to r
, so larger r means lower speed.
C is not correct as kinetic energy is inversely proportional to radius.

D is correct. The higher the altitude, the more work has to be done against the gravitational force, and hence the more
gravitational potential energy relative to the surface of the Earth.
9 Eg = Ek
1
mgh = mv2
2
v = 2gh
= 2 × 9 .8 × 2 .1
= 6.4 m s–1
Section 7.5
RELATIVISTIC MOMENTUM
(a) Calculate the momentum, as seen by a stationary observer, provided to an electron with a rest mass of
9.11 × 10–31 kg, as it goes from rest to a speed of 0.985c. Assume Gedanken conditions exist in this example.
Thinking Working
Identify the variables: the rest mass is m, and the velocity Δp = ?

of the electron is v. m = 9.11 × 10–31 kg
v = 0.985c
Use the relativistic momentum formula. p = γmv
Substitute the values for m and v into the equation and 1

p = mv
calculate the answer p. v2
1−
c2
1 −3 1
= × 9 .1 1 × 1 0 × 0 .9 8 5 × 3 .0 0 × 1 0 8
0 .9 8 5 2 c2
1 −
c2
= 1.56 × 10–21 kg m s–1
(b) If three times the relativistic momentum from part (a) is applied to the electron, calculate the new final speed of
the electron in terms of c.
Thinking Working
Identify the variables: the rest mass is m, and the p = 3 × (1.56 × 10–21)
relativistic momentum of the electron is p. = 4.68 × 10–21 kg m s–1
m = 9.11 × 10–31 kg
v=?
Use the relativistic momentum formula, rearranged. p = γmv

1
p= mv
v2
1−
c2
p
v=
⎛ p2 ⎞
m ⎜1 + ⎟
⎝ m2c2 ⎠
Substitute the values for m and p into the rearranged p

v =
equation and calculate the answer v. ⎛ p2 ⎞
m ⎜1 + ⎟
⎝ m2c2 ⎠
−2 1
4 .6 8 × 1 0
=
( 4 .6 8 )
2
−2 1
−3 1
×1 0
9 .1 1 × 1 0 1 +
(9 .1 1 ) ( 3 .0 0 )
2 2
−3 1
×1 0 ×1 0 8
= 2.995 × 108 m s–1

= 0.998c

FUSION
A further fusion reaction in the Sun fuses two helium nuclides. A helium nucleus and two protons are formed and
30 MeV of energy is released.
3
2
He + 23He → 2xHe + 211H
(a) What is the value of the unknown mass number x?
Thinking Working
Analyse the mass numbers. 3+3=x+2

x=4
A helium-4 nucleus is formed.
(b) How much energy released in joules?
Thinking Working
1 eV = 1.6 × 10 –19
J 30 MeV = 30 × 106 × 1.6 × 10–19
= 4.8 × 10–12 J
(c) Calculate the mass defect for this reaction.
Thinking Working
Use ΔE = Δmc2. ΔE 4 .8 × 1 0 −1 2
Δm = =
( 3 .0 )
2
c2 ×1 0 8
= 5.3 × 10–29 kg
7.5 review
1
mv
1 p = v2
1−
c2
1
= 1 −
(7 7 5 )2 × 1230 × 775
(3 .0 0 × 1 0 8 )2
= 9.53 × 105 kg m s–1

1
mv
2 p = v2
1−
c2
1
= (0 .8 5 0 )2 c2 × 1.99264824 × 10–26 × 0.850 × 3.00 × 108
1 − 2
c
= 9.65 × 10–18 kg m s–1

3 since v << c; p = mv
= 1.99264824 × 10–26 × 800
= 1.59 × 10–23 kg m s–1
4 Ek = γmc 2
1
= (0 .7 5 0 )2 c2 × 0.0123 × (3.00 × 108)2
1 − 2
c
= 1.67 × 1015 J
1
5 Ek = mv2
2
1
= (0.0123)(0.750 × 3.00 × 108)2
2
= 3.11 × 1014 J
6 B. Relativistic kinetic energy depends on the momentum of the arrow. For the very fast arrow, the relativistic
momentum is larger than the classical momentum.
7 Etotal = γmc2
1
m0c2
= v2
1−
c2
1
(2 1 0 )(3 .0 0 × 1 0 8 )2
= (2 .5 5 × 1 0 8 )2
1 −
(3 .0 0 × 1 0 8 )2
= 3.59 × 1019 J
8 E = mc2
= (4.00 × 106 ×103)(3.00 × 108)2
= 3.60 × 1026 J per second
For a full day:
= (3.60 × 1026)(24 × 60 ×60)
= 3.11 × 1031 J
9 C. There is the same number of nucleons, but less mass.
10 C. The greater the impulse, the greater the increase in the momentum. At speeds near that of light, this can be
interpreted as an increase in the mass of the object, and so the velocity only increases a very small amount.
CHAPTER 7 REVIEW
1 B and D. A is incorrect, as force is the rate of change of momentum. C is incorrect, as impulse is a vector.
2 Take the direction away from the batsman as positive:
vi = −100 ÷ 3.6 = −27.8 m s–1
vf = 20 ÷ 3.6 = 5.56 m s−1
Δp = mΔv
= m(vf − vi)
= 0.16 × (5.56 − (−27.8))
= 5.3 kg m s–1
3 D. The kinetic energy before each collision is more than after the collision, with some of the energy being transformed
into heat. This would not be the case for a perfectly elastic collision. While it is true that the racquet gives the ball
kinetic energy, and the impulse is positive, these do not explain the heat.
4 a Yes, momentum is conserved in all collisions.
b Inelastic; 20 J of kinetic energy has been transformed into heat and sound energy.
1 1
c Total initial Ek = × 4.0 × 3.02 + × 4.0 × 3.02 = 36 J
2 2
20 J is transformed into heat and sound, so total final Ek = 36 – 20 = 16 J

From symmetry, the balls will have the same final speeds and the same kinetic energies of 8 J each. For each ball:
1
Ek = mv2
2
= 0.5 × 4.0 × v2

= 8
v = 4
2
v = 2 m s–1
The balls will travel with speeds of 2 m s–1.
5 Δp = m(v – u )
= 65 + 15 × (0 – (–12))
= 960 kg m s–1
Δp
F =
Δt
960
=
2 .0
= 480 N
6 a W = 3.6 × 104 J
Fh = F cos 60°
= 300 cos 60°
= 150 N
W = Fhx
= 150 × 240
= 3.6 × 104 J
b Fnet = 150 − 105 = 45 N
W = 45 × 240 = 1.08 × 104 J
2E
v = m
2 × 1 .0 8 × 1 0 4
=
150
= 12 m s–1
7 a Determine the limits imposed by the two orbits:
R1 = 6.4 × 106 + 1 100 000 = 7.5 × 106 m
R2 = 6.4 × 106 + 2 100 000 = 8.5 × 106 m
There are 6.3 squares under the curve
The energy/kg for one square is 2 × 0.5 × 106 = 1 × 106 J kg−1
The gain in potential energy = 6.3 × 1 × 106 × 11 × 103 = 6.9 × 1010 J
GM
b v = r
−1 1
6 .6 7 × 1 0 × 6 .0 × 1 0 24
=
8 .5 × 1 0 6
= 6.86 × 103 m s–1

1
Ek = mv 2
2
1
= × 11 × 103 × (6.86 × 103)2
2
= 2.6 × 1011 J
8 Area = 2 squares × 10 = 20 J
Work = 20 × 150 = 3 × 103 J
9 Energy/square = 2.0 × 1.0 × 10–3 = 2.0 × 10–3 J
Area = 16 × 2.0 × 10–3 = 3.20 × 10–2 J
10 A. Both stones have the same gravitational potential energy, being thrown from the same height, and the same kinetic
energy because they have the same initial speed. They will thus have the same kinetic energy on landing. They will
therefore land at the same speed.
11 pi(truck) + pi(car) = pf(truck) + pf(car)
0.20 × 0.30 + 0.10 × 0.20 = 0.20vf + 0.10 × 0.30
0.08 = 0.2vf + 0.03
0.2vf = 0.05
vf = 0.05 ÷ 0.2
= 0.25 m s–1
1 1
12 Eki = mtvti2 + mcvci2
2 2
1 1
= × 0 .2 0 0 × 0 .3 0 0 2
+ × 0 .1 0 0 × 0 .2 0 0 2
2 2
= 0.009 + 0.002
= 1.10 × 10–2 J
1 1
13 Ekf = mtvt f2 + mcvcf2
2 2
1 1
= × 0 .2 0 0 × 0 .2 5 0 2
+ × 0 .1 0 0 × 0 .3 0 0 2
J
2 2
= 6.25 × 10–3 + 4.5 × 10–3

= 1.1 × 10–2 J
14 a The total kinetic energy before the collision is more than the total kinetic energy after the collision.
b The kinetic energy of the system of toys is not conserved.
c The total energy of the system of toys is conserved.
d The total momentum of the system of toys is conserved.
e The collision is not perfectly elastic because kinetic energy is not conserved.
1
15 mgh = k(Δ x)2
2
2mgh
k =
( Δx ) 2
2 × 8 0 × 9 .8 × 1 1 0
=
(1 0 )
2
= 1.7 × 103 N m–1

16 500 km altitude is 6.4 × 106 + 500 000 = 6.9 × 106 m. There are 23 squares under the curve.
The energy per kg for one square is 0.2 × 106 × 1 = 2 × 105 J kg–1
The gain in potential energy = 23 × 2 × 105 × 11 × 106
= 5.1 × 1013 J
17 B. As objects approach the speed of light, c, their inertia gets larger and larger and they become more and more
difficult to accelerate.
18 Etotal = Ek + E0
Ek = E0 = mc2
Ek = (γ − 1) mc2 = mc2
∴γ=2
1
1−
v2 =2
c2
v2 1
1– =
c2 4
v2 3
=
c2 4
v = 0 .7 5 c2 = 0.87c
= 0 .7 5 × 3.00 × 108
= 2.60 × 108 m s–1
19 From the previous question γ = 2
relativistic mass = γm
= 2m
mr = 2 × 1.67 × 10–27 = 3.34 × 10–27 kg
20 Ek = (γ − 1)mc2
1
= −1 (5.30 × 103)(3.00 × 108)2
(0 .9 6 0 )
2
c2
1 −
c2
= 1.23 × 1021 J
Chapter 8 answers
Section 8.1
8.1 review
1 The particles oscillate back and forth or up and down around a central or average position and pass on the energy
carried by the wave. They do not move along with the wave.
2 a False: Longitudinal waves occur when particles of the medium vibrate in the same direction or parallel to the
direction of the wave.
b True.
c True.
d True.
3 Point B is moving downwards.
4 Mechanical waves: sound, ripples on a pond, vibrations in a rope. (Light does not require the particles of a medium to
propagate and is therefore not a mechanical wave.)
5 A has moved right and B has moved left. As the sound wave moves to the right, particles ahead of the compression
must move to the left initially to meet the compression and then move forward to carry the compression to the right.
Therefore, particle B has moved to the left of its undisturbed position and particle A has now moved to the right of its
undisturbed position.
6 C and D. Only energy is transferred by a wave therefore the statements saying that air particles have travelled to Lee
are incorrect. Energy has been transferred from the speaker to Lee and it is the air particles that have passed this
energy along through the air.
7 In a transverse wave the motion of the particles is at right angles (perpendicular) to the direction of travel of the wave
itself.
8 Longitudinal: a and d
Transverse: b and c
9 Mechanical waves move energy via the interaction of particles. The molecules in a solid are closer together than those
in a gas. A smaller movement is needed to transfer energy and, hence, the energy of the wave is usually transferred
more quickly in a solid when compared with other states of matter.
10 The energy travels towards the right, that is, the energy is transferred away from the tuning fork towards X.
Section 8.2
DISPLACEMENT–DISTANCE GRAPH
The displacement–distance graph below shows a snapshot of a transverse wave as it travels along a spring towards
the right. Use the graph to determine the wavelength and the amplitude of this wave.
Particle displacement (cm)
0
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8
−1
−2
Distance (m)
Thinking Working
Amplitude on a displacement–distance graph is the The amplitude is 2 cm or 0.02 m

distance from the average position to a crest or trough.
Wavelength is the distance for one complete cycle. Any The wavelength is 0.4 m.
two consecutive points at the same position on the wave
could be used.

DISPLACEMENT–TIME GRAPHS
The displacement–time graph below shows the motion of a single part of a rope as a wave passes travelling to the
right. Use the graph to find the amplitude, period and frequency of the wave.
Displacement of P (m)
0.1
0
0.25 0.5 0.75 1.0
−0.1
Time (s)
Thinking Working
Amplitude on a displacement–time graph is the The amplitude is 0.1 m.

displacement from the average position to a crest or
trough.
Note the displacement of successive crests and/or
troughs on the wave and carefully note units on the
vertical axis.
Period on a displacement–time graph is the time it takes The period is 0.5 s.

to complete one cycle and can be identified in the graph
as the time between two successive points on the graph
that are in phase.
Frequency can be calculated using 1 1

f= = =2
1 T 0 .5
f= , measured in hertz (Hz). The frequency is 2 Hz.
T

THE WAVE EQUATION
A longitudinal wave has a wavelength of 4.0 × 10–7 m and a speed of 3.0 × 108 m s–1. What is the frequency, f, of
the wave?
Thinking Working
The wave equation states that v = fλ. Knowing both v and v = fλ

λ, the frequency, f, can be found. v
f=
Rewrite the wave equation in terms of f. λ
Substitute the known values and solve. v

f =
λ
3 .0 × 1 0 8
= −7
4 .0 × 1 0
= 7.5 × 1014 Hz

THE WAVE EQUATION
A longitudinal wave has a wavelength of 4.0 × 10–7 m and a speed of 3.0 × 108 m s–1. What is the period, T, of
the wave?
Thinking Working
Rewrite the wave equation in terms of T. 1

v = fλ and f =
T
λ
v=
T
λ
T=
v
Substitute the known values and solve. λ

T =
v
−7
4 .0 × 1 0
=
3 .0 × 1 0 8
= 1.3 × 10–15 s
8.2 review
1 a C and F
b wavelength
c B and D
d amplitude
2 Wavelength is the length of one complete wave cycle. Any two points at the same position on the wave could be used.
In this case λ = 1.6 m.
Amplitude is the displacement from the average position to a crest or trough. In this case, amplitude = 20 cm.
3 a period = 0.4 s
1 1
b f= = = 2.5 Hz
T 0 .4
4 f = 5 Hz, amplitude = 0.3 m, λ = 1.3 m, v = ?

v = fλ = 5 × 1.3 = 6.5 m s–1
5 a True.
b False: The period of a wave is proportional to its wavelength.
c True.
d False: The wavelength and frequency of a wave determine its speed.
6 a wavelength = 4 cm; amplitude = 0.5 cm

b T = 2 s, λ = 4 cm, v = ?
λ 4
v= = = 2 cm s–1 or 0.02 m s–1
T 2
c red
1 1
7 T= = = 5 × 10–6 s
f 2 × 105
8 As the speed of each vehicle is the same and there is no relative motion of the medium, the frequency observed
would be the same as that at the source.
9 The apparent frequency increases when travelling towards you and decreases when travelling away from you.
Section 8.3
8.3 review
1 The wave is reflected and there is a 180° change in phase.
2 Since a wave is reflected back into the same medium, the only property that will change is amplitude. This is because
some of the energy of the wave has been absorbed by the second medium from which the wave was reflected.
(Note: velocity will change in direction but speed will not change, because it is a scalar quantity.)
3 a True.
b False: As the pulses pass through each other, the interaction does not permanently alter the characteristics of each
pulse.
c True.
4 B. Each pulse travels 3 m in 3 s. Adding their amplitudes together means they will look like C, but the result is they
will cancel each other out as in B.
5 An object subjected to forces varying with its natural oscillating frequency will oscillate with increasing amplitude.
This could continue until the structure can no longer withstand the internal forces and fails.
6 θi = 90° − 38° = 52°
θr = θi = 52°
7 B. If maximum energy is transferred then the amplitude will increase. The frequency is unchanged.
8 Normal walking results in a frequency of 1 Hz or 1 cycle per second i.e. two steps per second. This frequency may
result in an increase in the amplitude of oscillation of the bridge over time, which could damage the structure.
9 C. The object must have been convex, that is, curved outwards.
Section 8.4
FUNDAMENTAL FREQUENCY
A standing wave in a string is found to have a wavelength of 0.50 m for the fundamental frequency of vibration. Assume
that the tension of the string is not changed and that the string is fixed at both ends.
(a) What is the length of the string?
Thinking Working
Identify wavelength of the string (λ) in metres and the λ = 0.5 m

harmonic number (n). n=1
Recall that for any frequency 2l

2l λ=
n
λ= . Rearrange to find l.
n nλ
l=
2
Substitute the value for the wavelength from the question 1 × 0 .5
and solve for l. l =
2
= 0.25 m
(b) What is the wavelength of the third harmonic?
Thinking Working
Identify length of the string (l) in metres and the l = 0.25 m

harmonic number (n) n=3
Recall that for any frequency 2l

2l λ =
n
λ= . Substitute the values from the question
n 2 × 0 .2 5
=
and solve for λ. 3
= 0.17 m
8.4 review
1 It is a common misconception that standing waves somehow remain stationary. It is only the pattern made by the
amplitude along the rope that stays still at the nodes. The rope is still moving, especially at the antinodes.
2 A transverse wave moving along a slinky spring is reflected from a fixed end. The interference that occurs during the
superposition of this reflected wave and the original wave creates a standing wave. This standing wave consists of
locations called nodes, where the movement of the spring is cancelled out, and antinodes where maximum movement
of the spring occurs.
2l 2 × 0 .4
3 λ= = = 0.8 m
n 1
2l nλ 4 × 0 .7 5
4 Rearranging λ = gives l = = = 1.5 m
n 2 2
5 This wave will have a frequency four times that of the fundamental frequency, which means that it will have a
1
wavelength of the fundamental wavelength due to the inverse relationship between frequency and wavelength.
4
6 The wavelength of the standing wave in the diagram is 5 m. The wavelength of the fundamental frequency is twice the
length of the string. Therefore, a string length of 2.5 m would produce a standing wave with wavelength 5 m.
nv nv 1 × 387
7 f= →l= = = 0.55 m
2l 2f 2 × 350
2
new length = × 0.55 = 0.37 m
3
new wavelength = 2 × new length = 2 × 0.37 = 0.74 m
nv 1 ×300
8 f= = = 300 Hz
2l 2 × 0 .5
nv 2 ×300
9 f= = = 600 Hz
2l 2 × 0 .5
nv 3 ×300
10 f = = = 900 Hz
2l 2 × 0 .5
CHAPTER 8 REVIEW
1 The particles on the surface of the water move up and down as the waves radiate outwards carrying energy away from
the point on the surface of the water where the stone entered the water.
2 Similarities: both are waves, both carry energy away from the source, both are caused by vibrations.
Differences: transverse waves involve particle displacement at right angles to the direction of travel of the wave;
longitudinal waves involve particle displacement parallel to the direction of travel of the wave.
3 U is moving down and V is momentarily stationary (and will then move downwards).
4 f = 10.0 Hz, λ = 30.0 mm = 0.0300 m, v = ?
v = fλ = 10 × 0.03 = 0.300 m s–1
5 f = 32 000, v = 1400, λ = ?
v
v = fλ rearranges to λ =
f
λ = 1400 ÷ 32 000 = 0.044 m

6 v = 1500, f = 300, λ = ?
v
f
λ = 1500 ÷ 300 = 5 m
7 v = 340, f = 300, λ = ?
v
f
λ = 340 ÷ 300 = 1.1 m

8 256 Hz. Since there is no relative motion between the source and the observer, the apparent frequency would be
unchanged.
9 C and D. Since the frequency rose and fell, the bike must have travelled past you. It must have come towards you and
then moved away from you.
10 By inspecting the wave equation v = fλ since wavelength decreases and the velocity must stay the same, the frequency
must increase. This ensures the product of the wavelength and frequency still equals the velocity, which has remained
unchanged. (Note: velocity is constant as it is a property of the medium.)
11 At the fixed end of a string or rope, a wave undergoes a phase change.
12 a transmission
b reflection
c absorption
13 The green wave represents the superposition of the blue and the red waves.
14 Sound waves are longitudinal mechanical waves where the particles only move back and forth around an equilibrium
position, parallel to the direction of travel of the wave. When these particles move in the direction of the wave, they
collide with adjacent particles and transfer energy to the particles in front of them. This means that kinetic energy
is transferred between particles in the direction of the wave through collisions. Therefore, the particles cannot move
along with the wave from the source as they lose their kinetic energy to the particles in front of them during the
collisions.
15 All objects/materials have a resonant frequency. If the object is made to vibrate at this frequency, the amplitude of
the object’s vibrations will increase with time. If a building or bridge was subjected to wind that made it vibrate at its
natural frequency, this vibration may increase in amplitude so much that the structure is damaged or collapses.
nv 1 ×340
16 f = = = 100 Hz
4l 4 × 0 .8 5
nv 3 ×340
17 f = = = 300 Hz
4l 4 × 0 .8 5
18 The fundamental frequency is given by:

1 1
f1 = = = 0.25 Hz
T 4 .0
The frequency of the second harmonic is given by:

f2 = 2 × f1 = 2 × 0.25 = 0.50 Hz
19 Calculate the wavelength of the wave using the wave equation:
v = fλ
v
λ =
f
78
=
428
= 0.182 m
Since the separation of antinodes and of nodes in a standing wave in a string with fixed ends is half the wavelength,
then:
λ 0 .1 8 2
d = =
2 2
= 0.091 m or 9.1 cm
20 All of the options are correct. The light rays striking all of these surfaces will obey the law of reflection as it always
holds regardless of the shape of the reflector.
21 For a wave that is propagated by a medium, relative motion between the source, observer and medium can all cause
the Doppler effect.
Chapter 9 answers
Section 9.1
APPLYING HUYGENS’ PRINCIPLE
On the circular waves shown below, sketch some of the secondary wavelets on the outer wavefront and draw the
appearance of the new wave formed after 1 period.
Thinking Working
Sketch a number of secondary wavelets on the

advancing wavefront.
Sketch the new wavefront.

CALCULATING REFRACTIVE INDEX
The speed of light in crown glass is 1.97 × 108 m s–1. Given that the speed of light in a vacuum is 3.00 × 108 m s–1,
calculate the refractive index of crown glass.
Thinking Working
Recall the definition of refractive index. c

n=
v
Substitute the appropriate values into the formula and 3 .0 0 × 1 0 8
3 .0 0
solve. n= = = 1.52
1 .9 7 × 1 0 8
1 .9 7

SPEED OF LIGHT CHANGES
A ray of light travels from water (n = 1.33) where it has a speed of 2.25 × 108 m s–1 into glass (n = 1.85). Calculate the
speed of light in glass.
Thinking Working
Recall the formula. n1v1 = n2v2
Substitute the appropriate values into the formula and 1.33 × 2.25 × 108 = 1.85 × v2
solve. 1 .3 3 × 2 .2 5 × 1 0 8
∴ = v2
1 .8 5
∴ v2 = 1.62 × 108 m s–1

USING SNELL’S LAW
A ray of light in air strikes a piece of flint glass (n = 1.62) at angle of incidence of 50° to the normal. Calculate the
angle of refraction of the light in the glass.
Thinking Working
Recall Snell’s law. n1 sin θ1 = n2 sin θ2
Recall the refractive index of air. n1 = 1.00
Substitute the appropriate values into the formula to 1.00 × sin 50° = 1.62 × sin θ2
find a value for sin θ2. sin θ2 = 0.4729
Calculate the angle of refraction. ∴ θ2 = sin–1 0.4729 = 28.2°

CALCULATING CRITICAL ANGLE
Calculate the critical angle for light passing from diamond into air.
Thinking Working
Recall the equation for critical angle. n2

sin θc =
n1
Substitute the refractive indexes of diamond and air into 1 .0 0

the formula. sin θc = = 0.4132
2 .4 2
Solve for θc . θc = sin–1 0.4131 = 24.4°
9.1 review
1 a wave model
b wave model
c particle model
2 C. Newton’s esteemed reputation meant that his theory was regarded as correct.
3 The new wavefront should be a straight line across the front of the secondary wavelets.
rays giving
direction of
propagation
new wavefront
initial
wavefront
4 Therefore, the speed of light in seawater will be slower than in pure water.
c
5 Recall the definition of refractive index: n =
v
Rearrange to get
c
v =
n
3 .0 0 × 1 0 8
=
1 .3 8
= 2.17 × 108 m s–1

6 n1v1 = n2v2
1.33 × 2.25 × 108 = n2 × 2.29 × 108
n2 = 1.31
7 Recall Snell’s law: n1 sin θ1 = n2 sin θ2
1.33 × sin 44° = 1.60 × sin θ2
1 .3 3 × sin 4 4 °
sin θ2 =
1 .6 0
= 0.5774
θ2 = sin–1 0.5774
= 35.3°
8 Total internal reflection occurs when light passes from a more-dense medium into a less-dense medium and refracts
away from the normal.
a no
b yes
c yes
d no
λ
9 D. Significant diffraction occurs when is approximately 1 or greater. 700 nm ≈ 10–6 m and
w
0.001 mm = 0.001 × 10–3 or 10–6 m.
10 Polarisation is a phenomenon in which transverse waves are restricted in their direction of vibration. Polarisation
can only occur in transverse waves and cannot occur in longitudinal waves. Since light can be polarised, it must be a
transverse wave.
Section 9.2
CALCULATING WAVELENGTH FROM FRINGE SEPARATION
Green laser is directed through a pair of thin slits that are 25 μm apart. The slits are 1.5 m from a screen on which
bright fringes are 3.3 cm apart. Use this information to calculate the wavelength of green light in nm.
Thinking Working
Recall the equation for fringe separation. λL

Δx =
d
Transpose the equation to make λ the subject. Δxd

λ=
L
Substitute values into the equation and solve. 0 .0 3 3 × 2 5 × 1 0 −6
λ= = 5.5 × 10–7 m
1 .5
Express your answer using the unit specified. λ = 550 nm
9.2 review
1 D. Light passed through the double slits to hit the screen. Young’s double-slit experiment produced an interference
pattern of alternating bright and dark lines on the screen.
2 C and D. As laser light is monochromatic and coherent, it is more likely to produce the interference pattern expected
in Young’s experiment.
3 A and D. When crests meet troughs, the addition of these out-of-phase waves means that they cancel to form a node.
4 The central antinode occurs where both waves have travelled the same distance, i.e. the path difference is 0. The next
antinodes on either side occur when the path difference is 1λ.
Intensity
5 Up until Young’s experiment, most scientists supported a particle or ’corpuscular’ model of light. Young’s experiment
demonstrated interference patterns, which are characteristic of waves. This led to scientists abandoning the particle
theory and supporting a wave model of light.
λL
6 Recall the equation for fringe separation: Δx =
d
a increase
b decrease
c increase
⎛ 1⎞
7 pd = ⎜⎝ n − ⎟⎠ λ
2
For the fifth dark fringe, n = 5

⎛ 1⎞
pd = ⎜⎝ 5 − ⎟⎠ λ
2
Therefore, the fifth dark fringe occurs where the path difference is 4.5λ = 4.5 × 580 nm = 2610 nm or 2.61 × 10–6 m
8 Constructive interference occurs when the path difference is a whole number multiple of the wavelength.
Destructive interference occurs when the path difference is an odd number multiple of half the wavelength.
a destructive
b constructive
c destructive
9 pd = nλ
For the second bright fringe, n = 2
pd = 2λ
Therefore, the second bright fringe occurs where the path difference is
2 × 700 = 1400 nm
λL
10 Δx =
d
Δ xd
λ =
L
−6
0 .0 3 7 × 4 0 × 1 0
=
3 .2 5
= 4.55 × 10–7 m
= 455 nm
Section 9.3
USING THE WAVE EQUATION FOR LIGHT
A particular colour of red light has a wavelength of 600 nm. Calculate the frequency of this colour.
Thinking Working
Recall the wave equation for light. c = fλ
Transpose the equation to make frequency the subject. c

f=
λ
Substitute in values to determine the frequency of this 3 .0 × 1 0 8
wavelength of light. f= −9
6 0 0 ×1 0
= 5.0 × 1014 Hz
9.3 review
1 B. Mechanical waves require a medium whereas light waves can travel through a vacuum.
2 D. Light is electromagnetic radiation that is composed of changing electric and magnetic fields. Electric and magnetic
waves oscillate at 90° to each other, so in an electromagnetic wave the changing electric and magnetic fields are
orientated perpendicular to each other.
3 D. Electromagnetic radiation with a wavelength of 200 nm would be classified as ultraviolet light since this part of the
spectrum is shorter wavelength than visible light.
4 From shortest to longest wavelength: X-rays, visible light, infrared radiation, FM radio waves.
5 Use c = fλ
Transpose to make frequency the subject.
c 3 × 108
a red, f= = = 4.57 × 1014 Hz
λ 656 × 10−9
b yellow, f= 5.09 × 1014 Hz

c blue, f= 6.17 × 1014 Hz
d violet, f= 7.56 × 1014 Hz
3 × 108 − 299 792 458
6 299 792 458
× 100% = 0.07%
7 Use c = fλ
Transpose to make wavelength the subject.
c
λ=
f
3 ×1 0 8
=
6 .0 × 1 0 14
= 5 × 10–7
= 500 nm
8 Use c = fλ
c
λ=
f
3 ×1 0 8
=
7 .0 × 1 0 7
= 4.2857
= 4.3 m
9 Use c = fλ
Transpose to make frequency the subject.
c
f=
λ
3 × 108
=
200 × 10−12
= 1.5 × 1018 Hz
10 Frequency of microwave oven is 2.45 GHz from text on page 323.
Use c = fλ
c
λ=
f
3 ×1 0 8
=
2 .4 5 × 1 0 9
= 0.122 m
CHAPTER 9 REVIEW
1 A. This shows the bending of the edges of the waves as they pass through a gap.
λL
2 Since Δx = , the diffraction pattern would spread out more from blue to green.
d
The green light (λ = 525 nm) has a longer wavelength than blue light (λ = 460 nm). Green’s longer wavelength results
in more widely spaced fringes and a wider overall pattern.
3 D. Polarisation is a phenomenon in which transverse waves are restricted in their direction of vibration. Polarisation
can only occur in transverse waves and cannot occur in longitudinal waves. Since light can be polarised, it must be a
transverse wave.
4 Both snow and water reflect light. This reflected light is known as glare. The light reflected from water and snow is
partially polarised. Both snowboarders and sailors are likely to wear polarising sunglasses as these will absorb the
polarised glare from the snow or water respectively.
5 c = fλ
= 4.5 × 1014 × 500 × 10–9
= 2.25 × 108 m s–1
6 As light travels from quartz (n = 1.46) to water (n = 1.33), its speed increases which causes it to refract away from
the normal.
7 A: incident ray
B: normal
C: reflected ray
D: boundary between media
E: refracted ray
8 n1 sin θ1 = n2 sin θ2
n1 sin θ1
n2 = sin θ2
1 .0 0 × sin 4 3 °
=
sin 2 8 .5 °
= 1.429
c
Since n =
v
c
v =
n
3 .0 0 × 1 0 8
=
1 .4 2 9
= 2.1 x 108 m s–1

9 Use Snell’s law: n1 sin θ1 = n2 sin θ2
angle a
1.00 × sin 40° =1.50 × sin a
1 .0 0 × sin 4 0 °
sin a =
1 .5
= 0.4285
a = sin–1 (0.4285) = 25.4°
angle b
Since a and b are corresponding angles, a = b = 25.4°
angle c
1.50 × sin 25.4° = 1.33 × sin c
1 .5 0 × sin 2 5 .4 °
sin c =
1 .3 3
= 0.4837
c = sin–1 0.4837 = 28.9°
10 a The angle of incidence is measured with respect to the normal which is drawn at a right angle to the glass–air
boundary.
θi = 90 − 58.0 = 32.0°
b n1 sin θ1 = n2 sin θ2
1.52 × sin 32° = 1.00 x sin θ2
n1 sin θ1
sin θ2 = sin θ2
1 .5 2 × sin 3 2 °
=
1 .0 0
= 0.8055
θ2 = sin–1 0.8055 = 53.7°
c ∆θ = θ2 − θ1
= 53.7 − 32
= 21.7°
c
d v =
n
3 ×1 0 8
=
1 .5 2
= 1.97 × 108 m s–1

11 a red light
n1 sin θ1 = n2 sin θ2
1.00 × sin 30° = 1.50 × sin θred
n1 sin θ1
sin θred = n2
1 .0 0 × sin 3 0 °
=
1 .5 0
= 0.3333
θ2 = sin–1 0.3333 = 19.5°
b violet light
n1 sin θ1 = n2 sin θ2
1.00 × sin 30° = 1.53 × sin θviolet
n1 sin θ1
sin θviolet = n2
1 .0 0 × sin 3 0 o
=
1 .5 3
= 0.3268
θ2 = sin 0.3268 = 19.1°
–1
c Δθ = θ2 – θ1 = 19.5 − 19.1 = 0.4°

c 3 ×1 0 8
d v= = = 1.96 × 108 m s–1

n 1 .5 3
⎛ n2 ⎞
12 θc = sin–1 ⎜ ⎟
⎝ n1 ⎠
⎛ 1 .0 0 ⎞
a θc = sin–1 = 49.8°
⎝⎜ 1 .3 1 ⎠⎟
⎛ 1 .0 0 ⎞
b θc = sin–1 = 40.5°
⎝⎜ 1 .5 4 ⎠⎟
⎛ 1 .0 0 ⎞
c θc = sin–1 ⎜⎝ ⎟ = 27.6°
2 .1 6 ⎠
13 B, D, A, C. The bigger the difference in refractive indexes, the bigger the angle of deviation. The air–water boundary
has the smallest difference in refractive indices so it will produce the smallest angle of deviation. The air–diamond
boundary has the biggest difference in refractive indices so it will produce the biggest angle of deviation.
λL
14 a Δx =
d
Δ xd
λ =
L
−6
0 .0 3 1 × 7 5 × 1 0
=
4 .0
= 5.81 × 10–7
= 581 nm
b 581 nm is closest to yellow (according to Table 9.1.3)
15 A path difference of 1½ λ corresponds to the second dark band on each side of the central maximum at M.
Intensity
16 In order of decreasing wavelength: radio waves, microwaves, infrared, visible, ultraviolet, X-rays, gamma rays
17 a microwaves
b infrared waves
c X-rays
18 Since c = fλ
c
λ=
f
3 × 108
=
612 × 103
= 490 m
19 Young performed his famous experiment in 1803, in which he observed an interference pattern in light. Young shone
monochromatic light on a pair of narrow slits. Light passed through the slits and formed a pattern of bright and dark
lines/fringes/bands on a screen. Young compared this to interference patterns he had observed, and he identified
that these lines corresponded to regions of constructive and destructive interference. This could only be explained by
considering light to be a wave.
20 A microwave oven is tuned to produce electromagnetic waves with a frequency of 2.45 GHz. This is the resonant
frequency of water molecules. When food is bombarded with radiation at this frequency, the water molecules within
the food start to vibrate. The energy of the water molecules is then transferred to the rest of the food, heating it up.
Unit 3 Area of Study 1 Review

Question 1
– +
Question 2
kq1q2
F= r2
= × 10 × 5 × 102 × 7 × 10
9 9 −6 −6
0.4
= 2.0 N attraction
Question 3
kq
E = r2
= 9 × 10 × 9.4−3× 210
9 −6
(3.5 × 10 )
= 6.9 × 109 N C−1 to the left (away from the charge)
Question 4
V 400
E = d = 0.038 = 1.05 × 104 V m−1
Question 5
F = Eq = 1.05 × 104 × 1.6 × 10−19 = 1.68 × 10−15 N
Question 6
W = Vq = 400 × 1.6 × 10−19 = 6.4 × 10−17 J
OR
W = Fs = 1.68 × 10−15 × 0.038 = 6.4 × 10−17 J
Question 7
1
W = 2 mv2
1
6.4 × 10−17 = 2 × 9.11 × 10−31 × v2
v = 1.2 × 107 m s−1
Question 8
V
E=d→V=E×d
V = 300 × 0.12
= 36 V
Question 9
V
E=d
240
=
(1.6 × 10−3)
= 1.5 × 105 N C−1 (or V m−1) downwards
Question 10
mgd
q= V
= 1.96 × 10 × 9.8 × 1.6 × 10
–14 −3
240
= 1.28 × 10−18 C
Question 11
q = nqe
1.28 × 10−18
n=
(1.6 × 10−19)
= 8 electrons
Question 12
A he source of the electrons is the heated la ent at A
Question 13
qV
F= d
= 1.6 × 10 × 15 × 103
−19
12 × 10
−2
= 2 × 10−14 N
Question 14
2qV
v2 = m
= 2 × 1.6 × 10 ×−31
28 × 103
−19
9.11 × 10
v = 9.9 × 107 m s−1
Question 15
V
E=d
28 × 103
= 0.20
= 1.4 × 105 V m−1
Question 16
a A Both have elds in direction A
b B here is a eld in the BC direction fro the left hand current and in the AB direction
fro the right hand current
c G he eld in directions A and C cancel
Question 17
a he force is to the left due to agnetic induction in the soft iron
b The force is more strongly to the left as the right end of the electromagnet is now a
south pole
c he force is to the right as the right end of the electro agnet is no a north pole
Question 18
F = IlB = 100 × 1 × 1 × 10–5 = 1 × 10−3 N
Question 19
he right hand rule tells us that a current fro est to east ill e perience an up ards force
Question 20
The weight of 1 m of cable is mg = 0.05 × 9.8 = 0.49 N. For the magnetic force to equal this:
F 0.49
I = B = (1 × 10–5) = 4.9 × 104 A (Not uch chance of agnetic levitation for po er ca les )
Question 21
The change of force is from 1 × 10−3 N up to 1 10−3 N down—a change of 2 × 10−3 N down.
Question 22
B he hori ontal co ponent of the current is no less and so there ill e a s aller force per
metre of cable.
Question 23
F = IlB = 1.0 × 0.05 × 1.0 = 0.05 N
Question 24
he right hand rule tells us that it is to the right
Question 25
F = IlB = 1.0 × 0.01 × 1.0 = 0.01 N
Question 26
The direction of the force on side PQ is to the left.
Question 27
a Side AB is parallel to the eld ence there ill e no force on it
b Side C is parallel to the eld ence there ill e no force on it
Question 28
a F = nIlB 100 02 01 02 0 N out of the page
b F = nIlB 100 02 01 02 0 N into the page
Question 29
he coil ill rotate through 90 until the plane of the loop is perpendicular to the eld (and the
page) It ay s ing ac and forth until it settles in this position
Question 30
A B and C A ill produce a greater total force B ill increase the current and C ill result in a
stronger agnetic eld through the coil ould reduce the current
Question 31
a he eld is fro N to S so the right hand rule sho s that the force on side AB is up ards
and that on side CD is downwards.
b In the position sho n ( ith the coil hori ontal) the direction of the forces on the sides AB
and C are at right angles to the radius and the turning e ect is a i u
c he tor ue eco es ero hen the coil is in the vertical position It continues to rotate for
t o reasons (i) Its o entu ill carry it past the true vertical position (ii) At the vertical
position the co utator reverses the direction of the current through the coil and so the
forces reverse thus it continues to rotate for another half turn at hich point the current
reverses again and the rotation continues.
Question 32
F 40
a I = nlB = (100 × 0.2 × 0.5) = 4.0 A
b he shorter side ill halve the force t ice the current ill dou le the force and half the
turns halves the force he net e ect is to halve the force so F = 20 N.
8
c he force increases ith the eld so the ne force is F = 40 × 5 = 64 N.
Question 33
mv
r = eB
9.11 × 10–31 × 4.2 × 106
= 1.6 × 10–19 × 1.2
= 2 × 10−5 m
Question 34
× × ×
× × ×
electrons
× × ×
Question 35
he increase in inetic energy of the electron as it travels fro one plate to another is
1
Ek = 2 mv2 = qV
2qV
So v2 = m
v = 3.25 × 107 m s–1
Because the forces acting on the electron due to the electric and agnetic elds are alanced
e no that the electric force is e uivalent to the agnetic force
FB = FE
qvB = qE
V
qvB = q d
V
d = vB
3000
= 3.25 × 107 × 1.6 × 10−3
= 5.8 × 10−2 m
Question 36
Gm1m2
F=
r2
6.67 × 10−11 × 24 × 81
= 0.722
= 2.5 × 10−7 N
Question 37
C. During launch the normal force acting on the astronaut will be greater than usual and so the
apparent eight ill e greater
Question 38
D. The gravitational force will be constant during the launch.
Question 39
A In a sta le or it there is no nor al force acting (N = 0) on the astronaut so they will
e perience apparent eightlessness
Question 40
B In deep space there are no planets or large asses to e ert a force of gravity on the
astronaut so they ill e perience eightlessness since g 0 W = 0.
Question 41
Eg area under graph et een 7 0 106 m and 6.5 × 106 m
Counting squares gives 8.5 squares
area of each square = 1.0 × 104 × 0.5 × 106 = 5 × 109 J
Eg = 8.5 × 5 × 109
= 4.25 × 1010 J
Question 42
1
At 600 altitude (height of 7000 ) Ek = 2 mv2 0 10 000 1 002 = 1.125 × 1010 J
So Ek at 100 altitude (height of 6 00 ) 1 12 1010 + 4.25 × 1010 = 5.375 × 1010 J
1
2 mv = 5.375 × 10
2 10
0 10 000 v2 = 5.375 × 1010

v = 3.3 × 103 m s–1
Question 43
a r 6400 600 10 000 10 106 m
W = 4.0 × 104 N (fro graph)
b r = 6.0 × 105 + 6.4 × 106 = 7.0 × 106 m
W = 8.1 × 104 N (fro graph)
Question 44
Fg
At 600 Fg = 8.1 × 104 N so a = = 8.1 m s–2
m
Fg
At 100 Fg = 9.2 × 104 N so a = = 9.2 m s–2
m
The acceleration increases from 8.1 m s–2 to 9.2 m s–2.
Question 45
F = GMm
2
r
6.67 × 10–11 × 5.98 × 1024 × 1.2 × 104
= (6.73 × 106)2
= 1.06 × 105 N
Question 46
2 3
4π 2r 3
TTT === 4π r
GM
GM
4 × π 22 × (6.73 × 1066)33
= 4 × π × (6.73 × 10 )
== 6.67 × 10−11 × 5.98 × 1024
6.67 × 10−11 × 5.98 × 1024
= 5.5 × 103 s
Question 47
he ass of the satellite has no e ect on its or ital period
Question 48
At 00 g 0 N g–1
Fg = mg = 20 × 3.0 = 60 N
Question 49
Area 9 s uares 9 10 20 105 = 1.8 × 106 g−1
Ek = area × mass = 1.8 × 106 × 20 = 3.6 × 107 J
Question 50
eter ine the energy associated ith each grid s uare y ultiplying each area y the ass of
20 g Calculate the altitude at hich the total area starting fro ero height is e ual to 40
How are fields used to move electrical energy?

Question 1
Since the plane of the loop is parallel to the agnetic eld direction no ( ero) u threads the
loop.
Question 2
otate the loop or the agnetic eld so they are no longer parallel
Question 3
he a i u u threads the loop hen the plane of the loop and the agnetic eld direction
are perpendicular (or at right angles) to each other
Question 4
ΦB = B⊥A
= 0.50 × 0.2 × 0.1
= 0.01 Wb or 10−2 Wb
Question 5
As the loop enters the agnetic eld there is a u increasing do n through the loop Len s
la states the induced current in the loop ill oppose the change in u that causes it
herefore there ill e an induced eld (or u ) up through the loop sing the right hand grip
rule ith the thu pointing up the ngers curl in the direction of the induced current fro
to
Question 6
he loop oves at a speed of c s−1 and ith side length 20 c it is half ay into the eld
hen it has travelled 10 c hich ta es 2 s
ΔΦ
ε = N ΔtB
1 × 0.40 × 0.2 × 0.1
= 2
= 4 × 10−3 V
Question 7
V
I=R
4 × 10−3
= 0.5
= 8 × 10−3 A
Question 8
P = VI
= 4 × 10–3 × 8 × 10–3
= 3.2 × 10–5 W
Question 9
he source of this po er is the e ternal force that is oving the loop into the agnetic eld
Question 10
he loop is oving at a speed of c s−1 so after seconds it has oved 2 c and has een
totally ithin the agnetic eld for 1 second Since there is no no u change there ill e no
e f induced in the loop at this o ent
Question 11
As the loop e erges fro the agnetic eld there is a u decreasing do n through the loop
Len s la states the induced current in the loop ill oppose the change in u that causes it
herefore there ill e an induced eld (or u ) do n through the loop sing the right hand
grip rule ith the thu pointing do n the ngers curl in the direction of the induced current
fro to
Question 12
ΦB = B⊥A
= 1.0 × 10−3 × 100 × 10−3 × 50 × 10−3
= 5 × 10−6 Wb
Question 13
No ( ero) u threads the loop in the ne position as the plane of the loop is no parallel to the
agnetic eld
OR
θ 90 and cos θ 0 so no ( ero) u threads the loop in the ne position
Question 14
ΔΦ
ε = N ΔtB
1 × 5 × 10–6
= 2 × 10–3
= 2.5 × 10−3 V
Question 15
V
I=R
2.5 × 10–3
= 2.0
= 1.25 × 10−3 A
Question 16
No nce the loop is stationary there is no change in u and therefore no e f generated and
no current o s in the loop
Question 17
he e f and hence the current depends on the rate of change If the rate is increased y 4
then the current ill also increase y 4 I 200 A
Question 18
he e f generated ust have een V = IR = 50 × 10–6 ( 9 ) 10–2 V.
ΔΦ
ε = N ΔtB and ΦB = B⊥A and A = πr²
B πr²
∴ ε = N ⊥Δt
ε Δt
→ B = N πr²
3 × 10–2 × 2
= (100 × π × 0.032)
= 0.21 T
Question 19
1 1
T = f = 100 = 0.01 s
he graph is a sine ave ith pea a plitude of 0 9 and a period of 0 01 s (10 s)
Question 20
Vpeak 0.9
Vrms = = = 0.64 V
2 2
Question 21
he output graph ould have half the period and t ice the a plitude he r s voltage ould
e1
Question 22
3000
f = 60
0
Question 23
1 1
T = f = 50 = 0.02 s
0.02
A uarter turn ill ta e 4 = 0.005 s
ΔΦ
ε = N ΔtB
200 × 0.5 × 100 × 10–4
= 0.005
= 200 V
Question 24
B his is t ice the fre uency and so the a plitude ill e dou le and the period ill halve
Question 25
his has t ice the a plitude ut the sa e period and so could e o tained y dou ling N.
Question 26
C his ti e the period has halved (the fre uency has dou led) ut the a plitude re ains the
sa e hus a co ination of the other uantities ust have halved (B has dou led ut N has
reduced to one uarter)
Question 27
1 1
f = T = 2 × 10–3 00
Question 28
Vp–p = 20 V
Question 29
Vpeak 10
Vrms = = = 7.1 V
2 2
Question 30
Ipeak 1
Irms = = = 0.71 A
2 2
Question 31
Prms = Vrms × Irms
= 7.1 × 0.71
=5W
Question 32
An alternator has a pair of slip rings instead of a split ring co utator
Question 33
AC is generated in the coils of an alternator ach slip ring connects to each end of the coil
he slip rings aintain the AC generated in the coil at the output
Question 34
I1 × V1 2.0 × 600
I2 = V2 = 3000 = 0.4 A
Question 35
Vp–p = 2 × 3000
= 6000 V
Question 36
N2 × V1 1000 × 600
N1 = V2 = 3000 200 turns
Question 37
3000
P2 rms = V2 rms × I2 rms = × 0.4 = 849 W
2
Question 38
P2 peak = V2 peak × I2 peak 000 04 2 1697
Question 39
C he alternating current in the pri ary produces a changing agnetic u hich induces an
e f in the secondary coils (as ell as the pri ary coils)
Question 40
C he self induced e f is no n as a ac e f and opposes the ains e f
Question 41
ith little or no current in the po er line there as al ost no voltage drop hen the house
appliances ere turned on there as a higher current in the po er line and hence a voltage
drop along the line leaving a lo voltage at the house
Question 42
As the generator as supplying 4000 at 2 0 the current in the line as I = 4000 ÷ 250 = 16 A.
he voltage drop along the line as therefore ΔV = IR 16 2 2 and so the voltage at the house
as 2 0 2 218 he po er lost is Ploss = I R = 16 2
2 2
12 and so the po er at the house
as 4000 12 488 Phouse = VI = 218 × 16 = 3488 W
Question 43
At the generator end a 1 20 step up transfor er is re uired ( 000 2 0 20) here ill e
20 ti es as any turns in the secondary as in the pri ary At the house end a 20 1 step do n
transfor er is re uired
Question 44
P 4000
I = V = 5000 = 0.8 A
Question 45
he voltage drop is V = IR = 0.8 × 2 = 1.6 V.
Question 46
he po er loss is P = I²R = 0.8² × 2 = 1.28 W.
Question 47
he voltage at the house ill e 5000 – 1.6 = 249.92 V.
20
Question 48
he po er at the house ill e 4000 1 28 998 72
Question 49
he po er loss efore the transfor ers ere added as 12 ( uestion 42) hich as 12 8
of the po er generated (4000 ) and the po er loss ith the transfor ers as 1 28 ( 46)
hich is a out 0 0 of the po er generated
Question 50
he reason is that the po er loss in the po er line depends on the s uare of the current
(P = I²R) Since the current as reduced y a factor of 20 and the resistance re ains constant
the po er loss decreased y a factor of 20 or 400

Question 1
FN must be greater than Fg
FN
Fg
Question 2
C Action reaction pairs al ays act on di erent o ects ne force acts on the oor and the
other force acts on the all hese forces are e ual in agnitude as descri ed in Ne ton s
third la
Question 3
unbalanced, balanced
Question 4
2πr 2π × 5
v = T = 2.5
= 12.6 m s−1
Question 5
v2 12.62
a= r = 5
= 31.8 m s−2
Question 6
FN = Fnet = ma
= 60 × 31.6
= 1.9 × 103 N
Question 7
10
T = 6 = 1.67 s
1 1
f = T = 1.67 = 0.6 Hz
Question 8
FN
C
X
Fg
Question 9
v2
tan θ = rg
v2
θ = tan−1 rg
⎛ 402 ⎞
= tan−1 ⎝150 × 9.8⎠
= 47°
Question 10
v2 62
a = r = 2 = 18 m s−2 up
Question 11
FN = Fg + Fnet
= mg + ma
= 55 × 9.8 + 55 × 18
= 1.5 × 103 N
Question 12
he apparent eight is given y the nor al force of 1 103 N his is al ost three ti es
larger than the eight force and so the s ater ould feel uch heavier than usual
Question 13
a e up as positive
vertically v = 0 (at the top), a 9 8 t = 1.0, s = ?
1 2
s = vt 2 at
0 0 98 1 02
= 4.9 m
Question 14
9.8 m s–2 down
Question 15
hori ontally u = ?, a = 0, t = 2, s = 8
1
s = ut + 2 at2
8=u×2
u = 4 m s−1
ta ing up as positive
vertically v = 0 (at the top), a 9 8 t = 1, u = ?
v = u + at
0=u 98 1
u = 9.8 m s–1
se Pythagoras to nd the actual speed at launch
u= 42 + 9.82
= 10.6 m s–1
Question 16
C he only force acting is the gravitational force
Question 17
A Since the collision is inelastic inetic energy is not conserved and Ek after < Ek before as shown
in graphs A and C uring the collision so e of the inetic energy is converted into spring
potential energy and then so e of this is restored to inetic energy so the Ek graph dips
slightly over the ti e of the collision as sho n in graph A
Question 18
o entu is conserved (i e is constant) in all collisions as sho n y the at line in graph
Question 19
or o entu to e conserved hat is lost y the tennis all is gained y the o ling
all he tennis all s change in o entu ill e ac ards he o ling all s change in
o entu ill e for ards So their directions are opposite
Question 20
he forces e erted y each all on the other a e an action reaction pair and ust e e ual
and opposite according to Ne ton s third la
Question 21
he all earing ust aintains contact ith the trac so N = 0, and Fnet = Fg so a = 9.8 m s–2
down.
Question 22
at point C, FN = 0, so Fnet = Fg
ma = mg
a=g
v2
r =g
v= rg = 0.5 × 9.8 = 2.2 m s−1
Question 23
apparent weight = FN and at point C, FN = 0 ∴ apparent weight = 0
Question 24
otal energy at point C = Ek + Eg
1
= 2 mv2 + mgh
1
= 2 × 0.025 × 2.222 + 0.025 × 9.8 × 1.0
= 0.3066 J
1
otal energy at point B Ek = 2 mv2 = 0.3066 J
1
0.3066 = 2 × 0.025 v2
2 × 0.3066
v =
0.025
= 5.0 m s−1
Question 25
net force 100 0 70 N
W on cart = F × s
= 70 × 20
= 1400 J
Question 26
Ek = 1400 J
Question 27
Ek =1.4 × 103 J
1
mv2 = 1.4 × 103
2
2 × 1.4 × 103
v=
200
= 3.7 m s–1
Question 28
W (by prospector)
P=
time
100 × 20
= 10
= 200 W
Question 29
Es = 1k x2
2
= 0.5 × 1500 × 0.182
= 24.3 J
Question 30
m1u1 + m2u2 = (m1 + m2)v
120 × 6 + 45 × 0 = (120 + 45)v
720 = 165v
v = 4.4 m s−1
Question 31
p = pf pi
(120 4 4) (120 6)
192 g s–1
he ruc an loses 192 g s–1.
Question 32
In this collision the o entu gain of the ag is e ual to the o entu loss of the ruc an
i e 192 g s–1.
Question 33
1
Ek efore × 120 × 62 = 2160 J
2
1
Ek after (120 + 45) × 4.42 = 1597 J
2
Since inetic energy is not conserved the collision is inelastic
Question 34
40
35
30
25
Force (N)
20
15
10
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8
Extension (m)
Question 35
k = gradient
rise 34.3
= run = 1.70 20 N −1
Question 36
Es = 1k x2
2
= 0.5 × 20 × 152
= 2.25 × 103 J
Question 37
C As the stretched ungee rope returns to its original length the e tension x decreases, and
since F = k x the force eco es s aller F = ma, so as F becomes smaller, acceleration will
eco e s aller here is still an acceleration so the velocity ill continue to increase
Question 38
Ek = 1 mv2
2
= 2250 J
0 60 v2 = 2250
2250
v = 0.5 × 6 0
= 8.7 m s–1
Question 39
A (postulate 2) and C (postulate 1)
Question 40
A or C If the other craft is further a ay its velocity a ay fro arth is 4 106 0 4 106
= 3.6 × 10 m s If it is et een us and arth it is 4 10 + 0.4 × 106 = 4.4 × 106 m s–1.
6 –1 6
Question 41
C. γ ust e 1 so A and B are not correct he speed is uch less than c, so D is not correct.
C is the only feasi le ans er
1 1
γ= 2 = 1 000 000 014
v 50 0002
1− 1−
c2 300 000 0002
Question 42
C It as the elegance of a ell s e uations that convinced instein that they and their
implications about light, were correct.
Question 43
Aristotle s ideas agreed ith our everyday o servations e e perience o ects as slo ing
or stopping ithout an e ternal force to eep the going and e cannot see that there are
actually forces (e g gravitational or frictional) acting to slo the do n In a space station e
ould often e perience o ects oving ith constant velocity ith no e ternal force as o ects
oated around the ship
Question 44
In your fra e of reference ti e proceeds nor ally As ars is oving at a high speed relative
to you people on ars appear to e in slo otion as ti e for the as seen y you ill e
dilated.
Question 45
distance
time = speed
5
= 0.9
= 5.6 years
Question 46
At 0.9c a u s ti e ill see to e shortened y a factor γ 2 thus it ill see to ta e her
only 2.4 years.
Question 47
elative to her the distance appeared to e foreshortened y the factor γ, thus the distance she
travelled as uch less than light years
Question 48
he ass di erence is 4 1 67 10–27 6 64 10–27 = 4.7 × 10–29 g
E = mc² = 4.7 × 10–29 × (3 × 108)2
= 4.23 × 10–12 J
Question 49
As the total energy produced by the Sun each second is 3.9 × 1026 and the last ans er gives
us the energy produced for each heliu ato the nu er of heliu ato s ust e given y
3.9 × 1026
= 9.3 × 1037 every second.
4.2 × 10–12
Question 50
he ass lost y the Sun each second is given y m = 9.3 × 1037 × 4.7 × 10–29 = 4.37 × 109 g
In one day this will be 4.37 × 109 × 24 × 60 × 60 = 3.8 × 1014 g
How are light and matter similar?

Question 1
B. V0 is proportional to the energy of the incident photons. Since blue light has a higher
frequency than yellow light, its photons have more energy.
Question 2
C. The retarding potential difference works against the electrons as they try to reach
the collector.
A and B are incorrect because the potential difference between the emitter and the collector
does not affect these quantities.
Question 3
A. The colour of the incident light is indicated by the value of V0, while the intensity of the
incident light is indicated by the size of the current.
Question 4
hc
Ek max = λ – Φ
4.14 × 10–15 × 3 × 108
1.21 = 200 × 10–9 –Φ
Φ = 6.21 – 1.21 = 5 eV
Question 5
• Only certain frequencies of light will emit photoelectrons.
• There is no time difference between the emission of photoelectrons by light of different
intensities.
• The maximum kinetic energy of the ejected photoelectrons is the same for different light
intensities of the same frequency.
Question 6
h h
λ = p = mv
6.63 × 10–34
=
0.01
9.11 × 10–31 × 100 × 3 × 108
= 2.42 × 10–8 m
Question 7
A series of bright and dark fringes.
Question 8
The high-speed electrons are exhibiting wave-like behaviour.
Copyright © Pearson Australia 2016 (a division of Pearson Australia Group Pty Ltd) ISBN 978 1 4860 2223 6 Page 1
Question 9
h h
λ = mv → v = mλ
6.63 × 10–34
v = 1.67 × 10–27 × 2.42 × 10–9
= 164 m s–1
Question 10
ΔE = E4 – E1
= –1.6 – (–10.4)
= 8.8 eV
ΔE
ΔE = hf → f = h
8.8
f = 4.14 × 10–15
= 2.13 × 1015 Hz
c
c = f λ → λ = f
3 × 108
λ = 2.13 × 1015
= 1.41 × 10–7 m
Question 11
ΔE = E2 – E1
= –5.5 – (–10.4)
= 4.9 eV
ΔE
ΔE = hf → f = h
4.9
f = 4.14 × 10–15
= 1.18 × 1015 Hz
c
c = f λ → λ = f
3 × 108
λ = 1.18 × 1015
= 2.53 × 10–7 m
Question 12
ΔE = E4 – E3
= –1.6 – (–3.7)
= 2.1 eV
ΔE
ΔE = hf → f = h
2.1
f = 4.14 × 10–15
= 5.07 × 1014 Hz
c
c = f λ → λ = f
3 × 108
λ = 5.07 × 1014
= 5.91 × 10–7 m
Question 13
W = qV
= 1.60 × 10–19 × 65
= 1.04 × 10–17 J
Question 14
1
ΔEk = 2 mv2
1
1.04 × 10–17 = 2 × 9.11 × 10–31 × v2
2.28 × 1013 = v2
v = 4.78 × 106 m s–1
Question 15
h
λ = mv
6.63 × 10–34
= 9.11 × 10–31 × 4.8 × 106
= 1.52 × 10–10 m
Question 16
Neils Bohr would state that if incident light had an energy value less than the minimum energy
difference between the lowest and next orbital levels within the hydrogen atom, the light would
not result in any orbital changes. Therefore the light would not be absorbed by the atom.
Question 17
h h
λ = p = mv
6.63 × 10–34
= 9.11 × 10–31 × 1.75 × 107
= 4.16 × 10–11 m
= 0.0416 nm
Question 18
There would be circular bands or fringes of specific spacing around a common central point.
Question 19
As the accelerating voltage is increased, the electron speed would increase. Therefore the
h
electron has more momentum. As λ = p, the electron’s wavelength is reduced. The amount
of diffraction depends on λ and so less diffraction occurs. Less diffraction means the overall
w
pattern is smaller; that is, the circular bands are more closely spaced.
Question 20
de Broglie would say that the electrons (with their associated wavelengths) were diffracted as
they passed through the gaps between the atoms in the crystal, creating a diffraction pattern.
Question 21
In addition to their particle properties, electrons have a de Broglie wavelength. The orbit must
fit an integral number of wavelengths so that a standing wave is formed (2πr = nλ). Only energy
levels corresponding to these wavelengths exist.
Question 22
B, C, D, E. The photoelectric effect treats light as having particle-like properties as well as wave
properties.
Question 23
An electronvolt is the energy that a single electron would gain after being moved through a
potential of 1 V.
Question 24
If electrons receive more than enough energy to release them from the atom, any excess
energy results in extra kinetic energy of the electron.
Question 25
The discovery that light can display both particle and wave properties was repeated when
electrons were found to have wave properties, when moving very fast, as well as particle
properties.
Question 26
h
C. The de Broglie wavelength of a particle is given by λ = p and therefore depends only on the
momentum of the particle.
Question 27
In the particle model, the energy of the incident photons is set by their frequency according
to E = hf. Each incident photon interacts with only one electron; therefore, the energy of the
emitted electrons will depend only on the frequency of the incident light. Electron energy was
not altered by altering the intensity because this only varies the number of photons, not their
energy. Therefore, the energy of the emitted electrons is not affected, only the number emitted.
Question 28
The wave model predicts that altering the intensity of the light corresponds to waves of greater
amplitude. Hence, the wavefronts should deliver more energy to the electrons and, therefore,
the emerging electrons should have higher energy. (This is not observed.)
Question 29
Photon energy > ionisation energy, i.e. the photon has enough energy to free the electron.
Question 30
14.0 – 13.6 = 0.4 eV
0.4 eV = 0.4 × 1.6 × 10–19 J
= 6.4 × 10–20 J
Question 31
1
ΔEk = 2 mv2
2Ek 2 × 6.4 × 10−20

v= =
m 9.11× 10−31
= 3.74 × 105 ms–1
p = mv
= 9.11 × 10–31 × 3.74 × 105
= 3.41 × 10–25 kg m s–1
Question 32
h
λ=p
6.63 × 10–34
= 3.41 × 10–25
= 1.94 × 10–9 m
Question 33
Since there is no energy level 10.0 eV above the ground state, the photon cannot be absorbed.
Question 34
E3–2 = –3.7 – (–5.5) = 1.8 eV
E3–1 = –3.7 – (–10.4) = 6.7 eV
E2–1 = –5.5 – (–10.4) = 4.9 eV
Therefore 1.8 eV, 4.9 eV and 6.7 eV photons will be present in the emission spectrum.
Question 35
hc
E = λ so the shortest wavelength has the highest energy
hc 4.14 × 10–15 × 3 × 108
λ= E = 6.7
= 1.85 × 10 m
–7
Therefore the highest energy photon, 6 eV, will have the shortest wavelength.
Question 36
Incident energy = 30.4 eV + 10.4 eV = 40.8 eV
hc 4.14 × 10–15 × 3 × 108
λ= E = 40.8
= 3.04 × 10 m
–8
Question 37
Ek max represents the maximum kinetic energy with which the electrons are emitted.
f is the frequency of the light incident on the metal plate (usually after passing through a filter,
so it is not sufficient to call this the frequency of light from the source).
ф is the work function, which is the minimum energy required to eject an electron (it is a
property of the metal).
Question 38
Ek max is not altered.
Question 39
More photoelectrons are ejected each second, therefore more current is flowing.
Question 40
Since three full wavelengths fit into a circumference, n = 3.
Question 41
h
p=λ
6.63 × 10–34
= 3.0 × 10–12
= 2.21 × 10–22 kg m s–1
Question 42
To produce diffraction patterns with the same fringe separation, they must have equivalent
wavelengths.
Question 43
c 3 × 108
λ = f = 8.3 × 1018
= 3.6 × 10–11 m
Question 44
λ = 3.6 × 10–11 m, since they must have an equivalent wavelength to the X-ray photons.
Question 45
h 6.63 × 10–34
p = λ = 3.6 × 10–11
= 1.8 × 10–23 kg m s–1
Question 46
hc
No. The energy of the X-rays is given by E = λ and the energy of the electrons is given by
1
ΔEk = 2 mv2.
Question 47
The photoelectric effect supports the particle (photon) model of light because:
1 It predicts a minimum frequency (threshold frequency and energy) before electrons are
emitted. (The wave model predicts that any frequency should work.)
2 The energy of the emitted electrons depends only on the frequency of the incident light.
(The wave model predicts that increasing the intensity of light would increase the energy of
the emitted electrons.)
3 It also explains an absence of any time delay before electrons are emitted when weak light
sources are used. (This time delay is suggested by the wave model.)
Question 48
a B. Vapour lamps involve the excited electrons dropping one of more energy levels and
radiating photons as they do so.
b A. As the filament of an incandescent light bulb heats up, the free electrons in the tungsten
atoms collide, accelerate and emit photons.
c C. The material that LEDs are made from contain a conduction band and a valence band.
d D. The photons in laser light all have the same wavelength and frequency and are in phase
with each other i.e. they are coherent.
Question 49
In the single slit diffraction experiment, as the slit is made narrower the position of the particle
becomes more precisely known. As a consequence, the direction, and therefore the momentum
of the particle becomes less precisely known, because with a narrower slit the diffraction
pattern becomes wider.
Question 50
Δp is the uncertainty of a particle’s momentum. If this value gets smaller it means the
momentum (or velocity) of a particle is known more precisely. As a consequence, as the
right-hand side of the relation remains constant, the uncertainty in a particle’s position, Δx,
becomes greater.

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Heinemann Physics 1 4e

Chapter 1 Heating Processes

Section 1.1 Heat and temperature

Heat is added to the system, so Q is positive. ∆U = Q − W

Section 1.1 Review

Section 1.2 Specific heat capacity

Calculate the mass of water. Volume = 75 L

∆T = final temperature − initial temperature ∆T = 30 − 50 = −20°C

From Table 1.2.1, Q = mc ∆T

Worked example: Try yourself 1.2.2

Section 1.2 Review

7 B. Different states will have different specific heat capacities.

Section 1.3 Latent heat

Use the equation: Q = mLfusion Q = mLfusion

Worked example: Try yourself 1.3.2

Calculate the mass of water involved. 3 L of water = 3 kg

Use the equation Q = mc ∆T to calculate the heat energy Q = mc ∆T

Use the equation Q = mL to calculate the latent heat Q = mL

Section 1.3 Review

Section 1.4 Conduction

Section 1.5 Convection

Section 1.6 Radiation

Chapter 2 Applying thermodynamic principles

Section 2.1 Heating by radiation

Express the peak wavelength in metres. λmax = 90 nm = 90 × 10−9 m

Rearrange Wien’s law to solve for T. λmaxT = 2.898 × 10−3 m K

Worked example: Try yourself 2.1.2

State Wien’s law. λmaxT = 2.898 × 10−3 m K

Rearrange Wien’s law to express it in terms of λmax. 2.898 × 10−3

Worked example: Try yourself 2.1.3

Find the factor by which the temperature has increased Tmultiple =

Use the relationship between power and temperature to P ~ T4

Worked example: Try yourself 2.1.4

Convert temperature from degrees Celsius to kelvin. T = 90°C = 363 K

Substitute values into the Stefan−Boltzmann equation to P = e σA(T 4 − Ts4)

Section 2.1 Review

2 λmaxT = 2.898 × 10−3 m K 3 λmaxT = 2.898 × 10−3 m K 4 λmaxT = 2.898 × 10−3 m K

Section 2.2 The enhanced greenhouse effect

carbon dioxide combustion of fossil fuels

Section 2.3 Scientific modelling: The enhanced greenhouse effect

Section 2.4 Issues related to thermodynamics

3 E. All of these elements are features of passive design.

Chapter 3 Electrical physics

Section 3.1 Behaviour of charged particles

Calculate the charge, in coulombs, carried by 4 million electrons.

Worked example: Try yourself 3.1.2

Express −4.8 μC in scientific notation. Q = −4.8 μC

Find the number of electrons by dividing the charge on Q

Section 3.1 Review

Section 3.2 Electric current and circuits

Find the number of electrons by dividing the charge by Q

Section 3.2 Review

Section 3.3 Energy in electric circuits

Recall the definition of potential difference. E

Transpose the definition of potential difference to make E = VQ

Substitute in the appropriate values and solve. E = 12 × 3600

Worked example: Try yourself 3.3.2

Convert quantities to SI units. 1750 mA

Substitute values into the equation and calculate the E = VIt

Worked example: Try yourself 3.3.3

Identify the relationship needed to solve the problem. P = VI

Identify the required values from the question, substitute P = 120 × 6

Section 3.3 Review