International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism, 2012, 22, 444  -451

© 2012 Human Kinetics, Inc.

www.IJSNEM-Journal.com
ORIGINAL RESEARCH

Dietary, Anthropometric, Blood-Lipid, and Performance

Patterns of American College Football Players
During 8 Weeks of Training
Rochelle D. Kirwan, Lindsay K. Kordick, Shane McFarland,
Denver Lancaster, Kristine Clark, and Mary P. Miles

Purpose: The purpose of this study was to determine the dietary, anthropometric, blood-lipid, and performance
patterns of university-level American football players attempting to increase body mass during 8 wk of training.
Methods: Three-day diet records, body composition (DEXA scan), blood lipids, and performance measures
were collected in redshirt football players (N = 15, age 18.5 ± 0.6 yr) early season and after 8 wk of in-season
training. Results: There was an increase (p < .05) from early-season to postseason testing for reported energy
(+45%), carbohydrate (+82%), and protein (+29%) intakes and no change in the intake of fat. Fat intake was
41% of energy at the early-season test and 32% of energy at the postseason test. Increases (p < .05 for all)
in performance measures, lean mass (70.5 ± 7.7–71.8 ± 7.7 kg), fat mass (15.9 ± 6.2–17.3 ± 6.8 kg), plasma
total cholesterol (193.5 ± 32.4–222.6 ± 40.0 mg/dl), and low-density lipoproteins (LDL; 92.7 ± 32.7–124.5
± 34.7 mg/dl) were measured. No changes were measured in triglycerides, very-low-density lipoproteins, or
high-density lipoproteins. Conclusion: Increases in strength, power, speed, total body mass, muscle mass,
and fat mass were measured. Cholesterol and LDL levels increased during the study to levels associated with
higher risk for cardiovascular disease. It is possible that this is a temporary phenomenon, but it is cause for
concern and an indication that dietary education to promote weight gain in a manner less likely to adversely
affect the lipid profile is warranted.

Keywords: protein, lean body mass, cholesterol

Players of American football face a number of nutri-
tional challenges. To gain weight, many of these athletes
consume as much food as possible without receiving
nutritional counseling from a qualified source (Cole et
al., 2005; Duellman, Lukaszuk, Prawitz, & Brandenburg,
2008; Froiland, Koszewski, Hingst, & Kopecky, 2004;
Jonnalagadda, Rosenbloom, & Skinner, 2001; Juzwiak &
Ancona-Lopez, 2004; Kaiser et al., 2008). The long-term
consequences of their eating habits are overlooked to meet
the short-term goal of weight gain, athletic performance,
and the ability to play at the college level (Applegate &
Grivetti, 1997; Cole et al., 2005; Harp & Hecht, 2005;
Jonnalagadda et al., 2001; Rankin, 2002). Coaches and
teammates in the athletic community encourage the use
of protein supplementation to support the development of
lean body mass, strength, speed, and skill (Phillips, 2004).
Many individuals are unclear as to what their nutri-
tion requirements are, and this may lead to unhealthy
and or unnecessary dietary practices (Bovill, Tharion,
& Lieberman, 2003). The current recommendations for
Kirwan, Kordick, McFarland, Lancaster, and Miles are with the
Dept. of Health and Human Development, Montana State Uni-
versity, Bozeman, MT. Clark is with the Intercollegiate Athletics
Dept., The Pennsylvania State University, State College, PA.
athletes training at moderate to high intensities for up
to 3 hr/day are for at least 6–10 g of carbohydrate per
kilogram of body mass per day (g · kg–1 · day–1), no more
than 20–35% of calories from fat, and no more than
10% of the total daily caloric intake from saturated fat
(Burke, Hawley, Wong, & Jeukendrup, 2011; Rodriguez,
DiMarco, & Langley, 2009). The protein requirements for
athletes in strength and power sports are within the range
of 1.4–1.8 g · kg–1 · day–1 (Lemon, 1995; Lemon, Tarnop-
olsky, MacDougall, & Atkinson, 1992; Tarnopolsky et al.,
1992; Tarnopolsky, MacDougall, & Atkinson, 1988). This
requirement is roughly twice the recommended dietary
allowance for the average individual, and many athletes
have turned to protein supplements to meet or exceed
this need (Applegate & Grivetti, 1997). Supplements are
expensive and may or may not be needed to meet dietary
recommendations. Furthermore, American football play-
ers, particularly incoming freshmen, are encouraged to
increase their weight and lean body mass. These athletes
may focus on calories rather than nutrients, which may
favor a higher fat intake. In addition, freshmen athletes
generally live on campus and are limited to the food
choices offered by campus food service. Their diets are
often low in fruits and vegetables and high in fatty food
choices and simple carbohydrates (Cole et al., 2005;
Jonnalagadda et al., 2001).

444
 Dietary, Anthropometric, Blood-Lipid, and Performance Patterns   445
More research is needed to identify the dietary
practices of college football players, as well as the
potential positive and negative effects of these prac-
tices. The purpose of this study was to determine
the dietary, anthropometric, blood-lipid, and perfor-
mance patterns of college American football players
attempting to increase body mass during 8 weeks of
training.
Methods
Participants
Students who volunteered for this investigation were
incoming redshirt football players, 18–20 years of
age, at Montana State University, an NCAA Division
I American football program. Redshirt football players
train, practice, and suit up with the team, but they do not
play in games. Most of the participants had general lift-
ing experience but were inexperienced in the Olympic
and power-lifting techniques employed by the strength
and conditioning staff. No exclusion criteria were devel-
oped for this study, as all NCAA athletes are required
to complete yearly athletic physicals to screen for pos-
sible health risks. All participants in this study were
informed of the risks of participation and gave written
informed consent. Seventeen participants enrolled, and
15 completed the investigation. One subject chose to
discontinue participation in the football program, while
another did not wish to continue with the study after
the initial 1-day diet record. The study was approved
by the Human Subjects Committee at Montana State
University.
Study Design
A pretest–posttest experimental design was used during
this 8-week study. Performance outcomes (exercise
testing and strength assessment), blood lipids, anthro-
pometrics, and dietary intake were assessed. Participants
completed two 3-day diet records, two strength and
power assessments (administered by the university’s
strength and conditioning coaches), two blood-lipid
profiles, and two dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry
(DEXA) scans. All variables were collected between
Weeks 2 and 4 for the early-season measurement and
again between Weeks 11 and 12 for the postseason
measures.
Estimated caloric, hydration, and protein require-
ments (1.6–1.8 g/kg) were determined for participants.
Estimated caloric requirements were determined using
the Cunningham formula, with an activity factor of
2.0–2.4. The Cunningham formula was used to estimate
energy needs, as it takes into account lean body mass
(Cunningham, 1980). According to the Manual of Clini-
cal Dietetics (Dietitians of Canada & American Dietetic
Association, 2000), an activity factor of 2.0–2.4 is used
for individuals completing strenuous work or highly
active leisure activities.
Strength and Conditioning
(8-Week Program)
As part of their participation in the football program at
Montana State University, athletes who participated in
this investigation took part in football-team practices
and completed strength and conditioning training and
assessments. Strength and conditioning workouts were
three times per week (Wednesdays and Fridays at 6 a.m.
and Sundays at 1 p.m.). The progression of strength and
conditioning training began in the developmental stage
where athletes learned basic body control and techniques
for strength training. Once these techniques were mas-
tered, athletes entered the transitional phase where more
complex exercises were done and submaximal efforts
were incorporated into the workouts. If an athlete excelled
in the transitional phase, the coaching staff developed an
advanced program for that athlete to maintain complex
body control while introducing maximal-effort lifting
techniques. The exercises incorporated in the training
program included, but were not limited to, cleans (power
and hang), squats (various modifications), back jerk,
bench press (flat, incline, dumbbell), pull-ups, rows (vari-
ous modifications), biceps curls, shoulder press, shoulder
raises, dips, back extensions, shrugs, triceps extensions,
and gluteal ham raises.
Exercise Testing and Strength
Assessment
Strength and skill assessments took place during Weeks
3–4 and Week 11. Testing measures included five-rep-
etition-maximum of the bench, squat, and clean to test
strength and power gains. The 10-yd (~9-m) dash was
used to test speed, and the vertical jump was used to test
power. All physical performance testing was completed
by the strength and conditioning program coaches as a
regular component of their program, and the results of
their assessments were shared with the investigators of
this study.
Blood-Lipid Analysis
Fasting blood samples were obtained in Weeks 3–4
and 11–12. They were collected between 7:30 and 9:30
a.m. after participants had rested for 10 min after their
arrival at the Nutrition Research Laboratory. Blood was
collected from an antecubital vein into evacuated tubes
using a standard venipuncture technique. Samples were
obtained in a vacuum tube without additive for analysis
of blood lipids. The tubes without additive were allowed
to clot. Blood was separated using a refrigerated 21000
Marathon centrifuge (Fisher Scientific, Pittsburgh, PA).
Samples were stored at –80 °C until analysis. All samples
from a given subject were analyzed at the same time and
in the same assay run for a given analysis to limit vari-
ability in tests.
Serum low-density lipoprotein (LDL), high-density
lipoprotein (HDL), total cholesterol, and triglyceride
concentrations were measured in duplicate by standard
446  Kirwan et al.
laboratory techniques using a VitrosDT60 Ektachem ana-
lyzer (Eastman Kodak Co., Rochester, NY) and the pro-
cedures described by Lie, Schmitz, Pierre, and Gochman
(1976). LDL cholesterol concentrations were estimated
using the Friedewald equation (Friedewald et al. 1972).
Anthropometric and Body-Composition
Measurements
Nonfasting anthropometric measurements (height and
weight) were taken during Week 1 of training. Body-
composition measurements were collected by DEXA
(Hologic Delphi W DEXA scanner with the GDR System
Software Version 11.1 for use with Microsoft Windows)
by the same certified radiology technologist during
Weeks 2–3 and Weeks 11–12. The technician modified
each participant’s body position with the use of a foot
restraint and foam blocks. The test–retest coefficient of
variation for this specific DEXA machine was not avail-
able. Owing to coordination of scheduling for the DEXA
scanning facility and the training and class schedules
of the participants, time of day and food and beverage
intake were not controlled. Data from the DEXA scan
included bone mineral content, fat, lean mass, lean plus
bone mineral content, and total mass. All results were
provided in grams and by body region. Regions included
left and right arms and legs, trunk, and head.
Dietary Assessment
Incoming freshmen and redshirt athletes live on campus
and consume meals through the university food service
in the dining halls. Three meals are provided by food
service each day. Three-day diet records were devel-
oped to coincide with what food service was serving for
breakfast, lunch, and dinner during the specified dates
to increase ease of usability for study participants. Food
records provided a list of all food and beverages available
at mealtimes. In addition, the portion size of the serving
implement used to serve each food was included. For
example, hash browns were served for breakfast in a
1/2-cup serving-size ladle. Participants would check off if
they had consumed this food and how many scoops they
received, each being 1/2 cup. All participants received
training on how to accurately measure portion sizes
and complete a 3-day diet record. Diet-record training
included education on the various-sized serving spoons
and ladles used by the campus food service department.
Additional space was provided on diet records for meals
and snacks consumed outside of the dining halls. This was
done to make recording of food intake easier for partici-
pants and to increase the likelihood of full reporting. Two
3-day diet records were collected by the same researcher
(R.K.). Incomplete or unclear diet records were flagged,
and athletes were immediately contacted to clarify the
provided information. Two additional researchers (D.L.
and L.K.K.) were responsible for entering data into the
nutrient-analysis program. Diet records were analyzed
using the dietary-analysis program Nutritionist Pro (ver-
sion 4.1.0, Axxya Systems, Stafford, TX). The food ser-
vice department offered the research team the nutritional
content of the foods they served on these occasions. With
this information, the research team was able to add the
individual food items into the Nutritionist Pro database
for dietary analysis.
Statistical Analysis
Descriptive data are given as means and standard devia-
tions. Paired t tests were used to compare early-season
and postseason measurements. Statistical significance
was set at p = .05.
Results
Subject Description
and Anthropometric Data
Participants (N = 15) were 18.5 ± 0.6 years of age, 187.3
± 6.9 cm tall, and 93.8 ± 15.3 kg in mass. Body-mass
index (BMI) was 26.6 ± 3.4 kg/m2.
Dietary Intake
All but 1 participant completed both early-season and
postseason 3-day diet records. The nutritional content
of the diet records is presented in Table 1. There was a
significant increase (p < .05) from early season to postsea-
son for reported energy (+ 45%), carbohydrate (+ 82%),
and protein (+ 29%) intakes and no change in the intake
of fat. Fat intake was 41% of energy at the early-season
test and 32% of energy at the postseason test.
Estimated energy requirements for each subject
compared with their actual early-season and postseason
energy intake are presented in Figure 1. A comparison
of the estimated protein requirements versus protein
intake early season and postseason is presented in Figure
2. The average amount of protein consumed was 1.8 g/
kg of body weight at both early-season and postseason
time points. The estimated amount of protein consumed
ranged from 0.9 to 2.8 g/kg during the preliminary diet
record and from 0.9 to 2.9 g/kg in the postseason diet
record. Individually, 9 of the 15 participants consumed at
least 1.6 g/kg of protein. The 6 subjects consuming less
than 1.6 g/kg of protein tended to weigh less than those
consuming 1.6 g/kg of protein or more. The amount of
fat consumed per day ranged from 122 to 193 g in the
preliminary diet record and from 136 to 260 g in the
postseason diet record.
Performance Measures
Performance variables are presented in Table 2. Two
subjects were excluded from the analysis due to a sport-
related injury and an inability to complete the testing
protocol correctly. Overall, there was a significant
improvement (p < .05) in vertical-jump, hang-clean,
back-squat, and bench-press performance.
Table 1  Dietary Composition of Participants
(N = 14) Based on 3-Day Diet Records Collected
Early Season and Postseason, M ± SD
Dietary component
Energy (kcal)
  early season 3,518 ± 849
 postseason 5,115 ± 2,391*
Carbohydrates (g/day)
  early season 353 ± 118
 postseason 643 ± 414*
Protein (g/day)
  early season 169 ± 52
 postseason 217 ± 91*
Total fat (g/day)
  early season 160 ± 45
 postseason 178 ± 60
Cholesterol (mg/day)
  early season 757 ± 333
 postseason 1,004 ± 504
Dietary fiber (g/day) Figure 2 — Estimated protein requirements compared with
estimated intakes from early-season and postseason 3-day diet
  early season 19 ± 8 records, M ± SD.
 postseason 18 ± 8
*p < .05 compared with early-season training.
Table 2  Early-Season and Postseason
Performance Measures (N = 13), M ± SD
Performance measure
Vertical jump (cm)
  early season 66.0 ± 8.1
 postseason 68.8 ± 7.4*
10-yd (~9-m) spring (s)
  early season 1.86 ± 0.08
 postseason 1.85 ± 0.07
Hang clean (kg)
  early season 228.3 ± 19.0
 postseason 245.9 ± 15.4*
Back squat (kg)
  early season 351.1 ± 26.9
 postseason 382.0 ± 37.5*
Bench press (kg)
  early season 112.1 ± 12.9
 postseason 117.4 ± 14.3*
*p < .05 compared with early-season training.
Figure 1 — Estimated energy requirements compared with
estimated intakes from early-season and postseason 3-day diet
records, M ± SD.

447
448  Kirwan et al.

Table 3  Early-Season and Postseason Table 4  Early-Season and Postseason Blood

Mass Measures From Dual-Energy X-Ray Lipids (N = 14), mg/dl, M ± SD
Absorptiometry (N = 15), M ± SD
Lipid measure
Mass measure Cholesterol
Total-body mass (kg)   early season 193.5 ± 32.4
  early season 96 ± 13  postseason 222.6 ± 40.0*
 postseason 99 ± 14* Low-density lipoproteins
Right-arm fat mass (g)   early season 92.7 ± 32.7
  early season 877 ± 304  postseason 124.5 ± 34.7*
 postseason 992 ± 343* Triglycerides
Right-arm lean mass (g)   early season 164.0 ± 88.3
  early season 4,859 ± 583  postseason 149.1 ± 33.9
 postseason 5,213 ± 579* Very-low-density lipoproteins
Trunk fat mass (g)   early season 32.8 ± 17.7
  early season 7,665 ± 3,353  postseason 29.7 ± 6.8
 postseason 8,540 ± 3,852* High-density lipoproteins
Trunk lean mass (g)   early season 68.0 ± 16.2
  early season 35,344 ± 4,265  postseason 68.3 ± 14.3
 postseason 36,159 ± 4,406* *p < .05 compared with early-season training.
Right-leg fat mass (g)
  early season 3,066 ± 1,216
and LDL cholesterol measures, while no changes were
 postseason 3,225 ± 1,215 measured in triglycerides, very-LDL cholesterol, and
Right-leg lean mass (g) HDL cholesterol.
  early season 12,544 ± 1,294
 postseason 12,748 ± 1,399 Discussion
Total fat (g)
The key findings of this investigation were that the
  early season 15,877 ± 6,197 group showed improvements in the tested performance
 postseason 17,262 ± 6,776* measurements and gained both lean and fat body mass.
Total lean mass (g) Increases in total cholesterol and LDL cholesterol were
also measured.
  early season 70,478 ± 7,741 Dietary intakes reported by participants were below
 postseason 71,758 ± 7,703* the estimated requirements for total energy but adequate
*p < .05 compared with early-season training.
for estimated protein intake for nearly all players. A 3-day
diet record was used to collect the average intake over
time. A 3-day diet record was selected versus a 24-hr
recall, as a 24-hr recall relies on an individual’s memory
Body Composition rather than recording food intake as it occurs. A 7-day
All subjects completed two DEXA scans, and changes in diet recall has limitations, in that “the validity of the col-
lean and fat mass between early season and postseason lected information decreases in the later days of a 7-day
are presented in Table 3. For the sake of brevity, values recording period in contrast to collected information in
are given for the right arm and leg only; however, changes the earlier days” (Thompson & Subar, 2008, p. 3). It
were similar between arms. There were significant has been established in previous research that NCAA
increases (p < .05) in total body mass, arm fat and lean American football athletes underreport their energy and
mass, trunk fat and lean mass, and total fat and lean mass. macronutrient intake on self-reported dietary records
(Cole et al., 2005). The estimated average energy require-
Blood-Lipid Profile ments ranged between 4,475 and 5,370 kcal/day. Average
reported energy intake was 3,647 kcal (range 3,021–5,281
Fasting blood-lipid concentrations are presented in Table kcal) during the early-season collection and 5,115 kcal
4. One subject did not participate in the blood draw. There (range 2,412–11,816 kcal) during the postseason data
was a significant increase (p < .05) in total cholesterol collection. Average reported protein intake was 1.8 g/kg
 Dietary, Anthropometric, Blood-Lipid, and Performance Patterns   449
per day. Within the 8-week study, participants increased
body mass from 96 kg early season to 99 kg postseason.
Thus, there is evidence that participants exceeded their
caloric needs.
Incoming American redshirt football athletes often
find themselves away from home for the first time. They
have greater access to high-calorie, high-fat foods and are
encouraged to gain weight to enhance performance with
the football program. The reported increase in energy
intake over the course of the study could be related
to increased comfort with the 3-day diet records from
early-season to postseason data collection. In addition,
increased energy intake may be temporary while these
athletes attempt to increase their lean body mass while
adapting to the university level of play.
American football athletes have been identified as
an at-risk population for cardiovascular disease (CVD;
Kaiser et al., 2008), elevated blood pressure, and sleep-
disordered breathing (Harp & Hecht, 2005) due to their
increased body mass and size. The philosophy of “bigger
is better” has become commonplace in the sport of foot-
ball. Noel, VanHeest, Zaneteas, and Rodgers (2003) suggest
there is a point where increasing body mass will no longer
increase lean muscle mass but, rather, will increase body
fat. The diminished fat-free mass will ultimately decrease
performance levels while putting these athletes at a higher
risk for developing health problems such as obesity,
diabetes, and cardiovascular disease later in life. An
increase in muscle mass improves overall performance
by enhancing strength, power, and speed. According to
Buell et al. (2008), many athletes are indifferent to the
composition of the weight gained and often experience
increased abdominal adipose tissue. It was also noted
that the overall body size increased as the NCAA level
of play increased from Division III schools to Division
I. The average range of body fat in men 20–29 years of
age is 14–19%. Individuals with less than 12% body fat
are above average in proportion of lean body mass, and
those with greater than 20% body fat are below average
in proportion of lean body mass (American College of
Sports Medicine, 2000). This group increased both lean
and fat mass during the study but had proportionally
greater increases in fat mass. Percent body fat increased
from 17% to 18% from early-season to postseason
measure. Athletes involved in this study fell within the
average range of percent body fat. While recent research
suggests that the results of this study may have been more
accurately determined if we had been able to make the
determinations in the fasted state (Nana, Slater, Hopkins,
& Burke, 2012), participants gained about 3 kg of body
mass on average, and the direction of the change mea-
sured via DEXA scans is consistent with caloric excess
resulting in gains of both fat and lean mass.
Harley, Hind, and O’hara (2011) observed a signifi-
cant increase in body fat of about 1% and a significant
decrease in lean body mass of 1–2% with no significant
change in body mass in 20 English Super League rugby
players with the use of three DEXA scans over the
course of a 7-month season. They hypothesized that these
changes could be related to positive energy balance and a
decrease in intensity of training midseason. The athletes
in the current study gained fat and a modest amount of
lean mass during the 8 weeks between measurements,
and our findings are comparable in magnitude. While
the duration of our study was shorter, the 3-kg gain in
total body mass, the estimated 1-kg increase in lean body
mass, and the increases in strength measured from early
to postseason suggest that the dietary practices of the
athletes in our study appear to have been sufficient for
the maintenance, and perhaps augmentation, of muscle
mass during the course of a competitive season. To pro-
mote lean body mass and improve performance, it was
recommended that weight-control practices of nutrition
education and strength and conditioning programming
be improved.
Today’s football athletes have a greater body mass
than players of the past. Kaiser et al. (2008) suggest that
the increase in body mass has a high correlation with rule
changes observed in the sport. Rules that have encour-
aged an increase in body size include the restriction of
below-the-waist blocking techniques. Thus, offensive
linemen have been expected to gain mass to make up
for restricted techniques. The average BMI for par-
ticipants in this study was greater than 26 kg/m2. At this
measurement, all included athletes would be considered
overweight or at increased risk of disease (American
College of Sports Medicine, 2000). The use of the BMI
measurement is not recommended for football players,
or athletic individuals, due to their increased lean body
mass. However, Baron, Hein, Lehman, and Gersic (2012)
found that retired professional National Football League
players with a playing-time BMI ≥30 kg/m2 had 2 times
the risk of CVD mortality.
Total percent of dietary calories from fat was
30–54% for early-season and 20–51% for postseason
diet records. The high proportion of fat, high cholesterol
intake, and low fiber intake reported by participants is
consistent with high dietary intake of meat and cheese
and other dairy products. Research related to diets rich
in total fat, saturated fat, cholesterol, and trans fats shows
an increased risk of CVD (Flock & Kris-Etherton, 2011).
LDL increased significantly in the group, with an aver-
age rise from near optimal (92.7 ± 32.7 mg/dl; 11 of 14
[79%]) to near/above optimal (124.5 ± 34.7 mg/dl; 12
of 14 [86%]; National Cholesterol Education Program,
2002). Similarly, the mean postseason total cholesterol
concentration (222.6 ± 40.0 mg/dl; 11 of 14 [79%]) falls
within the borderline-high total cholesterol classification
range. Individuals in an overfed state will experience
changes in their blood-lipid profile. After only 6 days of
overfeeding with isocaloric diets containing long-chain
triglycerides, medium-chain triglycerides, or fish oil, Hill
et al. (1990) observed changes in fasting triglycerides,
plasma LDL, and HDL levels. Thus, the increase in cho-
lesterol and LDL is likely to be a function of overfeeding
to gain weight in this population of athletes and may
be a temporary response. Triglyceride levels decreased
in both groups, but changes were not significant. HDL
450  Kirwan et al.
cholesterol levels for both groups were within the high-
HDL category at both early-season and postseason mea-
sures. No significant changes were found for the HDL
measurement. HDL scavenges excess cholesterol, which
can help decrease the risk of coronary artery disease.
The high level of HDL in the athletes in our study may
provide a buffer against the negative effects of the rise in
cholesterol. Furthermore, as HDL levels rise, lipoprotein
lipase activity increases, as does the insulin receptor sen-
sitivity. The increase in lipoprotein lipase activity and
insulin receptor sensitivity leads to an increase in the
breakdown of triglycerides (Brooks, Fahey, & Baldwin,
2005). Alcohol intake could be a factor in weight gain
and changes in specific lipids. However, this research
did not ask participants provide information related
to alcohol intake, as they were underage. Underage
drinking is illegal and could result in suspension from
an American NCAA football team.
There were several limitations to this research.
It is limited by the small population and convenience
sampling. As previously discussed, the self-reported
3-day diet records were not completed without error.
Due to three researchers’ working with the food
records, interrater reliability could be a factor in data
outcomes. In addition, this research collected general
nutrition information (calories, protein, fat) versus
looking at changes of types of foods chosen over time.
The study length was 8 weeks. This length of time
cannot account for changes that would occur over a
longer period. The test–retest coefficient of variation
for the DEXA machine used in this study was not made
available to the researchers. A standardized protocol
was not implemented for body-composition measure-
ments. According to Nana et al. (2012), DEXA results
are affected by daily activities and food and beverage
intake. To minimize the likelihood of error, it is recom-
mended that technicians follow a standardized protocol
with participants in a fasted state
In conclusion, the university-level, redshirted, fresh-
man American football players participating in this inves-
tigation showed significant improvements in strength,
power, and speed. They increased their total body mass,
muscle mass, and fat mass over time. Athletes consuming
a high-calorie, high-fat diet experienced increased body
fat and an elevated blood-lipid profile. It is possible that
this is a temporary phenomenon, but it is cause for con-
cern and an indication that dietary education to promote
weight gain in a manner less likely to adversely affect
the lipid profile is warranted. A long-term high-calorie,
high-fat diet may increase the risk of developing CVD
later in life. Due to high fat consumption in these sub-
jects, it is recommended that they receive further nutri-
tion education to decrease their risk of long-term health
consequences.
Acknowledgments
This study was supported by the McGown Endowment at
Montana State University.
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