centrifugal pump converts input power to kinetic energy by accelerating liquid in a revolving

device - an impeller.

The most common is the volute pump - where fluid enters the pump through the eye of the
impeller which rotates at high speed. The fluid accelerates radially outward from the pump
chasing and a vacuum is created at the impellers eye that continuously draws more fluid into
the pump.

The energy from the pumps prime mover is transfered to kinetic energy according
the Bernoulli Equation. The energy transferred to the liquid corresponds to the velocity at the
edge or vane tip of the impeller. The faster the impeller revolves or the bigger the impeller is,
the higher will the velocity of the liquid energy transferred to the liquid be. This is described
by the Affinity Laws.

Pressure and Head

If the discharge of a centrifugal pump is pointed straight up into the air the fluid will pumped
to a certain height - or head - called the shut off head. This maximum head is mainly
determined by the outside diameter of the pump's impeller and the speed of the rotating
shaft. The head will change as the capacity of the pump is altered.

The kinetic energy of a liquid coming out of an impeller is obstructed by creating

a resistance in the flow. The first resistance is created by the pump casing which catches
the liquid and slows it down. When the liquid slows down the kinetic energy is converted to
pressure energy.

 it is the resistance to the pump's flow that is read on a pressure gauge attached to
the discharge line

A pump does not create pressure, it only creates flow. The gauge pressure is a
measurement of the resistance to flow.

In fluids the term head is used to measure the kinetic energy which a pump creates. Head is
a measurement of the height of the liquid column the pump could create from the kinetic
energy the pump gives to the liquid.

 the main reason for using head instead of pressure to measure a centrifugal pump's
energy is that the pressure from a pump will change if the specific gravity (weight) of
the liquid changes, but the head will not

The pump's performance on any Newtonian fluid can always be described by using the term
head.
Different Types of Pump Head

 Total Static Head - Total head when the pump is not running
 Total Dynamic Head (Total System Head) - Total head when the pump is running
 Static Suction Head - Head on the suction side, with pump off, if the head is higher
than the pump impeller
 Static Suction Lift - Head on the suction side, with pump off, if the head is lower than
the pump impeller
 Static Discharge Head - Head on discharge side of pump with the pump off
 Dynamic Suction Head/Lift - Head on suction side of pump with pump on
 Dynamic Discharge Head - Head on discharge side of pump with pump on

The head is measured in either feet or meters and can be converted to common units for
pressure - like psi, Pa or bar.

 it is important to understand that the pump will pump all fluids to the same height if
the shaft is turning at the same rpm

The only difference between the fluids is the amount of power it takes to get the shaft to the
proper rpm. The higher the specific gravity of the fluid the more power is required.

 Centrifugal Pumps are "constant head machines"

Note that the latter is not a constant pressure machine, since pressure is a function of head
and density. The head is constant, even if the density (and therefore pressure) changes.

The head of a pump can be expressed in metric units as:

h = (p2 - p1) / (ρ g) + v22 / (2 g) (1)

where

h = total head developed (m)

p2 = pressure at outlet (N/m2)

p1 = pressure at inlet (N/m2)

ρ = density (kg/m3)

g = acceleration of gravity (9.81) m/s2

v2 = velocity at the outlet (m/s)

Head described in simple terms

 a pump's vertical discharge "pressure-head" is the vertical lift in height - usually

measured in feet or m of water - at which a pump can no longer exert enough
pressure to move water. At this point, the pump may be said to have reached its
 "shut-off" head pressure. In the flow curve chart for a pump the "shut-off head" is the
point on the graph where the flow rate is zero

Pump Efficiency
Pump efficiency, η (%) is a measure of the efficiency with which the pump transfers useful
work to the fluid.

η = Pout / Pin (2)

where

η = efficiency (%)

Pin = power input

Pout = power output

The centrifugal or roto-dynamic pump produce a head and a flow by increasing the velocity
of the liquid through the machine with the help of the rotating vane impeller. Centrifugal
pumps include radial, axial and mixed flow units.

Centrifugal pumps can be classified further as

 end suction pumps

 in-line pumps
 double suction pumps
 vertical multistage pumps
 horizontal multistage pumps
 submersible pumps
 self-priming pumps
 axial-flow pumps
 regenerative pumps

Positive Displacement Pumps

A positive displacement pump operates by alternating filling a cavity and then displacing a
given volume of liquid. A positive displacement pump delivers a constant volume of liquid for
each cycle independent of discharge pressure or head.

The positive displacement pump can be classified as:

 Reciprocating pumps - piston, plunger and diaphragm

 Power pumps
 Steam pumps
 Rotary pumps - gear, lobe, screw, vane, regenerative (peripheral) and progressive
cavity
Selecting between Centrifugal or Positive Displacement Pumps
Selecting between a Centrifugal Pump or a Positive Displacement Pump is not always
straight forward.

Flow Rate and Pressure Head

The two types of pumps behave very differently regarding pressure head and flow rate:

 The Centrifugal Pump has varying flow depending on the system pressure or head
 The Positive Displacement Pump has more or less a constant flow regardless of the
system pressure or head. Positive Displacement pumps generally makes more
pressure than Centrifugal Pump's.

Capacity and Viscosity

Another major difference between the pump types is the effect of viscosity on capacity:

 In a Centrifugal Pump the flow is reduced when the viscosity is increased

 In a Positive Displacement Pump the flow is increased when viscosity is increased

Liquids with high viscosity fills the clearances of Positive Displacement Pumps causing
higher volumetric efficiencies and Positive Displacement Pumps are better suited for higher
viscosity applications. A Centrifugal Pump becomes very inefficient at even modest viscosity.

Mechanical Efficiency
The pumps behaves different considering mechanical efficiency as well.

 Changing the system pressure or head has little or no effect on the flow rate in a
Positive Displacement Pump
 Changing the system pressure or head may have a dramatic effect on the flow rate in
a Centrifugal Pump

Net Positive Suction Head - NPSH

Another consideration is the Net Positive Suction Head - NPSH.

 In a Centrifugal Pump, NPSH varies as a function of flow determined by pressure

 In a Positive Displacement Pump, NPSH varies as a function of flow determined by
speed. Reducing the speed of the Positive Displacement Pump pump, reduces the
NPSH

Low pressure at the suction side of a pump may cause the fluid to start boiling with

 reduced efficiency
 cavitation
 damage

of the pump as a result. Boiling starts when the pressure in the liquid is reduced to the vapor
pressure of the fluid at the actual temperature.
To characterize the potential for boiling and cavitation the difference between

 the total head on the suction side of the pump - close to the impeller, and
 the liquid vapor pressure at the actual temperature

can be used.

Suction Head
Based on the Energy Equation - the suction head in the fluid close to the impeller*) can be
expressed as the sum of the static and velocity head:

hs = ps / γ liquid + v s2 / 2 g (1)

where

hs = suction head close to the impeller (m, in)

ps = static pressure in the fluid close to the impeller (Pa (N/m2), psi (lb/in2))

γliquid = specific weight of the liquid (N/m3, lb/ft3)

vs = velocity of fluid (m/s, in/s)

g = acceleration of gravity (9.81 m/s2, 386.1 in/s2)

*)
We can not measure the suction head "close to the impeller". In practice we can measure
the head at the pump suction flange. Be aware that - depending of the design of the pump -
the contribution to the NPSH value from the suction flange to the impeller can be substantial.

 Velocity - Dynamic Pressure vs. Head

Liquids Vapor Head

The liquids vapor head at the actual temperature can be expressed as:

hv = pv / γ vapor (2)

where

hv = vapor head (m, in)

pv = vapor pressure (m, in)

γ vapor = specific weight of the vapor (N/m3, lb/ft3)

Note! The vapor pressure in a fluid depends on the temperature. Water, our most common
fluid, starts boiling at 20 oC if the absolute pressure is 2.3 kN/m2. For an absolute pressure
of 47.5 kN/m2 the water starts boiling at 80 oC. At an absolute pressure of 101.3
kN/m2 (normal atmosphere) the boiling starts at 100 oC.

Net Positive Suction Head - NPSH

The Net Positive Suction Head - NPSH - can be defined as

 the difference between the Suction Head, and

 the Liquids Vapor Head

and can be expressed as

NPSH = hs - hv (3)

or, by combining (1) and (2)

NPSH = ps / γ + vs2 / 2 g - pv / γ (3b)

where

NPSH = Net Positive Suction Head (m, in)

Available NPSH - NPSHa or NPSHA

The Net Positive Suction Head available from the application to the suction side of a pump is
often named NPSHa. The NPSHa can be estimated during the design and the construction of
the system, or determined experimentally by testing the actual physical system.
The available NPSHa can be estimated with the Energy Equation.

For a common application - where the pump lifts a fluid from an open tank at one level to an
other, the energy or head at the surface of the tank is the same as the energy or head before
the pump impeller and can be expressed as:

h0 = hs + hl (4)

where

h0 = head at surface (m, in)

hs = head before the impeller (m, in)

hl = head loss from the surface to impeller - major and minor loss in the suction pipe (m, in)

In an open tank the head at the surface can be expressed as:

h0 = p0 / γ = patm / γ (4b)

For a closed pressurized tank the absolute static pressure inside the tank must be used.

The head before the impeller can be expressed as:

hs = ps / γ + vs2 / 2 g + he (4c)

where

he = elevation from surface to pump - positive if pump is above the tank, negative if the
pump is below the tank (m, in)

Transforming (4) with (4b) and (4c):

patm / γ = ps / γ + vs2 / 2 g + he + hl (4d)

The head available before the impeller can be expressed as:

ps / γ + vs2 / 2 g = patm / γ - he - hl (4e)

or as the available NPSHa:

NPSHa = patm / γ - he - hl - pv / γ (4f)

where

NPSHa = Available Net Positive Suction Head (m, in)

Available NPSHa - the Pump is above the Tank

If the pump is positioned above the tank, the elevation - he - is positive and
the NPSHa decreases when the elevation of the pump increases (lifting the pump).

At some level the NPSHa will be reduced to zero and the fluid will start to evaporate.

Available NPSHa - the Pump is below the Tank

If the pump is positioned below the tank, the elevation - he - is negative and the
NPSHa increases when the elevation of the pump decreases (lowering the pump).

It's always possible to increase the NPSHa by lowering the pump (as long as the major and
minor head loss due to a longer pipe don't increase it more). Note! It is important - and
common - to lower a pump when pumping a fluid close to evaporation temperature.

Required NPSH - NPSHr or NPSHR

The NPSHr, called as the Net Suction Head as required by the pump in order to prevent
cavitation for safe and reliable operation of the pump.

The required NPSHr for a particular pump is in general determined experimentally by

the pump manufacturer and a part of the documentation of the pump.

The available NPSHa of the system should always exceeded the required NPSHr of the pump
to avoid vaporization and cavitation of the impellers eye. The available NPSHa should in
general be significant higher than the required NPSHr to avoid that head loss in the suction
pipe and in the pump casing, local velocity accelerations and pressure decreases, start
boiling the fluid on the impellers surface.

Note that required NPSHr increases with the square of capacity.

Pumps with double-suction impellers has lower NPSHr than pumps with single-suction
impellers. A pump with a double-suction impeller is considered hydraulically balanced but is
susceptible to an uneven flow on both sides with improper pipe-work.

Example - Pumping Water from an Open Tank

When elevating a pump located above a tank (lifting the pump) - the fluid starts to evaporate
at the suction side of the pump at what is the maximum elevation for the actual temperature
of the pumping fluid.

At the maximum elevation NPSHa is zero. The maximum elevation can therefore be
expressed by modifying (4f) to:

NPSHa = patm / γ - he - hl - pv / γ

=0

For an optimal theoretical condition we neglect major and minor head loss. The elevation
head can then be expressed as:

he = patm / γ - pv / γ (5)

The maximum elevation - or suction head - for an open tank depends on the atmospheric
pressure - which in general can be regarded as constant, and the vapor pressure of the fluid
- which in general vary with temperature, especially for water.

The absolute vapor pressure of water at temperature 20 oC is 2.3 kN/m2. The maximum
theoretical elevation of a pump when pumping water at 20 oC is therefore:

he = (101.33 kN/m2) / (9.80 kN/m3) - (2.3 kN/m2) / (9.80 kN/m3)

= 10.1 m

Due to head loss in the suction pipe and the local conditions inside the pump - the
theoretical maximum elevation normally is significantly decreased.

Maximum theoretical elevation of a pump above an open tank at different water

temperatures are indicated below.

Suction Head and Reduction in Suction Lift for Water and Temperature
Suction head for water - or max. elevation of a pump above a water surface - is affected by the
temperature of the water - as indicated below:

Temperature abs Vapor Pressure Reduction in Suction Lift Suction Head

(oC) (kN/m2, kPa) (m) (m)

0 0.6 0 10.3
Temperature abs Vapor Pressure Reduction in Suction Lift Suction Head

(oC) (kN/m2, kPa) (m) (m)

5 0.9 0 10.2

10 1.2 0 10.2

15 1.7 0 10.2

20 2.3 0.1 10.1

25 3.2 0.2 10.0

30 4.3 0.3 9.9

35 5.6 0.4 9.8

40 7.7 0.7 9.5

45 9.6 0.8 9.4

50 12.5 1.1 9.1

55 15.7 1.5 8.7

60 20 1.9 8.3

65 25 2.3 7.8

70 32.1 3.1 7.1

75 38.6 3.8 6.4

80 47.5 4.7 5.5

85 57.8 5.8 4.4

90 70 7.0 3.2
 Temperature abs Vapor Pressure Reduction in Suction Lift Suction Head

(oC) (kN/m2, kPa) (m) (m)

95 84.5 8.5 1.7

100 101.33 10.2 0

Note! - as indicated in the table above hot water can be difficult to pump. To limit cavitation
in a hot water system

 locate the pump in lowest possible position

 if possible - increase the static pressure in system
 oversize and simplify the piping on the suction side of the pump to limit friction and
dynamic losses

Reduction in Suction Lift for Water and Altitude

Reduction in Suction
Altitude
Lift
(m)
(m)

0 0

250 0.30

500 0.60

750 0.89

1000 1.16

1250 1.44

1500 1.71

1750 1.97

2000 2.22

2250 2.47
 Reduction in Suction
Altitude
Lift
(m)
(m)

2500 2.71

Pumping Hydrocarbons
Note that the NPSH specifications provided by manufacturers in general are for use
with cold water. For hydrocarbons these values must be lowered to account for vapor release
properties of complex organic liquids.

Temperature abs Vapor Pressure

Fluid (oC) (kPa)

20 5.9
Ethanol
65 58.2

20 22.8
Methyl Acetate
55 93.9

The head developed by a pump is independent of liquid and a performance curve for water
can be used for Newtonian liquids like gasoline, diesel or similar. Note that the required
power to the pump depends on the liquid density and must be recalculated.

NPSH and Liquids with Dissolved Gas

NPSH calculations might be modified if there is significant amount of dissolved gas in a
liquid. The gas saturation pressure is often much higher than a liquid's vapor pressure.

Converting Head to Pressure

Converting head in feet to pressure in psi
Pumps characteristic curves in feet of head can be converted to pressure - psi - by the
expression:

p = 0.433 h SG (1)

where

p = pressure (psi)

h = head (ft)

SG = specific gravity of the fluid

Converting head in metre to pressure in bar
Pumps characteristic curves in metre of head can be converted to pressure - bar - by the
expression:

p = 0.0981 h SG (2)

where

h = head (m)

p = pressure (bar)

Converting head in metre to pressure in kg/cm2

Pumps characteristic curves in metre of head can be converted to pressure - kg/cm2 - by the
expression:

p = 0.1 h SG (2b)

where

h = head (m)

p = pressure (kg/cm2)

Converting Pressure to Head

Since pressure gauges often are calibrated in pressure - psi or bar - a conversion to the
heads commonly used in pump curves - like feet or meter - may be required.

Converting pressure in psi to head in feet

h = 2.31 p / SG (3)

where

h = head (ft)

p = pressure (psi)

Converting pressure in bar to head in metre

h = p 10.197 / SG (4)

where

h = head (m)

p = pressure (bar)

Converting pressure in kg/cm2 to head in metre

h = p 10 / SG (4b)

where
h = head (m)

p = pressure (kg/cm2)

Example - Converting Pump Head - feet - to Pressure - psi

The pressure - psi - of a water pump operating with head 120 ft can be calculated with eq. 1
as:

p = 0.433 (120 ft) (1)

= 52 psi

Example - Converting Pressure - psi - to Pump Head - feet

The head in feet water column can be calculated from pressure 100 psi with eq. 3 as:

h = 2.31 (100 psi) / (1)

= 231 ft
Where specific gravity of water = 1.

Actual Head Rise of a Pump or Fan

Using the Energy Equation the head rise through a pump or fan can be expressed as:

ha = (p2 - p1) / γ + (h2 - h1) + (v22 - v12) / 2 g (1)

where

ha = actual head rise (m fluid column)

p = pressure (Pa, N/m2)

h = elevation (m)

γ = ρ g = specific weight of fluid (N/m3)

v = velocity (m/s)

ρ = density of fluid (kg/m3)

g = acceleration of gravity (9.81 m/s2)

 Pressure vs. head

The actual head rise can be expressed as:

ha = hshaft - hloss (2)

where

hshaft = shaft work in the pump or fan

hloss = head loss through the pump or fan

The head loss - hloss - through a pump or fan is related to the

 skin friction in the blade passages and is proportional to volume flow - q2.
 flow separation
 impeller blade casing clearance flows
 other three dimensional flow effects

Actual Head Rise for an Inline Pump

For a very common installation - the inline pump or fan - where the inlet velocity and the
outlet velocity are the same (v2 = v1), and the inlet and outlet elevation are the same (h2 =
h1), the generic equation (1) can be modified to:

ha = (p2 - p1) / γ (3)

Specific Work
By multiplying (3) with acceleration of gravity, specific work of the pump or fan may be
calculated:

w = ha g (4)

where

w = specific work (Nm/kg, J/kg)

Example - Head Rise of an Inline Pump

An inline water pump works between the pressure 1 bar (1 105 N/m2) and 10 bar (10
105 N/m2). Density of water is 1000 kg/m3. The actual water head (water column) can be
calculated using (3):

hwater = (p2 - p1) / γ

= (p2 - p1) / ρ g

= ((10 105 N/m2) - (1 105 N/m2)) / (1000 kg/m3) (9.81 m/s2)

= 91.7 m Water Column

Note! - the head unit is with reference to the density of the flowing fluid. For other units -
like mm Water Column - check Velocity Pressure Head.

Example - Head Rise of an Fan

An inline fan working with hot air with density ρ = 1.06 kg/m3 add a pressure of 400 Pa
(N/m2) to the flow.

The air head (air column) can be calculated with (3):

hair = (p2 - p1) / ρ g

 = (400 N/m2) / (1.06 kg/m3) (9.81 m/s2)

= 38.5 m Air Column

The water head (water column) can be calculated with (3) using the density of water:

hwater = (p2 - p1) / ρ g

= (400 N/m2) / (1000 kg/m3) (9.81 m/s2)

= 0.041 m

= 41 mm Water Column

Measuring pressure with water column in an U-tube manometer is common in air distribution
systems for ventilation and air condition.