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Materials
Frank Güell
Daniel Navarro
1
TABLE OF CONTENTS
3. Fundamentals of waveguides
· 1D and 2D waveguides: fundamentals and
experimental characterization.
n2 θ2 Et
n1 θ1 θ1
Ei Er
Light rays refracted and reflected at the interface of two media
n1 sin θ1 = n 2 sin θ2
n2
n1
θc
n1 sin θ1 = n 2
n2
sin θc =
n1
n1
n2
Total internal reflection at two interfaces demonstrating
the concept of a waveguide
Reflection Coefficients
Er = r.Ei
where ‘r’ is a complex reflection coefficient, which is
polarisation dependant
n2 Et
interface
n1
Ei Er
Circles indicate that the electric fields are vertical (i.e. coming out of
screen)
Orientation of electric fields for TE incidence at the interface
between 2 media.
The reflection coefficients rTE and rTM, are described by the
Fresnel formulae
For TE polarisation:
n1 cos θ1 − n 2 cos θ2
rTE =
n1 cos θ1 + n 2 cos θ2
For TM polarisation:
n 2 cos θ1 − n1 cos θ2
rTM =
n 2 cos θ1 + n1 cos θ2
And
2
⎛n ⎞
sin 2 θ1 − ⎜ 2 ⎟
φTE = 2 tan −1 ⎝ n1 ⎠
cos θ1
Which are negative indeed
and
n12 2
2
sin θ1 − 1
n2
φTM = 2 tan −1
n2
cos θ1
n1
But r relates reflected fields. Power is described by
the Poynting Vector
1 2 εm 2
S= E = E
Z μm
And reflected power is related by reflectance R:
Sr E2r
R = = 2 = r2
Si Ei
Let
E = E 0 exp[ j( kz ± ωt )]
and
H = H 0 exp[ j( kz ± ωt )]
Therefore, phase φ is
φ = kz ± ωt
The phase varies with time (t), and with distance (z). These
variations are quantified by taking the time derivative and the
spatial derivatives:
∂φ
= ω = 2πf
∂t
∂φ
=k
∂z
where ω is angular frequency (rads/sec), and f is frequency (Hz).
k is the wavevector (propagation constant) in the direction
of the wavefront. It is related to wavelength, λ, by:
2π
k=
λ
k = nk 0
2π
k0 =
λ0
Modes of a planar waveguide
y
x
n3 z
n1 k0n1
h
n2
The wavevector in a planar waveguide
θ1
k=n1k0
ky= n1k0cosθ1
kz= n1k0sinθ1
The relationship between propagation constants in the y, z,
and wavenormal directions
We require self consistency condition. As the wave reflects
twice it reproduces itself. The total phase shift must be a
multiple of 2π, hence:
AC − AB = 2h cos θ1
2 k 0 n1h cos θ1 − φu − φl = 2 mπ
n1
h
n2
The planar waveguide
Thus light propagates in discrete modes described by the
polarisation and the mode number.
E.g. TE0, TE1, TM0, etc
Each mode will have a unique propagation constant in the
y and z directions
2 k 0 n1 h cos θ 1 − ϕ u − ϕ l = 2 m π
The number of modes is limited by satisfaction of the
requirements of total internal reflection.
The Symmetrical planar waveguide
In the symmetrical planar waveguide, n2 = n3, and hence
φu=φl. Therefore for TE polarisation, the equation
becomes:
⎡ ⎛ n ⎞
2
⎤
⎢ sin θ1 − ⎜ ⎟ ⎥
2 2
⎢ ⎝ n1 ⎠ ⎥ = 2 mπ
2 k 0 n1h cos θ1 − 4 tan −1 ⎢ ⎥
cos θ1
⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎥⎦
⎡ ⎛ n2 ⎞ ⎤
2
⎢ sin θ1 − ⎜ ⎟ ⎥
2
⎡ k0n1h cosθ1 − mπ ⎤ ⎢ ⎝ n1 ⎠ ⎥
tan⎢ ⎥ =⎢ ⎥
⎣ 2 ⎦ cosθ1
⎢ ⎥
⎣⎢ ⎥⎦
Later we will solve this equation for angle θ1
We can find the approximate number of modes supported by
the waveguide as follows:
n2
sin θc =
n1
k 0 n1h cos θc
m max =
π
Number of modes = [mmax]int +1, since the lowest order
mode (usually called the fundamental mode), has a mode
number m=0. Note that the symmetrical waveguide is
never cut‐off.
The Asymmetrical planar waveguide
y
x
n3 z
n1
h
n2
Propagation in an asymmetric planar waveguide
⎡ ⎛ n ⎞
2
⎤ ⎡ ⎛ n ⎞
2
⎤
⎢ sin θ1 − ⎜ ⎟ ⎥
2 2
⎢ sin θ1 − ⎜ ⎟ ⎥
2 3
Note that there is not always a solution for m=0, hence the
asymmetrical guide may be cut‐off.
Solving the eigenvalue equation for symmetrical and
asymmetrical waveguides
Let n1 = 1.5, n2 = 1.49, n3 = 1.40, λ0= 1.3μm, and h = 0.3μm,
and TE polarisation.
33
k0n1hcosθ1 θu θl
Phase 2φu
Change f( θ ) 22
φ θ2( θ ) φu +φl φu
(radians)θ1( θ ) φl
θ3( θ )
1
θ4( θ )
1
Solution for θ1
0
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 π
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 π/2
θ 2
Fundamental mode angle θ1 (radians)
Solution of the eigenvalue equation for m=0
Note that the asymmetrical waveguide is cut‐off, whereas the
symmetrical waveguide is not
Now consider a silicon waveguide:
φu
φl
0
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 π
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 π/2
θ 2
Fundamental mode angle θ1 (radians)
Solution of the eigenvalue equation for m=0
(silicon‐on –insulator)
Note that the symmetrical and asymmetrical waveguides are
similar
Monomode Conditions
⎡ ⎛ n2 ⎤
⎞
2
⎢ sin θ1 − ⎜ ⎟ ⎥
2
k n h cos θ1 − mπ ⎤ ⎢ ⎝ n1 ⎠ ⎥
tan ⎡⎢ 0 1 =
⎥⎦ ⎢ ⎥
⎣ 2 cos θ1
⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎥⎦
For the second mode, m=1, and the equation becomes:
k 0 n1h cos θc − π ⎤
tan ⎡⎢ ⎥⎦ = 0
⎣ 2
i.e.
π λ
cos θc = = 0
k 0 n1h 2 n1h
Hence for monomode conditions
⎛ λ ⎞
θc < cos −1 ⎜⎜ 0 ⎟⎟
⎝ 2 n1h ⎠
Effective Index
We have seen that propagation constants in the z and y
directions are:
k z = n1k 0 sin θ1
and
k y = n1k 0 cos θ1
N = n1 sin θ1
i.e.
k z = β = Nk 0
The lower bound on β is determined by the larger of the
critical angles of the waveguide, usually at the lower
interface:
k 0 n1 ≥ β ≥ k 0 n 2
n1 ≥ N ≥ n 2
M-line technique
Si detector
ϑ0 n0
n1
ϑ1
n2
ϑ2
ns
M-line technique
Detector
λ=633nm
5
Intensity in the detector (a.u.)
3
1.12 1.16 1.20 1.24 1.28 1.32 1.36 1.40
effective refractive index
M-line technique
neff
1.15 1.20 1.25 1.30
1.2
Normalised intensity
0.9
0.6
TEexp
0.3
TE sim
1.0
0.5 TM exp
TM sim
1.4 1.239 no
1.255
ne
nmat
1.2
drift=1.3%
1.0 1.15
thickness (nm)
Starting with Maxwell’s equations, if we assume a loss‐
less, non conducting medium, limit ourselves to
propagation in the z direction, and consider one
polarisation at a time (TE or TM),we can derive a scalar
equation describing wave propagation in our planar
waveguide:
∂2Ex ∂2Ex ∂2 Ex
+ 2 = μ mεm 2
∂y 2
∂z ∂t
y x
n3 z
y=h/2
h
y=0
n1 k0n1
y=‐h/2
n2
Propagation in an asymmetric planar waveguide
Solution of the wave equation provides us with
expressions of the electric fields in the core and
claddings:
In the upper cladding: h
− k yu ( y − )
E ( y) = E e
x u
2 For y≥(h/2)
− jk yc y
E x ( y) = E c e For -(h/2) ≤y≤ (h/2)
h
k yl ( y + )
E x ( y) = E l e 2 For y ≤ -(h/2)
k 2 = k 2 n 2 − β2
Where
yi 0 i
Note that n and ky are written ni and kyi because they can
now represent any of the three media (core, upper cladding,
or lower cladding), by letting i=1, 2, or 3.
Propagation constants again
− k y y − jβ z jωt
Ex = E c e e e
•Total internal reflection occurs
•field decays in cladding
•part of the field propagates in the cladding
Mode Profiles
0.80.8
0.6
NormalisedEC0( y ) 0.6
Electric
field Ex(y) EU0(0.4
y2 )
EL0( y1 )
0.4
0.2
0.2
0
‐1 ‐0.5 0 0.5 1
1 10
6
5 10
7
0 5 10
7
1 10
6
y , y2 , y1
Distance in the y direction ( μm)
Electric field profile of the fundamental mode (m=0)
1 1
0.80.8
0.6
Normalised 0.6
IC2
(y)
Intensity
⎥Ex(y)⎥2 IU2
(y2)
0.4
IL2
(y1)
0.4
0.2
0.2
0 6 7 7 6
‐1 ‐0.5 0 0.5 1
110 510 0 510 110
y,y2y1
,
Distance in the y direction
(μm)
Intensity profile of the 2nd even mode (m = 2)
Confinement factor
How much of the power propagates inside the core?
We can define a confinement factor Γ:
h/2
∫ E ( y)dy
2
x
Γ= −h / 2
∞
∫ E ( y)dy
2
x
−∞
3.0 2D waevguides
Silicon on Insulator Waveguides
silicon substrate
SiO2
Surface guiding layer
w
n3
h n1
r
SiO2(n2)
Modes of two dimensional waveguides
Modes are designated
x y
E p ,q E p,q
or
HEp,q EHp,q
P maxima in the x direction, q maxima in the y direction
Hence Fundamental mode:
x y
E1,1 or
E1,1
Sometimes labelled
x y
E 0,0 E0,0
The Effective Index Method of analysis
y
n3
x
n1 h
First solve: Then solve
n3
n1 h n3 neff n3
n2
w
The Effective Index Method of analysis
EXAMPLE
3.5μm
n3 =1.0
5μm
3μm n1 =3.5
n2=1.5
Find effective index Nwg?
Solution
⎡ ⎛ n ⎞
2
⎤ ⎡ ⎛ n ⎞
2
⎤
⎢ sin θ1 − ⎜ ⎟ ⎥
2 2
⎢ sin θ1 − ⎜ ⎟ ⎥
2 3
−1 ⎢ ⎝ n 1 ⎠ ⎥ −1 ⎢ ⎝ n1 ⎠ ⎥
[k 0 n1h cos θ1 − mπ] = tan ⎢ ⎥ + tan ⎢ ⎥
cos θ1 cos θ1
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎥⎦ ⎣⎢ ⎥⎦
n3 =1.0
n1= 3.5 h = 5μm
n2 = 1.5
First planar waveguide of the decomposed rib structure
This gives a fundamental mode propagation angle of
87.92o (1.53456 radians), and neffg = n1sinθ1 = 3.4977
We now need to solve the second planar waveguide of the
decomposed rib structure:
This yields a propagation angle of 86.595o, and an effective
index for the planar region of neffp = 3.4938.
w = 3.5μm
Second planar waveguide of the decomposed rib structure
We can now solve the second decomposed planar
waveguide of the decomposed rib structure, using the
effective indices just calculated. This time the symmetrical
TM eigenvalue equation should be used:
⎡ 2 ⎤
⎢ ⎛ n effg ⎞
⎜ ⎟ sin 2 θwg − 1 ⎥
⎢ ⎜n ⎟ ⎥
k 0 n effg w cos θ wg −1
= 2 tan ⎢ ⎝ effp ⎠ ⎥
⎢ ⎛ n effp ⎞ ⎥
⎜ ⎟ cos θwg
⎢ ⎜n ⎟ ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎝ effg ⎠ ⎥⎦
β = k 0 N wg = 16.897μm −1
Note: High confinement in silicon
Different degrees of confinement horizontally &
vertically
Large single mode rib waveguides
Firstly consider a 5μm planar waveguide:
n3 =1.0
n1= 3.5 h = 5μm
n2 = 1.5
5μm planar waveguide
From section 1, the approximate number of modes can be
found as:
k 0 n1h cos θc
m max =
π
Since
1 .5
θc = sin −1 = 25.4 o
3.5
2 x 3.5x 5x10 −6 cos θc
[ m max ]int = = 24
λ0
and hence 25 modes are supported (including the m=0 mode).
Alternatively consider the thickness required to make such a
waveguide single mode. From section 1:
⎛ λ ⎞
θc < cos −1 ⎜⎜ 0 ⎟⎟
⎝ 2 n1h ⎠
⎛ ⎞
⎜ ⎟
⎜ λ0 / 2 ⎟
h<⎜ 2 ⎟
⎜ ⎛ n2 ⎞ ⎟
n
⎜ 1 1 − ⎜ ⎟ ⎟
⎝ ⎝ n1 ⎠ ⎠
n0
2bλ n1
2brλ
n2
a r
≤ 0 .3 +
b 1 − r2
In order to demonstrate this they simulated excitation of higher
order modes and watched them leak out of the waveguide.
Pogossian et al took the experimental data of Rickman &
Reed, and fitted an equation of the form:
a r
≤c+
b 1− r2
c being approximately 0, resulting in a modified equation:
a r
≤
b 1− r2
a/b
r
The singlemode condition
Refractive index and loss coefficient in optical waveguides
E = E 0e j( kz − ωt )
Substituting for propagation constant and complex
refractive index:
E = E 0 e j( k 0n 'z − ωt ) = E 0 .e jk 0n R z .e − k 0n I z .e − jωt
1
The term exp(-k0nIz) is often re-designated exp( − α) .
2
The term α is called the loss coefficient. The factor of ½ is
included in the definition above because α is an intensity
loss coefficient. Therefore we can write :
− αz
I = I 0e
The benchmark for acceptable waveguide loss is of the order
of 1dB/cm. Typical losses for SOI waveguides are in the range
0.1 ‐ 0.5 dB/cm
The contributions to loss in an optical waveguide
Losses result from scattering, absorption, and radiation:
Scattering
Volume scattering follows either a λ‐3 dependence, or a
λ‐1 dependence, as a consequence of the type and
concentration of scattering centres.
Interface scattering has been modelled by many authors,
but a reasonably accurate and attractively simple model
was produced by Tien:
⎛ ⎞
⎜ ⎟
2
⎛ 1
⎞
cos3 θ ⎜ 4 πn1 ( σ 2u + σ ) ⎟ ⎜
2 2
1 ⎟
αs = ⎜
l
⎟
2 sin θ ⎜ λ0 ⎟ ⎜h+ 1 + 1 ⎟
⎝ ⎠ ⎜ k yu k yl ⎟⎠
⎝
where σu is the rms roughness for the upper waveguide
interface, σl is the rms roughness for the lower waveguide
interface, kyu is the decay constant in the upper cladding, kyl is
decay constant in the lower cladding, and h is the waveguide
thickness
Example of interface scattering
Consider a planar waveguide:
Therefore we can evaluate the decay constants for each mode are
as follows:
TE0 TE2
⎛ ⎞
⎞ ⎜ ⎟
2
⎛ 1
cos θ ⎜ 4 πn1 ( σ u + σ ) ⎟ ⎜
3 2 2 2
1 ⎟ = 0.04cm −1
αs = l
2 sin θ ⎜⎜ λ0 ⎟ ⎜
⎟ h+ 1 + 1 ⎟
⎝ ⎠ ⎜ k yu k yl ⎟
⎝ ⎠
This is equivalent to a loss of 0.18 dB/cm.
2 sin θ ⎜⎜ λ0 ⎟
⎟ ⎜
h +
1
+
1 ⎟
⎝ ⎠ ⎜ k yu k yl ⎟
⎝ ⎠
e 3λ20 ⎛ N e Nh ⎞
Δα = 2 3 ⎜⎜ + * 2 ⎟
⎟
4 π c ε0 n ⎝ μ e ( m ce ) μ h ( m ch ) ⎠
* 2
Additional loss of silicon due to free carriers
Radiation Losses in optical waveguides
Ideally negligible. Possibility of radiation via leaky
modes or curvature at too fast a rate.
Coupling to the Optical circuit
Coupling light to a waveguide is non trivial. The
main methods are:
Input beam
Input
beam
waveguide waveguide
(a) prism coupling (b) grating
coupling
Input waveguide
waveguide
bea
m
lens
Optical (d) end‐fire coupling
fibre
(c) butt coupling
Four techniques for coupling light to optical waveguides
Grating couplers
Grating couplers allow individual mode selection.
In order to couple light to the waveguide, the
propagation constants of the exciting beam and the
waveguide must be matched.
Consider a light ray incident upon a waveguide
surface:
n3 θa z
n1 β
n2
Light incident upon the surface of a waveguide
In medium n3 the propagation constant is k0n3. The z
directed propagation constant in medium n3 will be:
k z = k 0 n 3 sin θa
Therefore the phase-match condition will be
β = k z = k 0 n 3 sin θa
where β is the waveguide propagation constant
But β ≥ k0n3. Therefore the condition can never be met,
since sinθa will be less than unity. This is why a grating is
required to couple light into the waveguide.
2 pπ
βp = βW +
Λ
where Λ is the period of the grating, and p = ±1, ±2, ±3, etc.
Only the negative values of p can result in a phase match.
It is usual to fabricate the grating such that only p = -1
results in a phase match with a waveguide mode.
Therefore the waveguide propagation constant becomes:
2π
βp = βW −
Λ
2π
βW − = k 0 n 3 sin θa
Λ
2π
k0N − = k 0 n 3 sin θa
Λ
and substituting for k0
λ
Λ=
N − n 3 sin θa
If medium n3 is air, n3 = 1 and
λ
Λ=
N − sin θa
Waveguide coupler fabricated in an SOI waveguide
Butt coupling and End fire coupling
∞ ∞
∫ dy ∫ E.ε.dx
Γ= −∞ −∞
1
∞ ∞ ∞ ∞
⎡ dy E 2 dx. dy ε 2 dx ⎤ 2
⎢⎣ −∫∞ −∫∞ ∫
−∞
∫
−∞ ⎥⎦
⎡ (x 2 + y 2 )⎤
ε = exp ⎢ −
⎣ ω02 ⎥⎦
0 2r
The overlap integral reduces to:
2 ⎡ 1 ⎤ 2
⎢ ⎥
ω0 ⎣ ωx ωy ⎦
Γ= 1 1
⎡1 1⎤ ⎡1
2
1⎤ 2
⎢ ω2 + ω2 ⎥ ⎢ ω2 + ω2 ⎥
⎣ x 0⎦ ⎣ y 0⎦
Since the overlap integral describes the coupling efficiency of
the field profiles, the power coupling efficiency is given by:
4 ⎡ 1 ⎤
⎢ ⎥
ω20
⎣ ω ω ⎦
Γ2 =
x y
⎡1 1 ⎤⎡ 1 1⎤
+ +
⎢ ω2 ω2 ⎥ ⎢ ω2 ω2 ⎥
⎣ x 0 ⎦⎣ y 0⎦
A few examples show how coupling efficiency varies:
ω0 ωx ωy Γ Γ2 Loss due to
Γ2 (dBs)
Using the Fresnel equations from section 1.
Reflection coefficient for TE polarisation was:
n1 cos θ1 − n 2 cos θ2
rTE =
n1 cos θ1 + n 2 cos θ2
Similarly, the reflection coefficient rTM was:
n 2 cos θ1 − n1 cos θ2
rTM =
n 2 cos θ1 + n1 cos θ2
Using Snells Law rTE reduces to:
− sin( θ1 − θ2 )
rTE =
sin( θ1 + θ2 )
sin 2 ( θ1 − θ2 )
R TE = rTE =
2
sin 2 ( θ1 + θ2 )
Similarly RTM can be found to be
tan 2 ( θ1 − θ2 )
R TM = rTM 2
=
tan 2 ( θ1 + θ2 )
1 1
0.80.8
Reflectance
0.60.6 TE
RTE( θ1 )
RTM( θ1 )
0.40.4
TM
0.20.2
0 0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4
θ1
Incident angle θ1 (radians)
Reflection at an air/silicon interface
At normal incidence (θ1=0), the reflection of both TE and TM
polarisations is the same. Furthermore, end-fire coupling
introduces light at near normal incidence. Consequently the
approximation is usually made that the Fresnel reflection at the
waveguide facets is that due to normal incidence. In this case,
reflectivity is:
2
n − n2
R= 1
n1 + n 2
2 2
n1n 2 − n
R= ar
n1n 2 + n 2
ar
n1n 2 = n ar2
clived edge
Spatial misalignment of the excitation and waveguide
fields
⎢⎣ −∫∞ −∫∞ ∫
−∞
∫
−∞ ⎥⎦
where
⎡ ⎛ x 2 y 2 ⎞⎤ ⎡ (x 2 + y 2 )⎤
E = exp ⎢ − ⎜⎜ 2 + 2 ⎟⎟⎥ ε = exp ⎢ −
ω02 ⎥⎦
and
⎣⎢ ⎝ ωx ωy ⎠⎦⎥ ⎣
Let us introduce and offset, A, into one of the field equations:
i.e.
⎡ (x 2 + ( y − A ) 2 )⎤
ε = exp ⎢ − ⎥
⎣ ω02 ⎦
This expression can be re-written as:
⎡ (x 2 + ( y 2 + A 2 − 2 Ay) )⎤
ε = exp ⎢ − ⎥
⎣ ω02 ⎦
∞ ∞
⎡ A 2
⎤ ∫ dy ∫ E.εdx
Γ I = exp ⎢ − 2 2⎥
. −∞ −∞
⎣ ω + ω ⎦⎡ ∞ ∞ ∞ ∞
1
y 0
ε ⎤2
⎢⎣ −∫∞ −∫∞ ∫ ∫
2 2
dy E dx . dy dx
−∞ −∞ ⎥⎦
i.e.
⎡ A2 ⎤
Γ = exp ⎢ − 2
I
2⎥
Γ
⎣ ωy + ω0 ⎦
Therefore we can evaluate the term
⎡ A2 ⎤
offset = exp ⎢ − 2 2⎥
⎣ ω y + ω0 ⎦
Offset2 is also evaluated as it represents to additional loss
when considering power transmission (coupling).
0.8
Offset and Offset2
0.6
C(A )
D(A )
0.4
Offset
Offset2
0.2
0 0
2 .10 4 .10 6 .10 8 .10 1 .10 1.2 .10 1.4 .10
6 6 6 6 10 12 14
0 2 4 6 8 5 5 5
0
0 A −
Offset A (μm) 15⋅ 10
The effect of an offset A on the electric field
overlap and the power coupling efficiency
Fresnel Reflection
Misalignement
Scattering
Insertion losses in a waveguide:
−α prop L −α prop L
I out = I o e = I inCe
1 I in ⎛1⎞
= → −10 log ⎜ ⎟ = α coupling (dB)
C Io ⎝C ⎠
Scattering
Radiation
Positioning system
–For the fiber.
• Nanopositioning system with Piezoelectric actuators
(precision ∼1nm)
I1
= exp(−α(L1 − L 2 ))
I2
i.e.
⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎡ I2 ⎤
α = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ln ⎢ ⎥
⎝ L1 − L 2 ⎠ ⎣ I1 ⎦
Cut-back technique
I = I0 e-αL
Laser in
Waveguide
L1 Fotodiode
L
L1
Cut-back technique
I = I0 e-αL
Laser in
Waveguid
e
L2 Fotodiode
L2 L1
L
Cut-back technique
I = I0 e-αL
Laser
Waveg
in
uide
L3 Fotodi
ode
L3 L2 L1
L
Cut-back technique
I = I0 e-αL
Laser in Waveg
uide
L Fotodio
4
de
ln (I)= ln(I0) - αL
I
ln(I)
ln(I)=ln(I0)=ln(Iin)+ln(C)
Measurable
Estimaton of
the coupling losses
L
L=0 L4 L3 L2 L1
The accuracy of the technique can be improved by taking
multiple measurements and plotting a graph
Optical
Loss
(dBs)
Propagation length
(cm)
Note that the data presented is now insertion loss for each
device length, not propagation loss. Hence the loss at zero
propagation loss represents coupling loss.
Propagation losses
It (1 − R ) 2 e − αL
=
I 0 (1 − Re −αL ) 2 + 4 Re −αL sin 2 ( φ )
2
where R is the facet reflectivity, L is the waveguide
length, α is the loss coefficient, and φ is the phase
difference between successive waves in the cavity
This transfer function has a maximum value when φ=0 (or
multiples of 2π), and a minimum value when φ=π. i.e. :
I max (1 + Re − αL ) 2
ζ= =
I min (1 − Re −αL ) 2
1 ⎡ 1 ζ − 1⎤
α = − ln ⎢
L ⎣ R ζ + 1⎥⎦
If we know the reflectivity, R, if we can measure ζ, the
loss coefficient can be evaluated.
Therefore if we can sweep through a few cycles of 2π, ζ
can be measured. Such cycling can be achieved
thermally, or by varying the wavelength of the light
source.
1
1
0.8
R=0.1
FP1 ( θ ) 0.6
ItFP2
/I0( θ )
FP3 ( θ ) R=0.31
0.4
0.2
Imax
Imin R=0.5
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25
0 φ (radians)
θ 8⋅ π
0.60
0.55
intensity(arb. units)
0.50
0.45
0.40
0.35
0.30
0.25
Fabry‐Perot scan of a single mode
waveguide
0.9
0.8
intensity(arb. units)
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
1550.00 1550.05 1550.10 1550.15 1550.20 1550.25
wavelength(nm)
Fabry‐Perot scan of a multimode
waveguide
Scattered Light Measurement
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Length [mm]
Examples of micromachining:
Optical Fibre in a V‐groove