Tips & Tricks PDF

TIPS & TRICKS
MATHEMATICS, SCIENCE &

TECHNOLOGY
for
Class X
Copyright © Takshila Institute®

Year 2017( April)
All rights reserved
No part of this publication may be copied, reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means without prior
permission of the publisher.
This book is published for information purpose only and does not take precedence over official publication of CBSE, IIT-JEE / NEET & AIIMS,
Delhi University or any other University / Institution. While all reasonable efforts have been made to ensure that the information it contains was
corect at the time of going to press, no responsibility for the accuracy of its contents is accepted by the Author and publisher.
Takshila Institute has no relation whatsoever with CBSE, any University or any Govt. Institution / Organization.
TAKSHILA INSTITUTE
(1 )
Corp Off : C-9/119, Sec-8,Rohini,Delhi-110085, Ph:- 011-47057303, 9310378303, 9868445900
One /Three Yrs Integrated Program
Takshila Institute's new approach has been brought forward to provide the concrete base for students who
wish to aspire for Iucrative Profession of an Engineer / Doctor. The syllabus of class X is
considered as the base for all the advanced studies.
All the concepts and fundamentals are taught in class X itself. So it is back bone of advanced studies
at one hand and foundation for Preparation of Different Competitive Exams on the other hand.
This Course help students to have grip over the Physics, Chemistry, Maths / Biology subjects easily.
During the One / Three Year sessions , students are made aware of Physics, Chemistry, Mathematics /Biology,
and Mental Ability for NTSE, Olympiad and IIT-JEE /NEET & AIIMS Exam preparation.
Students are trained to tackle objective type questions because the pattern of competitive examination is of
objective type.
Each Students will get well structured and exhaustive study material for CBSE and All Competitive
Examinations.
Periodical tests & discussions will be conducted in order to monitor the progress of students. Progress
report of aspirant will be sent to the parents on a regular basis.
With these Programs it is made sure that students perform well in X/XI/XII-CBSE/NTSE/IIT-JEE/NEET&AIIMS.
TAKSHILA INSTITUTE
(2 )
ABOUT INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY (IIT)
The Indian Institutes of Technology (IITs) are the prestigious institutes in India that offer
engineering and technological education of internationally recognized standard of excellence.
Selection process in IIT: As per the new pattern for selection in IITs, students who qualify JEE-
main can appear for JEE – advanced examination. Approximately 1.5 Lakhs students qualify to
appear JEE-advanced examination.
At present, the IIT JEE is a single – stage objective type examination consisting of two papers of
three hours duration each to test comprehension & analytical ability of candidates. Both
papers, Paper -1 and Paper -2 will each have three separate sections on Physics, Chemistry &
Mathematics. All questions will be of Objective Type, designed to test aptitude, comprehension
and analytical ability of the candidates.
TAKSHILA INSTITUTE
(3 )
Career in Medical
National Eligibility Entrance Test (NEET -UG)
Aspiring doctors will have to clear just one exam to get a seat in a medical college through
National Eligibility cum Entrance Test Undergraduate (UG) (NEET –UG). The Central Board of
Secondary Education (CBSE) conducts the test on May 1st week as per regulations framed
under the Indian Medical council ACT 1956 (amended in 2016) and the Dentists Act 1948
(amended in 2016). Admissions in MBBS/ BDS will be done in medical/dental colleges run
with the approval of medical Council of India/ Dental Council of India under the ministry of
health and family welfare.
Besides conducting the test, the CBSE will declare the result and prepare an all-India rank list
for the candidates in percentile rank. This will be given to the Directorate General of Health
Services, New Delhi, for Counselling of 15% all –India quota seats and providing the result to
the state Counselling authorities and admitting institutions.
Candidates must be 17 years old at the time of admission. The upper age limit for NEET-UG is
25 years as on the date of examination for general category candidates. Candidates.
Candidates will get maximum three attempts for NEET -UG.
The notification for NEET is expected to come out in the month of December / January at the
official website of CBSE AIPMT. There are a total of approximately 412 MBBS Colleges which
include AIIMS and JIPMER. While there are a total of approximately 52715 seats for MBBS
Program.
The All India Institute of Medical Sciences (AIIMS)

All India Institute of Medical Sciences (AIIMS) is a medical college and hospital, which was
established in the year 1956 by the Indian Parliament. AIIMS has and continues to be a clear
favorite among the best medical colleges in India. Known for benchmarks in medical education
these colleges are a dream of every medical aspirant. Admission to these colleges is uniformly
carried out on the basis of AIIMS MBBS exam score. AIIMS Exam is conducted every Year on
Sunday of Last week in May month.
Age & Eigibility: Candidates must complete 17 years at the time of admission. Applicants
should have passed the 12 Class with English,Physics, Chemistry and Biology subjects
from Senior School Certificate Examination with Minimum 60% marks and for SC/ST 50%
List of AIIMS Colleges with Seats
TAKSHILA INSTITUTE
(4 )
CAREER IN COMMERCE & HUMANITIES
TAKSHILA INSTITUTE
(5 )
TAKSHILA INSTITUTE
(6 )
MATHEMATICS
1. REAL NUMBER
EUCLID’S DIVISION LEMMA :
Given positive integers ‘a’ and ‘b’ there exists unique integers q and r satisfy a  bq  r , 0  r  b
EUCLID’S DIVISION ALGORITHM :
The process of calculating the HCF of two integers is known as Euclid’s Division Algorithm.
In order to compute the HCF of two positive integers, say ‘a’ and ‘b’ with a > b we may follow the following steps.
Step 1. Apply Euclid’s division lemma to a and b and obtain whole numbers q1 and r1 such that a  bq1  r1 , 0  r1  b .
Step 2. If r1  0 , b is the HCF of a and b
Step 3. If r1  0 , apply Euclid’s division lemma to b and r1 and obtain two whole numbers q1 and r2 such that b  q1r1  r2 .
Step 4. If r2  0 then r1 is the HCF of a and b.
Step 5. If r2  0 , then apply Eucli’s division lemma to r1 and r2 and continue the above process till the remainder rn is zero. The
divisor at this stage i.e. rn 1 or the non-zero remainder at the previous stage is the HCF of ‘a’ and ‘b’ .
FUNDAMENTAL THEOREM OF ARITHMETIC :
Every composite number can be expressed as product of primes and this decomposition is unique, apart from the order in which prime factors occur.
THEOREM :
Let ‘p’ be a prime number and ‘a’ and ‘b’ be a positive integer. If ‘p’ divides a 2 , then ‘p’ divides ‘a’.
FINDING HCF AND LCM OF POSITIVE INTEGERS BY THE PRIME FACTORISATION METHOD :
In order to find the HCF and LCM of two or more positive integers, we apply following algorithm :
Algorithm
Step 1. Factorise each of the given positive integers and express them as a product of powers of primes in ascending order of
magnitudes of primes.
Step 2. To find the HCF, identify common prime factors and find the smallest (least) exponent to these common factors. Now raise
these common prime factors to their smallest exponents and multiply them to get the HCF.
Step 3. To find the LCM, list all prime factors (once only) occuring in the prime factorisation of the given positive integers. For each
of these factors, find the greatest exponent and raise each prime factors to the greatest exponent and multiply them to get the
LCM.
To find the LCM of two positive integers ‘a’ and ‘b’, we can also use the following result, if we have already found
HCF  LCM  a  b
IRRATIONAL NUMBER :
p
A number is said to be irrational if it cannot be written in the form , where p and q are integers and q  0
q
p
For any rational number with terminating decimal representation, the prime factorisation of q is of the form 2n 5m , where n and m are
q
non-negative integers.
p
n m
For any rational number
q , where prime factorisation of q is of the form 2 5 , where n and m as non-negative the decimal representation
is terminating.
p
n m
For any rational number
q , where prime factorisation of q is not of the form 2 5 , where n and m as non-negative integers, the decimal
representation is non-terminating and repeating.
TAKSHILA INSTITUTE
(7 )
There are infinitely many positive primes.
Any positive integer which has exactly two factors is known as prime.
Any positive integer which has more than two factors is known as composite numbers.
Every positive integer different from 1 can be expressed as a product of non-negative power of 2 and an add number.
A positive integer ‘n’ is a prime, if it is not divisible by any prime less than or equal to n.
If p is a positive prime, them p is an irrational number i.e. 2 , 3, 5, 13 etc. are irrational numbers.
Self Practice Questions :
1. For any positive integer n, prove that n3  n divisible by 6.
2. Prove that 6  4 5 is irrational.

3. What is the largest no. that divides 626, 3127 and 15628 and leaves remainders 1,2 and 3 respectively.
1 3 2
4. Find the L.C.M. of , , ,
2 4 7
1 3 2 1 3
5. Find L.C.M of , , 6.Find the L.C.M of , , 2, 7
2 4 7 2 4
ALGEBRA
2. POLYNOMIAL
Let ‘x’ be a variable, ‘n’ be a positive integer and a0 , a1 , a2 ,... an be constants (real numbers) then, f ( x )  an x n  an 1 x n 1  ...  a1 x  a0
is called a polynomial in variable x.
The exponent of the highest degree term in a polynomial is known as its degree.
A polynomial of degree 0 is called a constant polynomial.
A polynomial of degree 1, 2 or 3 is called a linear polynomial, a quadrate polynomial or a cubic polynomial respectively.
Following are the forms or various degree polynomials
Degree Name of the polynomial Form of the polynomial
0 Constant polynomial f ( x )  a , a is a constant

1 Linear polynomial f ( x )  ax  b, a  0 , a, b  Real Number
2 Quadratic polynomial f ( x )  ax 2  bx  c, a  0, a, b, c  R
3 Cubic polynomial f (x)  ax3  bx2  cx  d , a  0, a, b, c, d ,  R
4 Biquadratic polynomial f ( x )  ax 4  bx 3  cx 2  dx  e, , a  0, a, b, c, d , e  R
ZEROES (Roots) OF A POLYNOMIAL :
A real number ‘  ’ is a zero of a polynomial f ( x) , if f ()  0 .
Finding a zero of a polynomial f ( x) means solving the polynomial equation f ( x)  0
A polynomial of degree n can have at most n-real zeroes.
GRAPH OF POLYNOMIAL :
(i) Graph of a linear polynomial ax  b is a straight line.
(ii) Graph of a quadratic polynomial f ( x )  ax 2  bx  c is a parabola open upwards like  if a  0 .

(iii) Graph of a quadratic polynomial f ( x )  ax 2  bx  c is a parabola open downwards like  if a  0 .
(iv) Graph of a cubic polynomial f ( x )  ax3  bx 2  cx  d does not have a fixed standard shape. It is clear that the graph of a
quadratic polynomials may or may not cut or touch x-axis. But, in case of a cubic polynomial the graph will always cross x-axis at
least once and at most thrice.
(v) In general a polynomial p ( x ) of degree n crosses the x-axis at most n-points.
TAKSHILA INSTITUTE
(8 )
DISCRIMINANT OF A QUADRATIC POLYNOMIAL :
For p ( x )  ax 2  bx  c , b 2  4ac is known as its discriminant ‘D’.  D  b 2  4 ac
(i) If D  0 , graph of p ( x )  ax 2  bx  c will intersect the x-axis at two distinct points, x-co-ordinates of points of intersection
with x-axis is known as ‘zeroes’ of p( x)
(ii) If D  0 , graph of p ( x )  ax 2  bx  c will touch the x-axis at one point only..  p ( x ) will have only one zero.
(iii) If D  0 , graph of p ( x )  ax 2  bx  c will neither touch nor intersect the x-axis.  p ( x ) will not have any real zeroes.
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE ZEROES AND COEFFICIENTS OF A POLYNOMIAL :
b
(i) If '  ' '  ' are zeroes / roots of p ( x )  ax 2  bx  c then Sum of zeroes =   
a
(coefficient of x ) c constant term
   Product of zeroes =     
coefficient of x 2 a coefficient of x 2
3 2  b
(ii) If '  ' '  ' and '  ' are zeroes / roots of p( x)  ax  bx  cx  d then Sum of roots =      
a
(coefficient of x 2 ) c
   Sum of the products of zeroes taken two at a time =      
coefficient of x3 a
coefficient of x
      
coefficient of x 3
d constant term
Product of zeroes =       
a coefficient of x3
(iii) If '  ' '  ' are zeroes of a quadratic polynomial p ( x ) , then px  k ( x 2  (  ) x  ) where k is a constant
 p ( x )  x 2  (sum of zeroes) x  product of zeroes
(iv) If '  ' '  ' and '  ' are zeroes of a cubic polynomial p ( x ) , then
p( x)  x 3  (     ) x 2  (    ) x  
p( x)  x3  (sum of zeroes) x2  (sum of product

of zeroes taken two
 at a time) x- (product
of zeroes)
DIVISION ALGORITHM FOR POLYNOMIALS :
If f ( x) and g ( x) are any two polynomials with g ( x)  0 , then we can always find polynomials q( x ) and r ( x) such that
f ( x)  q( x ) g ( x )  r ( x ) , where r ( x )  0 or degree of r ( x) < degree of g ( x) .
If r ( x )  0 , then polynomial g ( x) is a factors of polynomial f ( x) This process is known as the division algorithm.
1. Find a cubic polynomial with zeroes 3,–1 and 1/3.
2. If two zeroes of polynomial x 4  6 x 3  26 x 2  138x  35 are 2  3 . Find the other two zeroes
3. If the zeroes of the polynomial x 3  3x 2  x  1 are a  b, a and a  b , find the values of a and b.
4. If ,  are zeroes of polynomial x 2  5 x  k and also     1 , find the value of k.
TAKSHILA INSTITUTE
(9 )
3. LINEAR EQUATION IN TWO VARIABLES
(a) General form of a linear equation is ax + by + c = 0 where a  0, b  0.
(b) In the system of equation a1x+b1y + c1 = 0 and a2x+b2y + c2 = 0
If The system has The Graphs is
a1 b1
 A unique solution A pair of intersecting lines
a2 b2
a1 b1 c1
  Infinitely many solutions A pair of coincident lines
a2 b2 c2
a1 b1 c1
  No solution A pair of parallel lines
a2 b2 c2
(c) A system of equation which has one or more solution is called a consistent system of equations.
(d) A system of equation which has no solution is called inconsistent system of equations.
(e) To find the value of ‘k’ in the given system of equations when the system has no solution or unique solution or infinitely many
solutions.
(f) The system of equation a1x  b1y  c1  0, a 2 x  b 2 y  c2  0 can be solved (the values of x and y can be found out) by method of
(i) Elimination by Addition/Subtraction
(ii) Elimination by Substitution
(iii) Cross Multiplication Method (also known as Detached Coefficients method/Determinants method /Criss-cross method / Cramer’s
Rule/Matrix inversion method (not in CBSE syllabus)
(iv) Finding the solution by graph.
Plot the graph of the simultaneous equation, where they intersect give the solution of the equtation.
Tricks to solve the system of equation
a1x + b1y + c1 = 0 and a2x + b2y + c2 = 0
Rule : Write coefficient of x ,y and constant terms of both equations and repeat column - 1 and 2 as shown below:
x y 1
a1 b1 c1 a1
b1
a2 b2 c2 a2 b2
Omit this column if you take one in numerator
Omit this column if you take y in numerator
Omit this column if you take x in numerator
For obtaining x omit the coefficient x and in denominator take the difference of products of elements on primary digonal (  ) to the
secondary digonal (  ) just immediate to x i.e. coefficient of y and constant terms and similarly apply the same process for y and 1 also.
x y 1 b1c2  b2 c1 c a c a
  or x ;y  1 2 2 1
b1c2  b2 c1 a2 c1  a1c2 a1b2  a2b1 a1b2  a2b1 a1b2  a2b1
(g) Verbal problems, which can be converted into a system of lineare equations in two variables x and y, may be solved using any of the
above method to determine the values of the known quantities.
2 3 4 9 x y
1. Solve for x and y :   2;   1 . 2. Solve for x and y :   1 ; ax  by  a 2  b 2 .
x y x y a b
3. Solve by elimination method : 3 x  2 y  25  0; 2 x  y  10  0 .
3
4. The sum of numerator and denominator of a fraction is 8. If 8 is added to both the numerator and denominator the fraction becomes .
4
Find the fraction.
5. 4 men and 6 women can finish a work in 8 days while 3 men and 7 women can do same work in 10 days. In how many days will 10 women
do the same work.
TAKSHILA INSTITUTE
(10)
4. QUADRATIC EQUATION
QUADRATIC EQUATION :
If p ( x ) is a quadratic polynomial, then p ( x)  0 is called quadratic equation. The general form of a quadratic equation is
ax 2  bx  c  0 , where a, b, c  R and a  0
PURE QUADRATIC EQUATION :
Equation of type ax 2  c  0 is known as pure quadratic equation.
ROOTS OF A QUADRATIC EQUATION :
Let p ( x)  0 be aquadratic equation, then the zeroes of the polynomial p ( x ) are called the roots of the equation p ( x)  0 ,
Thus, x   is a root of p ( x)  0 if and only if p ()  0 .
GEOMETRY
6. TRIANGLES
Theorem 1 : (Basic Proportionality Theorem - Thales theorem). If a line is drawn parallel to one side of a triangle, then it divides the other two sides
in the same ratio.
(Converse of Basic Poportionality Theorem) If a line divides any two sides of a triangle in the same ratio, then the line must be parallel to the third side.
Theorem 2 : The ratio of the areas of two similar triangles is equal to the ratio of the squares of their corresponding sides.
Theorem 3 : (Pythagoras Theorem) In a right triangle, the square on the hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the squares of the other two sides.
Theorem 4 : (Converse of Pythagoras theorem) In a triangle, if the square on one side is equal to the sum of the squares of the remaining two sides,
the angle opposite the first side is a right angle.
Some important properties in similar triangles:
Two triangles are similar if : AA similarity, SSS similarity, SAS similarity.
Angle bisector property : The internal bisector of an angle of a triangle divides the opposite side internally in the ratio of the sides containing the
A
BD AB
angle. i.e., if AD is angle bicsector of BAC of the triangle ABC . Then DC  AC
B C
D
2 2 2 2
Result of Appolonius Theorem : In a  ABC, AD is a median and AE is an altitude, then AB + AC = 2AD + 1/2 BC .
1. The perpendicular AD on the base BC of a  ABC intersects BC at D such that BD  3DC . Prove that 2 AB 2  2 AC 2  BC 2 .
2. In an isosceles triangle ABC with AB  AC , BD is perpendicular from vertex B to the side AC. Prove that BD 2  CD 2  2CD. AD .
3. In  ABC if AD is a median then prove that AB 2  AC 2  2( AD 2  BD 2 ) .
1 1 1
4. In a right triangle ABC, right angled at C,A point D is taken on AB such that CD  AB . Prove that 2
 2
 .
C
AC BC CD 2
5. In the adjoining figure DEFG is a
E
square and BAC is right angle.
F
D
Prove that DE 2  BD  EC .
A G B
TRIGONOMETRY
8. INTRODUCTION TO TRIGONOMETRY
p b p h
1. sin   2. cos   3. tan   4. cosec  A
h(
P(Perpendicula r)
h h b p hy
po
te n
us
h b sin  cos  e)
5. sec   6. cot 7. tan   8. cot  
b p cos  sin  
B b(base) C
1 1 1
9. Reciprocal ratios - cos ec  , s ec   , tan  
sin  cos  cot 
Some Important Identities :-
i. sin2   cos2   1,cos2   1  sin2 ,sin2   1  cos2 
TAKSHILA INSTITUTE
(11)
ii. sec2   1  tan2 ,sec2   tan2   1,tan2   sec2   1
iii. cos ec 2  1  cot2 ,cosec 2   cot2   1,cot2   cos ec 2  1

A
h(
P(Perpendicular)
10. i. sin(90  )  cos  ii. cos(90  )  sin  hy
po
90- te n
us
iii. tan(90   )  cot  iv. cot(90  )  tan  e)
v. cos ec (90  )  sec  vi. sec(90  )  cos ec  

B b(base) C
Proving the identities based on the above
TRIGONOMETRIC RATIOS OF SOME SPECIFIC ANGLES
(0°, 30°, 45°, 60° AND 90°)
We shall find the trigonometric ratios of some standerd angles by using some elementary knowledge of geometry. For other angle, we can make use
of the trigonometric tables :
Following table gives the values of various trigonometric ratios of 0°, 30°, 45°, 60° and 90° for ready reference

0° 30° 45° 60° 90°
T-ratios
sin  1 1 3
0 1
2 2 2
3 1 1
cos  1 0
2 2 2
1
tan  0 1 3 Not defined
3
2
cosec  Not defined 2 2 1
3
sec  2
1 2 2 Not defined
3
1
cot  Not defined 3 1 0
3
1 1 a2 b2
1. If sec A  x  then prove that sec A  tan A  2 x or . 2. If x  a sin  and y  b cot  then show that 2  2  1
4x 2x x y
2 2 4 2 2
3. If sin   sin   1 , then prove that cos   cos   1 . 4.If 7 sin   3cos   4 . Find the value of sec   cosec  .
5. If x  p sec   q tan  and y  p tan   q sec  then prove that x  y  p 2  q 2
2 2
14. STATISTICS & PROBABILITY

ARITHMETIC MEAN :
x1  x2  x3  ...  xn 1 n
The mean of n observation x1 , x2 , x3 ...xn is X   xi
n n i 1
Let x be the mean of n numbers, if K is added to each number, new mean  x  K
If K is subtracted from each number, new mean = x  K
x
If each number is multiplied by K, new mean  Kx . If each number is divided by ‘K’, new mean 
K
If n observations in the raw data consist of only ‘K’ distinct values x1 , x2 , x3 ...xk of the variable x occuring with frequencies f1 , f 2 , f 3 ... f k
respectively then k
f x  f 2 x2  ...  f k xk
 fi xi 1 k k
x 11  i 1
k
  fi xi where n   f i denoted total frequency
f1  f 2  ... f k n i 1
 fi i 1
i 1
When the raw data are presented in the form of a frequency distribution with equal or unequal, exclusive or inclusive class-intervals, we assume
that the frequency in any class is centred at its class marks (or mid-point).
TAKSHILA INSTITUTE
(12)
Class marks of any class interval = The mean of the upper and the lower limit of the interval
Upper limit  Lower limit

i.e.
2
ASSUMED MEAN METHOD FOR COMPUTING MEAN :
In this method an arbitrary constant ‘a’ is chosen as assumed mean some where in the middle of all values of x1 and we find di  xi  a
Mean (X )  a 
 fi di
 fi
STEP DEVIATION METHOD OR SHORT-CUT METHOD FOR COMPUTING MEAN :
In this method an arbitrory constant ‘a’ is chosen which is called as assumed mean some where in the middle of all values of xi . If ‘h’ is the class
k
xi  a  fi ui
ui  i 1
difference then Mean (x )  a  k
h
 fi
i 1
MODE OF GROUPED DATA :
We use the following steps to compute the mode of grouped data :
1. Obtain the continuous frequency distribution
2. Determine the class of maximum frequency either by interpection or by grouping method. Ths class is called the modal class.
3. Obtain the values of the following from the frequency distribution :
l  lower limit of the modal calss
f  frequency of the modal calss
h  width of the modal class
f1  frequency of the class preceding the modal class
f 2  frequency of the class following the modal calss
4. Substitute the values obtained in step 3. In the following formula :
f  f1
Mode l h
2 f  f1  f 2
MEDIAN OF GROUPED AND UNGROUPED DATA : Median of ungrouped data : We use the following steps :
1. Arrange the observations x1 , x2 ..., xn in ascending or decending order of magnitude.
2. Determine the total number of observations, say n.
th th
 n 1  n
3. If n is odd, then median is the value of   observation. If n is even, then median is the AM of the values of  
 2  2
th
n 
and   1 observations.
2 
MEDIAN OF DISCRETE FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION : this
xi
In case of a discrate frequency distribution :i  1,2,..., n we calculate the median by using the following steps :
fi
N n
1. Find the cummulative frequencies (c.f). 2. Find , where N   fi .
2 i 1
N
3. See the cumulative frequency (c.f.) just greater than and determine the corresponding value of the variable.
2
4. The value obtained in step 3 is the median
MEDIAN OF A GROUDED OR CONTINUOUS FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION : this
In order to calcute the median of a grouped or continuous frequency distribution, we use the following steps :
TAKSHILA INSTITUTE
(13)
1. Obtain the frequency distribution
2. Prepare the cumulative frequency column and obtain N   fi .
N
3. Find
2
N
4. See the cumulative frequency just greater than and determine the corresponding class. This class is known as the
2
median class.
N 
 2 F
5. Use the following formula : median  l   h where,
 f 
 
l lower limit of the median class f  frequency of the median class
h size of the median class F cumulative freqeuncy of the class precdeing the median class
N  fi
RELATIONSHIP AMONG MEAN, MEDIAN AND MODE :
These three measures are closely connected by the following relations : Mode  3 median  2 mean
COMULATIVE FREQUENCY POLYGON CURVE (AN OGIVE) :
1. Less than method : To construct a cumulative frequency polygon and an ogive by less than method we use the followin steps :
(i) Start with the upper limits of class intervals and add class frequencies to obtain the cumulative frequency distribution
(ii) Mark upper class limits along x-axis on a suitable scale.
(iii) Mark cumulative frequencies along y-axis on a suitable scale.
(iv) Plot the points ( xi , f i ) where xi is the upper limit of a class and f i is corresponding cumulative frequency
(v) Join the points obtained in step 4, by a free hand smooth curve to get the ogive and to get the cumu lative frequency
polygon join the points obtained in step 4 by line segments.
2. More than method : To construct a cumulative freqeuncy polygon and an ogive by more than method, we use the following steps :
(i) Start with the lower limits of class intervals and from the total frequency subtract the freqeuncy of each class

to obtain the cumulative frequency distribution
(ii) Mark the lower class limits along x-axis on a suitable scale.
(iii) Mark the cumulative frequencies along y-axis on a suitable scale.
(iv) Plot the points ( xi , f i ) where xi is the lower limit of a class and f i is the corresponding cumulative frequency
(v) Join the points obtained in step 4, by a free hand smooth curve to get the ogive and to get the cumu lative frequency
polygon join the points obtained in step 4 by line segments.
1. By short cut method, find the mean of following data :
2. Find the median and mode of the following data:
3. Draw ‘less than’ and ‘more than’ ogive for the following frequency distribution to find median verify the result by finding the median by formula
method.
16. THEOREM
To be done for the examinations
(Similar Triangles – Theorem I) : Basic Proportionality Theorem (Thales Theorem)
A
AD AE D E
If a line is drawn to one side of a triangle, the other two sides are divided in the same ratio.i.e. 
DB EC B C
TAKSHILA INSTITUTE
(14)
(Similar Triangle – Theorem 2) : The ratio of the areas of two similar triangles is equal to the ratio of the squares of the corresponding sides.
A
(Similar Triangles - Theorem 3) : Pythogoras Theorem/Bau dhayan Theorem
In a right triangle, the square of the hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the squares of the other two sides. h
p
i.e. h 2  p 2  b 2
C
(Similar Triangles - Theorem 4) : Converse of Pythoagoras Theorem B b
In a triangle, if the square on one side is equal to the sum of the squares of the remaining two. the angle opposite to the first side is a right angle.
Theorem - 1 : A tangent to a circle is perpendicular to the radius through the point of contact.
X Y
A
If XY is tangent to the circle with centre O at pt. A. Then OA is perpendicular to XY  OAX  OAY  90 .
Theorem - 2 : The lengths of two tangents drawn from an external point to a circle are equal.
A
B
If PA and PB are two tangent segments drawn through same external pt. P to the circle with centre O then PA = PB
1. QUADRATIC EQUATION
SOLVING THE QUADRATIC EQUATION:
There are three methods to solve a quadratic equation
2
(i) By factorisation method : Let the quadratic equation ax 2  bx  c  0 , a  0 and let the quadratic polynomial ax  bx  c be
expressible as the product of two linear factors, say ( px  q) and (rx  s ) , where p , q , r and s are real numbers such that p  0 and
r  0 then
 ax 2  bx  c  0  ( px  q)( rx  s )  0  Either px  q  0 or rx  s  0
q s
 x or x
p r
q s
Hence or are two roots of the given Quadratic equation.
p r
(ii) By completing the square : Let the quadratic equation be ax 2  bx  c  0 , a  0

Make the coefficient of x 2 unity by dividing throughout by ‘a’, if it is not unity
2 2
2 b c b c  b   b   b  c
 x  x 0  x2  x  x2  2   x       
a a a a  2a   2a   2a  a
2
 b  b 2  4ac b b2  4ac b  b2  4ac
  x     x   x
 2a  4a 2 2a 2a 2a
Hence the roots of the quadratic equation are
b  b 2  4ac b  b 2  4ac
or
2a 2a
TAKSHILA INSTITUTE
(15)
(iii) By using the quadratic formula (By using discriminant method) :
Let the quadratic equation be ax 2  bx  c  0 , a  0

Now calculate the value of discriminant i.e. D  b 2  4ac
To calculate the roots use the quadratic formula
b  D b  D b  D
i.e x  The roots of the quadratic equation are or
2a 2a 2a
NATURE OF ROOTS :
Let quadratic equation is ax 2  bx  c  0 , a  0

a, b, c  R and D  b 2  4ac
(i) If D  0 , then equation has real and unequal roots (distinct) (ii) If D  0 , then equation has equal and real roots (coincident)
(iii) If D  0 , then equation has no real roots (Root are complex)
(iv) If a, b, c are rational, D  0 and a perfect square, then roots are real, unequal and rational
(v) If a, b, c are rational, D  0 and not a perfect square then roots are real, unequal and conjugate irrational i.e. if one root is m  n
then the other be m n .
ADDITIONAL INFORMATION :
(i) The sum of the roots of the equation ax 2  bx  c  0 , a  0
b  coefficient of x
S.R.  or
S .R. 
a coefficient of x 2
(ii) The product of the roots of the equation ax 2  bx  c  0 , a  0
c constant term
(P.R.)  or
( P.R.) 
a coefficient of x 2
S.R. = Sum of the roots P.R. = Product of the roots
2
(iii) If '  ' and '  ' are the roots of the quadratic equation in ‘x’ then the equation is x  (sum of the roots) x + product of the roots = 0
1. Find the roots of 2 x 2  x  4  0 by completing the square method.
2
 x2  x2
2. Sovle for x :    4   3  0; x   2 .
 x2  x2
3. There are three consecutive positive integers such that the sum of the square of the first and the product of the other two is 154. What are the integers?
4. The difference of two numbers is 5 and the difference of their reciprocals is 1/10. Find the number.
5. An aeroplane takes one hour less for a journey of 1200 km if its speed is increased by 100 km/h from its usual speed. Find its usual speed.
2. ARITHEMATIC PROGRESSIONS
In a series of numbers, the numbers progress maintaining a particular order i.e., difference of successor to the predeccessor is constant. The seqence
of numbers of the type “a, a + d, a + 2d, a + 3d, ...” is called an Arithmetic Progression.
‘a’ is first term (t1) ‘d’ is common difference = [t2 -t1] or [t3 - t2] etc.
nth term tn = a + (n - 1) d also tn = S n - Sn-1 = l.
n n
Sum of first n term, S n   2 a   n  1 d  or S n  a  l  where l is last i.e nth term.
2 2
TAKSHILA INSTITUTE
(16)
(i) If the number of terms are odd then take desired number of terms by following scheme:
go on subtracting d go on adding d
a – 2d a–d a a+d a + 2d
middle term
* for three terms take a - d, a, a + d * for five terms take a - 2d, a - d, a, a + d, a + 2d

(ii) If the number of terms are even then take desired number of terms by following scheme:
go on subtracting 2d go on adding 2d
a – 5d a – 3d a – d middle term a + d a + 3d a + 5d * for two terms take a - d, a + d
* for four terms take a - 3d, a - d, a + d, a + 3d

n  n  1
(iii) Sum of first n natural numbers is given by = . (iv) nth term from the end = Last term + (n-1) (-d)
2
ab
(v) Airthematic mean (A) between two numbers a and b is A =
2
a  b 3a  2b 5a  3b
1. Find the sum    ...to12 terms . 2. If S n  3 n 2  n , find the A.P..
ab ab ab
1
3. The pth term of an A.P. is (2 p  1) . Find the sum of its first n terms
7
4. Find the common difference of an A.P. whose first term is 1 and the sum of first four terms is one third of the sum of next four terms.
5. The angles of a quadrilateral are in A.P. If the greatest angle is double of the smallest angle, find all the four angles.
GEOMETRY
3. CO-ORDINATE GEOMETRY
Graph plane - Cartesian plane - co-ordinates of a point (x, y).
x-coordinate: Abscissa.
y-coordinate: Ordinate
Distance between two points
2 2
D  x2  x1 
2
  y2  y1 
2
D  diff .of ordinate    diff .of abscissa 
Distance between the origin (0, 0) and the point (x, y) is x2  y 2 .
Section formula - Coordinates of the point P and divides the segment joining the point A (x1, y1) and B (x2, y2) in the ratio m1: m2 internally is given
by the formula.
m1 x 2 + m 2 x 1 m y + m 2 y1
Px = , and Py = 1 2 m1 m2
m1 + m 2 m1 + m 2 A(x1 ,y1) P(x,y) B(x2,y 2)
 x1 + x 2 y1 + y 2 
Coordinates of the midpoint P of AB are  , 
 2 2 
 sumof abscissas sumof ordinates 

 , 
 2 2 
Centroid G of triangle ABC with co-ordinates A  x1 , y1  ,B  x 2 , y 2  , C  x 3 , y 3  is
 x1 + x 2 + x 3 y1 + y 2 + y 3   sumof abscissas sumof ordinates 

 ,   , 
 3 3   3 3 
TAKSHILA INSTITUTE
(17)
Note : The centroid ‘G’ of a triangle ABC divides the median AD in the ratio 2 : 1, i.e. AG : GD = 2 : 1 (similarly for other medians).
Area of ABC , whose verticies are A( x1 y1), B( x2 y2 ) and C ( x3 y3 ) is

1
 x1 ( y2  y3 )  x2 ( y3  y1 )  x3 ( y1  y2 )
2
1
or  ( x1 y2  x2 y3  x3 y1 )  ( x1 y3  x2 y1  x3 y2 )
2
If points A( x1 y1 ), B ( x2 y2 ) and C ( x3 y3 ) are collinear, then x1 ( y2  y3 )  x2 ( y3  y1 )  x3 ( y1  y2 )  0
Some useful points :
I. In order to prove that a given figure is a
(i) Square, prove that the four sides are equal and the diagonals are also equal.
(ii) Rhombus, prove that the four sides are equal.
(iii) Rectangle, prove that opposite sides are equal and the diagonals are also equal.
(iv) Parallelogram, prove that the opposite sides are equal.
(v) Parallelogram but not a rectangle, prove that its opposite sides are equal but the diagonals are not equal.
(vi) Rhombus but not a square, prove that its all sides are equal but the diagonals are not equal.
II. Three points to be collinear, prove that the sum of the distance between two pairs of points is equal to the third pair of points. Figure
depicts it clearly.
A C
A B C
B
AB + BC AC AB + BC AC
non-collinear collinear
Self Practice Questions

1. Show that the points (3, 2),(0,5), ( 3, 2) and (0, 1) are the vertices of a square.
2. The mid-points of the sides of a triangle are the points (3, 2), (5, 4) and (4, 3) . Find its vertices.
3. Find the co-ordinates of that point which lies on y-axis and is equidistant from the points (1, 2) and (3, 4) .
4. The opposite angular points of a square are (3, 4) and (1, 1) . Find the co-ordiantes of the remaining vertices.
5. In what ratio does the line 4 x  y  11 divides the line segment joining the points (1,3) and (2, 7) ?
TRIGONOMETRY
4. APPLICATION ON TRIGONOMETRY
Let O and P be two points such that the point P is at higher level. i.e. observation point is above the observer. Let OA and PB be horizontal lines
through O and P respectively. If an observer is at O and the point
P is the object under consideration,
then the line OP is called line of sight
of the point P, and the AOP ,
is known as angle of elevation.
If an observer is at P and the object under consideration is at O,
i.e. observation point is below the observer, then BPO is known as the angle of depression.
Angle of elevation = Angle of depression
To find the heights and distances in simple cases involving the angle of elevation or angle of the depression of 300, 450 and 600 only.
15
1. The length of string between kite and a point on the ground is 90 m. If the string makes an angle  with the level ground and tan   , find the
8
height of the kite if there is no slack in the string.
TAKSHILA INSTITUTE
(18)
2. A vertical tower stands on a horizontal plane and is surmounted by a vertical flagstaff of height h. At a point on the plane, the angle of elevation
h tan 
of the bottom of the flagstaff is  and that of the top of the flagstaff is  . Prove that the height of the tower is tan   tan  .
3. From a window h metres high above the ground in a street. The angle of elevation and depression of the top and foot of the other house on the
opposite side of the street are  and  respectively. Show that height of the opposite house is h(1  tan  cot ) .
4. From an aeroplane vertically above a straight line horizontal plane, the angles of depression of two consecutive kilometre stones on the opposite
tan .tan 
sides of the aeroplane are found to be  and  . Show that the height of aeroplane is km .
tan   tan 
5. The angle of elevation of the top of a tower as observed from a point on the ground is  and on moving x metres towards the tower, the angle of
x tan  tan 
elevation is  . Prove that height of tower is metres.
tan   tan 
5. CIRCLE
TANGENT :
A tangent to a circle is a line that intersects the circle in exactly one point. This point is called the point of contact of the tangent and the
line is said to touch the circle at this point.
SECANT :
A line which intersect a circle in two distinct points is called a secant of the circle.
THEOREM - 1.
A tangent to a circle is perpendicular to the radius through the point of contact.
Converse of this theorem is also true and stated as : A line drawn through the end point of a radius and perpendicular to it
is a tangent to the circle.
THEOREM - 2.
The lengths of two tangents drawn from an external point to a circle are equal
POINT TO BE REMEMBERED :
(1) No tangent can be drawn to a circle from a point lying inside it.
(2) One and only one tangent can be drawn to a circle at a point on the circle.
(3) Two tangents can be drawn to a circle from a point lying outside it.
(4) If the tangents are drawn to a circle from an external point, then.
(i) they subtended equal angles at the centre
(ii) they are equally inclined to the segment joining the the centre to that point.
(5) If two tangents are drawn to a circle from an external point, then the line segment joining the external point to the centre of the circle
is perpendicular bisector of the chord formed by joining the point of contact of the tangents.
(6) If a quadrilateral circumscribes the circle then sum of the each pair of opposite sides are equal.
(7) If a || gm circumscribes the circle then it is called a Rhombus.
(8) The tangents at extermities of any chord make equal angles with the chord.
(9) The angle between two tangents drawn from an external point to a circle is supplementary to the angle subtended by the line segments
joining the points of contact at the centre.
(10) Tangent lines at the end points of a diameter of a circle are parallel.
6. CONSTRUCTION
Construction 1. To divide a line segment in a given ratio.
Construction 2. To construct a tiangle similar to a given triangle as per given scale factors.
Construction 3. To construct the tangents to a circle from a point outside it.
Construction 4. To construct the tangents to a circle from a point outside it without using the centre.
Construction 5. To construct the tangents to a circle of given radius from a point on the concentric circle of given radius.
Construction 6. To draw two circles of different radii To construct tangents to each circle from the centre of the other circle.
Construction 7. To construct a pair of tangents to a circle which are inclined to each other at a given angle.
7. AREA RELATED TO CIRCLES
Circle :
A circle is the locus of a point which moves in a plane in such a way that its distance from a fixed point always remain same.
The fixed point is called the centre and the given constant distance is known as the radius of the circle.
If ‘r’ is the radius of a circle, then
TAKSHILA INSTITUTE
(19)
r
O
(i) Circumference 2 r or d , where d  2 r is the diameter of the circle.
d2 r 2
(ii) Area  r 2 or  (iii) Area of semicircle 
4 2
r 2
(iv)Perimeter of semicircle  r  2 r (v) Area of a quadrant of a circle 
4
• Area enclosed by two concentric circles:
If R and r are radii of two concentric circles, then area enclosed by the two circles
O
r
R
 R 2  r 2  ( R 2  r 2 )  ( R  r )( R  r )
• Some useful results:
(i) If two circles touch internally, then the distance between their centre is equal to the difference of their radii.
(ii) If two circles touch externally, then the distance between their centres is equal to the sum of their radii.
(iii)Distance moved by a rotating wheel in in one revolution is equal tothe circumference of the wheel.
distance movedin one minute
(iv)The number of revolution completed by a rotating wheel in one minute =
circumference
• Sector of a circle and its area :
The area enclosed by the circle is divided into two regions, namely, OBA and OBCA.
These regions are called sectors of the circle. The sector OBA has arc AB as a part of its
boundary whereas the sector OBCA has arc ACB as a part of its boundary. These sectors
are known as minor and major sectors of the circle.
Minor Sector : A sector of a circle is called a minor sector if the minor arc of the circle is a part of its boundary.
Following are some important points to remember :
C
O
r 
A B
(I) A minor sector has an angle  ,(say) , subtended at the center of the circle , whereas a major sector has no angle.
(ii) The sum of the arcs of major and minor sectors of a circle is equal to the circumference of the circle.
(iii)The sum of the areas of major and minor sectors of a circle is equal to the area of the circle.
(iv)The boundary of a sector consists of an arc of the circle and the two radii.
• Area of a sector and length of the arc corresponding to a sector of a circle.
If the arc subtends an angle of  at the centre then the length of its arc is
 
l  (circumferenceof thecircle) l   2r
360 360
If the arc subtends an angle of  at the centre of the circle with radius ‘r’, then the area of the sector is
 
A  area of thecircle   r 2
360 360
TAKSHILA INSTITUTE
(20)
• Some useful results to remembers :
(i) Angle described by minute hand in 60 minutes = 360°  Angle described by minute hand in one minute = 6°
(ii) Angle described by hour hand in 12 hours = 360°
 o 
 360   30  1
 Angle described by hour hand in one hour     30 
 Angle described by hour hand in one minute   
 12   60  2
S
• Segment of a Circle and its Area :
The region enclosed by an arc and a chord is called the segement of the circle. O
The shaded region on ABR is a segment of the circle.
r r
Minor segment : If the boundary of a segment is a minor arc of a circle,
A B
then the corresponding segment is called a minor segment. segment ABR  minor segment. R
Major Segment : A segment corresponding to a major arc of a circle is known as the major segment. segment ABS  major segment.
• Area of a Segment of a Circle :

POQ  , OL  PQ  POL  QOL   , PL  QL area of the sector OPRQ   r 2
2 360
 OL  PL S
In  OLP, we have cos  and sin 
2 OP 2 OP
     O
OL  OP.cos  r cos and PL  sin  r sin PQ  2 PL  2r sin

 r r
2 2 2 2 2 
[ In an isosceles ,  drawn on base bisects the base and the vertical angle). P Q
R
1 1    
 area of OPQ  ( PQ  OL)  area of OPQ  [2r sin  r cos ]  r 2 sin cos
2 2 2 2 2 2
  
hence Area of segment PRQ = area of sector OPQR  ar (POQ)  r 2  r 2 sin cos
360 2 2
   
 Area of segment (minor) PRQ =    sin cos  r 2
 360 2 2
   
Area of major segment PQS = area of circle - area of minor segment  r 2     sin cos  r 2
 360 2 2
S.N. Name Figure Perimeter Area Nomenclature
r r r  radius
1. Circle r 2r or d r 2 2r  d  diameter
1 2
2. Semicircle r r r  2r r r  radius
2
r
3. Ring(Shaded region) R – ( R 2  r 2 ) R  outer radius
r  inner radius
r  r   2
4. Sector of a circle  2 r  2r l  2r = 360  r  = angle of the arc / sector
l 360
1
or lr r = radius of sector
2
l = length of arc
B A
r r      2 1 2 
5. Segment of a circle O  360  2r  2r sin 2 
 
 360 r  2 r sin  
 
r  radius
  angle of the re late d
sector
TAKSHILA INSTITUTE
(21)
1. The circumference of a circular plot is 220m. A 14 m wide track runs around outside the plot. Find the area of the track.
2. Find the area of a quadrant of a circle whose circumference is 22 cm.
3. In an equilateral triangle of side 12 cm, a circle is inscribed touching its sides. Find the area of the portion of the triangle not included in the circle.
(Take   3.14 and 3  1.73) .
4. Two circles touch externally. The sum of their areas is 130 cm 2 and the distance between their centres is 14 cm. Find the radii of the circles.
5. If the perimeter of a semicircle is 66 cm find its radius.
8. SURFACE AREA & VOLUME
(A) Right circular cylinder r
(i) Area of base = r 2 (ii) C.S.A/L.S.A. = 2rh h

(iii)T.S.A. = 2r(h  r) (iv)Vol = r h2
R
(B) Hollow cylinder r
(i) Area of each end = (R 2  r 2 ) (ii) C.S.A / L.S.A = 2h(R  r)

h
(iii)T.S.A = 2(R  r)(h  R  r) (iv) Vol = h(R 2  r 2 )
(C) Cone
(i) C.S.A = rl (ii) T. S.A. = r(l  r)
1 2 h
l
(iii)Vol = r h
3 r
where, l = slant height
l= h2  r2
h= l2  r2 r= l2  h2
TAKSHILA INSTITUTE
(22)
(D) Sphere
4 3 r
(i) Total surface area = 4r 2 (ii) Vol = r (iii) C.S.A/L.S.A = 4r 2
3
(E) Hollow sphere
4
(i) Outer surface are = 4R 2 (ii) Vol =   R 3  r3 
3 r
R
(F) Hemi sphere
r
2 3
(i) C.S.A/L.S.A = 2r 2 (ii) Vol = r (iii) T.S.A = 3r 2
3
(G) Frustum (Bucket) or a right circular cone
C
h
(i) Vol =
3
R 2
 Rr  r 2  (ii) L.S.A = (R  r)l
A
r L
 
2 l h
(iii)T.S.A = { R  r  l  R 2  r 2 } (iv) Slant height = R  r  h2 A R B
O
(I) Cuboid
Vol = l bh
T.S.A = 2(lb + bh + hl)
C.S.A/ L.S.A = 2 h (l + b)
(J) Cube
Vol = (side)3
T.S.A = 6  (side) 2 C.S.A/ L.S.A = 4  (side) 2

Area of a regular polygon of ‘n’ sides with interior angle  .
a2   a2  180 
A=n ×  tan   or A = n ×  tan  
4 2 4  n 
Torus: (ex. Tennikoit Ring ) V  2 2r 2a (‘r’ is the radius of cross section and ‘a’ is the distance between the centre of the circle and the axis of
rotation).
However, instead of remembering the formulae, you can derive the formula yourself from the basic dimensions, to get greater pleasure and
confidence.
A triangle with sides a, b, c is rotated about the side ‘c’ to form a double cone. Its volume is
C
4 A2
V , where A is the area of the ABC A c
B
3c
C
Problems involving transformation of one solid into another, combination of two different solids (right circular cylinder, cone, sphere, hemi sphere)
are to be worked out.
TAKSHILA INSTITUTE
(23)
1. Find the volume of a solid in the form of a right circular cylinder with hemispherical ends whose extereme length is 21 dm and diameter is 2.5 dm.
2. The largest possible sphere is curved out from a cube of 7 m side. Find the volume of the sphere.
3. Water is flowing at 7m/s through a circular pipe of internal diameter 2 cm. into a cylinderical tank, the radius of whose base is 40 cm. Find the
increase in water level in 30 minuts.
4. How many metres of wire 0.2 mm radius can be drawn by melting solid copper sphere of diameter 18 cm.
1
5. The height of a cone is 30 cm. A small cone is cut off at the top by a plane parallel to the base. If its volume is of the volume of the given cone,
27
at what height above the base, the section has been made?
9. PROBABILITY
The measure of uncertainty is discussed in this branch of Mathematics, Theory of Probability. Many Mathematicians; J Cardon, Pascal, Pierre de
Fermat, Bernoulli etc., contributed for the development of this branch of mathematics.
Probability of occurrence of an event E, P(E) is defined as the ratio of “Number of favorable outcomes/the total Number of possible outcomes”
Throwing a die, taking out a particular card from a well-shuffled pack of cards etc. are the situations that will be considered in our study.
 Sample space of an experiement is the set of all possible outcomes.
 Find out - Experiment, Random Experiment, Sample Space, Event, Equally likely events, Exhaustive events, mutually exclusive events.
 A pack of cards (52) are and divided into 4 suits; Spades, Hearts, Diamonds and Clubs. K,Q,J are face cards.
 P(E) = No. of favorable outcomes/Total number possible outcomes.
 P(not E) = 1 - P(E) (represented by P(E’).
 Probability of an impossible event is Zero.
 Probability of a sure event is 1.
 Probability is a rational number from zero to one.
i.e. 0  P(E)  1 , for all event.

i.e. P(E) can not be greater than 1 and can not be negative.
Detail Regarding shuffling of playing cards.
Drawing a playing card from well -suffled pack of 52 cards A pack of playing cards has in all 52 cards.
(a) It has 13 cards of each of the four suits, namely, spades, clubs, hearts and diamonds. Cards of spades and clubs are black cards. Cards of
hearts and diamonds are red cards.
(b) In 13 cards of each suit, there are four honours, namely ace, king, queen and jack (or knave). These cards excluding ace are called face cards.
These cards are 16 in all.
SCIENCE
PHYSICS (ELECTRICITY)
Electicity and its Effect (notation)
Physical Quantity Symbols SI unit
Voltage (potential differenc(e). V Volt (V)
Power P Watt (W)
Charge Q Coulomb(C)
Work or Energy W Joule (J)
Resistance R Ohm (  )
Current I Ampere (A)
Resistivity  Ohm. metre(  m)
Laws of electric forces :
(i) Like charges repel and unlike charges attract each other.
(ii) Charge of a conductor resides on its outer surface.
TAKSHILA INSTITUTE
(24)
Current:
The rate of flow of charges (Q) through a conductor is called current (I) is given by,
charge Q
Current  or I  . The SI unit of current is ampere (A) 1A = 1 C/s.
Time t
The current flowing throug a circuit is measured by a device called ammeter. Ammeter is connected in series
with the conductor. The direction of the current is taken as the direction of the flow of positive charge and
(conduction currents) opposite to the flow of electrons through the conductor (Electronic current).
Electric cell: It is the simplest form of arrangement to maintain a constant potential difference between
two points.
Electromotive force: The potential difference at the terminals of cell in an open circuit is called electromotive
force (e.m.(f) and is denoted by letter E.
ohms law :At any constant temperature, the current (I) flowring through a conductor is directly proportional
to the potential (V) across it. Mathematically, R
V R 2
R1
V V
 R  ,I 
Slope
I V vice-versa, V  I or V = RI 1 I =R
I R V
R 2> R 1 I
Symbols of a Few commonly used components in Circuit Diagrams
Component Symbol Component Symbol
An Electric cell Electric bulb
Battery of cells A resistance
Plug key or switch (open) or Variable resistance
A closed plug or switch or Ammeter A
A wire joint Voltmeter V
Wires crossing
Resistance: Resistance is a property of a conductor by virtue of which it opposes the flow of electricity through it.
Resistance is measured in Ohms. Resistance is a scalar quantity.
Factors aff ecting R . l = le ngth of wire , a = are a of cross se ction, Nature of mate rial,
l l
Temperature, R  or R   1
a a
Conductor: Low-resistance material which allows the flow of electric current through it is called a conductor. All
metals are conductors except Hg & Pb etc.
Resistor: High-resistance materials are called resistors. Resistors become hot when current flows through the
Ex:-Nichrome wire (a typical resistor.)
Insulator: A material which does not allow heat and electricty to pass through it is called an insulator.
Rubber, dry wood etc., are insulators.
Equivalent Resistance: A single resistance which can replace a combination of resistance such that current
through the circuit remains the same is called equivalent resistance.
Law of Combination of Resistances in Series: When number of resistances are connected in series, the
I
equivalent resistance is equal to the sum of the indivadual resistances. R  R1  R2  R3.......  Rn R1 R2
(Same current passes through resistance)
If resistance R1, R2, R3 , ......... etc are connected in parallel then the equivalent resistance (R) is given by.
1 1 1 1 1 Current get divided
   ........... 
R R1 R2 R3 Rn Voltage is constant
The equivalent resistance of a number of resistances connected in parallel is less than all the individual
resistances.
Electrical Energy: Capacity of the flowing electricity to do work is called its electrical energy.
2 V 2t
Electrical energy  V I t  I Rt  P .t .  P = power
R
The SI unit of electrical energy is Joule. One Joule is the amount of energy consumed when an electrical
appliance of one watt rating is used for one second. The commercial (practical) unit of electrical energy is
kilowatt-hour (kW(h).
TAKSHILA INSTITUTE
(25)
W V2
Power, P   VI  12 R  { V  Voltage,I  Current,R  Resis tance }
t R
The SI unit of electric power is watt (W). The power of a machine doing work at the rate of 1 Joule per second
is equal to one watt.
Electrical Energy = Electrical power × Time. 1h.p = 746 watt
1kwh  3.6  106 J 1kwh 1unit
Magnetic Effect of Current :-
(i) H. C. Oersted : He first proposed experimentally that a magnetic field is developed around a current carrying
conductor. He shows it by deflection of a magnetic needle placed near a closed circuit.
(ii) Maxwell cork -screw rule or right hand thumb rule :
He gave the rule for the direction of the magnetic field around a current carrying conductor, He states that, if
the thumb of your hand indicates the direction of flow of current through a conductor then curvature of rest of
the fingures indicates the orientation and direction of magnetic field developed due to the flow of current.
(iii) Fleming Left hand Rule: Stretch the forefinger, the central finger and the thumb of your left hand mutually
perpendicular to each other. If the forefinger shows the direction of the field and the central finger that of the
current, then the thumb will point towards the direction of motion of the conductor.
Fleming’s Right Hand Rule: Stretch out the forefinger, the middle finger. And the thumb of the right hand
such that these are mutually perpendicular to each other. If the forefinger shows the direction of the magnetic
field,thumb shows the direction of motion of the conductor then the middle finger gives the direction of current
produced in the conductor.
Electric Generator: A device which converts mechanical energy into electrical energy is called an electric
generator.
Electric generators are classified as the alternating current (AC) generators, and direct current (DC) generators
depending upon the nature of current produced by the generator.
Electric Power Plants: The set-up which can produce large quantity of electricity, form a few kilowatts to a few
hundred megawatts, are called power plants. These are three types of power stations (plants). These are:
(a) Hydroelectric power stations;
(b) Thermal power stations;
(c) Nuclear (or atomic) power stations.
Magnetic effects of electric current :-
(1) MCB ( A miniature circuit breaker) - It is device used as alternative to fuse.
(2) Electric fuse : - Protects the appliances connected in the circuit against an excessive increase of current in the
circuit due to short-circuiting or overloading.
(3) House wiring consists three types
(i) Live red colour insulation coating
(ii) neutral wire has a black colour insulation coating
(iii) earth wire green colour insulation use for saving electrical shocks.
(4) Advantage of AC current over DC-current
(i) It is more powerfull.
(ii) It can be easily transmitted over long distances without much loss of energy.
(iii) It is economical to transmit.
(5) In India AC voltage of 220V with a frequency 50hz is supplied.
(6) Strength of current produced by electric generator depends on
(i) Number of turns in the coil
(ii) Strength of magnetic field.
(iii) Speed of rotation of the coil in the magnetic field.
(7) Induced current :- The changing magnetic flux through a coil induces an electromotive force in the coil. The
induced e.m.f causes the flow of electron in the coil which generates electric current in it. This current is called
induced current.
(8) Solenoid :- A solenoid is a cylindrical loop of wire having a large number of coils. It produces a magentic field
when electrical current is passed through it.
Important Formulae:
K  q1  q2
1. Fe  (k is contant of propor tionality)
r2 Q1 r Q2
Coulomb’s law q1 & q2  two electric charges
r = distance between two electric charges F = Force
W W
2. V  ; W  V Q ; Q  V  p.d , W  work done, Q  Quantity of charge transfered
Q V
V V
3. V  RI ; R ; I V  p.d ; R  Resistance, I  current.
I R
TAKSHILA INSTITUTE
(26)
l R A
4. R ;  R= Resistance. l = length ; A = Area of cross section
A l
 = rho, a constant known as resistivity
5. Series combination R  R1  R2  R3......  Rn
1 1 1 1 1
6. Parallel combination R  R  R  R .....  R
1 2 3 n
w work Energy consumed

7. P ; Power  
t time Time
8. W  vI t ; Power done  p.d  current  time
9. P  v I ; Power  p.d  current
2 2
10. P I R ; Power   current   p.d
2
V2  p.d 
11. P ; Power 
R resis tan ce
12. Electric energy  p  t ; electric energy = power × time
Summary of some useful relations between the magnetic field, current and the force: (Not used in CBSE
current syllabus)
The magnitude of the field, B produced in vacuum at a distance, r, from a infinitely long straight conductor
carrying a current, I, is given by:
0I
B
........... (1) I1
2 r
R1
When the current, I, is expressed in ampere, and the distance in metre, the magnetic field is expressed in tesla
I
2 7
(denoted symbolically as T). Here, 0 is the permeability of vaccum and its value is 4 I10 T m/A. Tesla is a
fairly big unit in magnitude. For instance, the magnetic field of the earth near
R 2 the surface is approximately
1
0.3104 T . I
R
Similarly, the magnitude of the field, B, produced at the centre of a circular coil of radius, r, and carrying a
current, I, is given by: R2
 I
I1  I
B  0 ........... (2) R1  R 2
2r
R1to the direction of the magnetic
If a current, I, is flowing along the wire of length, L,which is placed perpendicular
field, B, then the force, F, experienced by the wire perpendicular to theI 2current
 I magnetic field (as given
and the
by Fleming's left-hand rul(e) is expressed as to the current and the magnetic R 1  (as
field R 2 given by Fleming's left hand
rul(e) is expressed as
F
F = BIL ........... (3) or B =
........... (4)
IL
If we determine the force acting on a conductor carrying a current, we can then find out, through Eq 3, the
magnitude of the magnetic field. When F is measured in newton, the current, I, in ampere and length in metre,
B will be in tesla. Thus,
1newton
1 tesla =
ampere × metre
Using the fact the current is the rate of flow of charge, i.e., I  q / t , we can rewrite Eq. 3 as
F  BqL / t or F  Bqv
where v is the velocity of the charged particle perpendicular to the field.
Important Facts :
A source of energy provides energy in a convenient form over a long period of time.
The value of solar constant is approximately 1.4 kJ per second per square metre, or 1.4 kW / m 2 . It is estimated
on the basis of the solar radiation received on a unit area exposed perpendicularly to the rays of the sun at an
average distance between the sun and the earth.
Sources of energy can be classified as renewable and non-renewable sources.
Solar energy is the main source of energy on the earth.
Solar cookers, solar water heaters and solar concentrators are some devices used for harnessing solar energy.
Solar cells are devices that convert solar energy directly into electricity.
Solar energy also manifests itself in nature as the energy of winds, water flowing through rivers, ocean waves,
besides occan thermal energy.
TAKSHILA INSTITUTE
(27)
Energy harnessed through wind energy devices is utilized either to do mechancial work, or to produce electricity.
Energy derived from the hot spots beneath the earth is called geothermal energy.
Green plants convert solar energy into chemical energy through the process of photosynthesis. This energy is
known as bio-energy.
Charcoal is obtained by the destructive distillation of wood. (i.e. heating of wood in the absence of air)
Biomass is utilized to produce heat by burning it or to produce biogas through its anaerobic decomposition in a
biogas plant.
Hydrogen and alcohol could be a source of energy in future.
Fossil fuels like coal, petroleum and natural gas are a mixture of hydrocarbons. These are fossil remains produced
by the decay of plants and marine animals that were buried in the earth millions of years ago.
Fuels like coal, petroleum and natural gas are being utilised at very high rates, resulting in fast depletion of their
known reserves. Fossil fuels may not be available in future, as these are not being formed now.
Fuels are characterised by their calorific value and ignition temperature, besides the nature of product produced
by their combustion.
The three conditions essential for combustion are attainment of ignition temperature, presence of oxygen and a
combustible material.
The factors that help to choose a good fuel for a given purpose are its availability, cost, its characteristic and
physical properties, besides considerations of the effects of its by-products on environment.
Wind Energy: The energy possessed due to moving air is called wind energy.
Advantages: Disadvantages:
(i) It does not cause any pollution. Area of constant high speed wind is only.
(ii) The source of wind energy is air. Initial cost & land requirment is high.
(iii) It is available free of cost.
Water Energy: The energy possessed due to flowing of water is called the water energy.
Water Wheel: The device used for obtaining energy from flowing water is called water wheel. The basic princilple
of water wheel is that the moving water rotates the water wheel and this water wheel can be made to turn
machines which do work for us.
Principal of hydro-electric power: The potential energy of the water stored at great heights in the dams is
converted into kinetic energy by flowing water to flow at high speeds due to which electricity is generated. The
electric power so generated is called Hydroelectric power.
Solar Energy: The energy obtained from the sun is called solar energy.
(i) It is inexhaustible source of energy.
(ii) It is does not cause pollution
(iii) It is available free of cost.
Disadvantages of Solar Energy:
(i) It is not available all the time. (iii) Initial cost of installment is high.
(ii) It is very much diffused and scattered.
Tidal Energy: The energy obtained from tidal is called tidal Energy.
Nuclear Energy: The energy obtained due to splitting up of nuclei of the atoms is called nuclear energy.
Rutherford conducted the first nuclear reaction in 1919, in which nitrogen was converted into oxygen when it was
bombarded with energitic  -particles from radium.
High-energy projectiles like  -particles, protons and  -rays can produce a variety of nuclear reactions. Electrically
neutral neutrons are particularly very effective in causing nuclear reactions, as they are not repelled by the
positive charges on nuclei.
Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassman demonstrated fission of uranium nuclei in 1938. It was caused by bombardment
235
of uranium with neutrons. Fission takes place with higher probability in U isotope, though found in very
238
small concentration in natural uranium (~0.7%), as compared to the main isotope U.
On an average, about 2.5 neutrons, with energies of ~2 MeV, are released during fission of one 235U nucleus. A
moderator is employed to reduce the energies of neutrons released during fission to thermal energies of about
0.025eV. These neutrons can cause fission in other 235U nuclei and the reaction can, in principle, continue till all
uranium atoms have undergone fission in a given piece of material. This is the chain reaction. Enrico Fermi
successfully performed first controlled chain reaction in 1942.
Yakov Frenkel, Niels Bohr and John A. Wheeler proposed the liquid drop model to explain fission of nuclei. The
nucleus is assumed as a liquid drop, whose normal shape is spherical. Repulsion between positively charged
protons tends to split the nucleus. A flexible skin of high strength is assumed to hold together all the protons
and neutrons in nucleus. The tension of the skin can overcome the repulsive force between protons and keeps
the nucleus stable. When particles like neutrons hit the nucleus, these are absorbed and disturb the equilibrium.
This can lead to fission.
When two light nuclei merge into each other to form a new relatively heavier nucleus, the reaction is named as
fusion. One or both of the colliding nuclei are required to have sufficient energy to overcome the repulsive
3
electrical force due to their positive charges. Two deuterons may fuse to form a He nucleus. When matter is
heated to high temperatures, above million K, all atoms are completely ionised nuclei and these acquire sufficiently
high velocities of fuse into each other.
TAKSHILA INSTITUTE
(28)
Large amount of energy is released in fusion reactions. fusion produced by thermo - nuclear reactions is the
main source of energy.
Energy produced during fission of uranium is used to generate electrical power in nuclear reactors. Water is used
as the coolant in the reactor. The heat of reaction converts it into steam at high pressure and temperature,
which is used to run the normal turbines of thermal power plants. In India, about 3% of total power is generated
by nuclear reactors.
If fission is carried out in a short duration in the entire material, enormous amount of energy is released and
this can be used as bombs for mass destruction. The atomic bombs dropped on Japanese cities of Hiroshima and
Nagasaki in 1945, led to enormous loss of life and property.
India has tested nuclear devices in May 1974 and May 1998. One of the devices tested in 1998 was based on
thermonuclear reactions.
Nuclear Reaction: The reaction in which the nuclei of the atoms undergo change forming new nuclei and
releasing a tremendous amount of energy.
Types of Nucelar Reaction:
i) Nuclear Fusion Reaction: The process in which two or more nuclei of lighter atoms combine to form a heavy
nuclear with the liberation of a large amount of energy is called fusion reaction. For example;
2
1H  1H 2  2He 4 + Tremendous Energy. (17.3 MeV)
ii) Nuclear Fission Reactions: The process of splitting of a nuclear of a heavy atom into a number of nuclei of smaller mass with the liberation
of large amount of energy is called nuclear fission. For example
235
92U  0n1  56Ba139  36Kr 94  3 0n1 + Energy (200 MeV)
Cause of tremendous Amount of Energy: The cause of tremendous amount of energy during the nuclear
fission is the loss of mass. The loss of mass is also called mass defect.
Einstein Equation: E  mc 2
where m = The mass lost or mass defect.
c = the velocity of light. E = amount of energy.
m0 M- Relative mass V- Velocity mass
m M 0 - Rest mass C- Velocity of light
2
1  (V / C )
Chain Reaction: A reaction in which the number of neutrons goes on increasing during fission till whole of the
fissionable material is disintegrated.
Nuclear Reactor: It is a device which is used for carrying out fission reaction at a controlled rate. It is used to
generator electricity.
Nuclear fuel: The fissionable material used in the nuclear reactor is called nuclear fuel. For ex., U 235 , Pu 239 .
LIGHT
Notations
Focal length f
Magnification m
Distance of the object from the mirror or lens u
Distance of the image from the mirror or lens v
Size of the object (say, height) +ho
Least distance of distinct vision D
Size of the image +hi
Pole of mirror P
Optical centre of a lens O
Light:
(i) It is an invisible energy which causes + the sensation of sight.
(ii) It is form of energy which gives in us a sensation of sight. It, itself is not visible but helps us in seeing objects.
Principal axis :- The imaginary line that passes through its pole (F) and centre of curvature (C) and is perpendicular to its pole.
Focal length :- The distance between the pole and the principal focus (F).
Principal of focal point :- The point at which reflected ray meet after reflection on the principal axis of the concave mirror.
Real image :- The image which can be obtained on the screen.
Virtual image:- The image which can not be obtained on a screen is called a virtual image but can be seen.
Rules for image formation
Concave mirror :
(i) A ray of light parallel to principal axis after reflection passes through its focus.
(ii) A ray of light which passes through principal focus after reflection becomes parallel to the principal axis.
(iii) A ray of light which passes through the “C” comes back on the same path after reflection.
(iv) The point where the two reflected rays intersect is the point of image.
TAKSHILA INSTITUTE
(29)
Convex mirror :-
(i) A ray of light parallel to the principal axis after reflection appears to come from its focus.
(ii) A ray of light reflected parallel to the principal axis appears to pass through principal focus.
(iii) A ray of light that passes through “C” after reflection comes back on the same path.
(iv) The point of intersection of two rays are called the point of image
- - - - - - -- - -- - - -- - -- - -- - - -
Laws of Reflection:
(i) Angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection. I r
(ii) The incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal at the point of incidence all lie in the same plane. / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / /
Total internal reflection: This is a phenomenon when the surface of a refracting medium behaves as a reflecting medium (for certain angles of
the incidence), optical fibre, sparking of diamond are based on it. Normal
-- --- --------- --- -- --- --

Laws of refraction: Snell’s law
(i) The ratio of sine of the angle of incidence to the sine of the angle of refraction for a particular pair of media is constant, i.e.,
sin i r
 constant   . This is also called R.I and also denoted by n. Med 1
sin r
(ii) The incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal at the point of incidence all lie in the same plane. I
Refraction through prism: When light passes through a prism

(i) If always bends towards the base of the prism.
(ii) A prism divides the light passing through it into its corresponding wavelengths. This process is called dispersion of light. When sunlight
passes through prism it disperses into seven colours, i.e., seven wavelengths. (VIBGYOR)
Sign convention for spherical mirrors and mirrors and lenses:
All distances on the principal axis are measured from the pole of the mirror (or form the optical center of the lens). The distances measured in the
direction of the incident ray are taken as positive. The distances above the principal axis are considered positive and below it are negative.
According to the sign convention for mirrors, the focal length of a concave mirror is negative and that of a convex mirror is positive. The focal
length of convex lens is positive. While that of a concave lens is negative.
1 1 1
Mirror Formula: f  u  v is called the mirror formula.
IMAGE FORMATION BY A CONCAVE MIROR FOR DIFFERENT POSITIONS OFTHE OBJECT
Position of the object Position of the image Size of the image Nature of the imge
At infinity At the focus F, Highly diminished point-sized Virtual and erect

Beyond the centre of curvature C Between F and C Diminished Real and inverted
Med 2
At C At C Same size Real and inverted
Between C and F Beyond C Enlarged Real and inverted
At F At infinity Infinitely large or highly enlarged Real and inverted
Between the pole P of the mirror Behind the mirror Enlarged Virtual and erect
and focus F
IMAGE FORMATION BY A CONVEX MIROR FORDIFFERENT POSITIONS OFTHE OBJECT

Position of the object Position of the image Size of the image Nature of the image
At infinity At the focus F, behind the mirror Highly diminished point-sized Virtual and erect
Between infinity and the pole P Between P and F, Diminished Virtual and erect
of the mirror behind the mirror
Magnification: The ratio of the size of the image to that of the object is called magnification. For a mirror, magtnification (M) is given by.
hi v v
m  (magnification of a lens is given by m  ); (m is +ve for virtual and errect images , - ve for real and inverted images.)
ho u u
Lens: A piece of any transparent material bound by two curved surfaces is called a lens. A lens which is thicker in the middle and thinner at the
edges is called a convex lens. A convex lens is also called converging lens.
A lens which is thicker at the edges and thinner at the center is called a concave lens. A concave lens is called a diverging lens.
Optical center of a lens: The centre point of a lens is called its optical center. A ray of light passing through the optical center does not suffer
any deviation.
TAKSHILA INSTITUTE
(30)
Power of a Lens: Reciprocal of the focal length of a lens measured in meters is called the power. Power of a lens is described in dioptre (D)
units. p  1/ f (m)
Images formed by a Lens: A convex lens forms a real and inverted image for all the positions of an object at and outside its focus (F). However,
when the object is placed between F and O, the image formed by a convex lens is virtual and erect.
A concave lens always forms a virtual, erect and a diminised image, whatever, may be the distance of the object form the lens.
Lens formula: The lens formula is
1 1 1
 
f v u
IMAGE FORMED BY A CONCAVE LENS FOR DIFFERENT POSITIONS OF THE OBJECT
At infinity At focus F1 point-sized Highly diminished Virtual and erect
Between infinity and Between focus F1 Diminished Virtual and erect
optical centre O of the lens and optical centre
IMAGE FORMED BY A CONVEX LENS FOR DIFFERENT POSITIONS OF THE OBJECT
At infinity At focus F2 point-sized Highly diminished Real and inverted
Beyond 2F1 Between F2 and 2 F2 Diminished Real and inverted
At 2F1 At 2F2 Same size Real and inverted
Between F1 and 2 F1 Beyond 2F2 Enlarged Real and inverted
At focus F1 At infinity Infinitely large or highly enlarged Real and inverted
Between focus F1 On the same side of the Enlarged Virtual and erect
and optical centre O lens as the object
Dispersion of white light: The process of splitting white light into its seven constituent colours is called dispersion of white light.
Important Formulae
Focal length of mirror
1 1 1
 
f v u
Where, f = focal length of mirror, u = Distance of the object, v = Distance of the image and focal length of lens.
1 1 1
 
f v u where, f = Focal length of the lens, V = Distance of the image, u = Distance of the object. All distance measured from
pole in direction of incident light as positive.

Power of lens
1 100 1 100
  P 
Focal length(inmeters ) Focal length (incm) ; f (m) f (cm)
size of theimage I
Magnification by a lens  m
sizeof theobject O
Distance of the image from the optical centre 

Magnification by a lens Distance of the object from the optical centre = M = u
Defects of vision :-
Near point or least distance of distinct vision of normal eye is 25 cm. & far point is infinity.
Three types of Defects are
(a) Myopia or short sightedness :- Can see near by object clearly & has dificulty in seeing far away objects Causes :-
(i) Cornea gets steeper
(ii) Elongation of eye ball
(iii)Eye lens aquires more curvature then its normal value. Correction :- Using concave lens.
TAKSHILA INSTITUTE
(31)
(b) Hypermetropia or, long Sightedness :- Can see for away objects clearly but can not see near by objects.
(i) Cornea gets flatter leading to shortering of eye ball.
(ii) When the focal length of the eye lens becomes more than its normal value. Correction :- Using convex lens.
Presbyopia :- It causes myopic as well as hypermetropic defect uses bifocal lens for its correction.
Tyndall effect :- The scattering of light rays due to the constituent particles of the earth atmosphere is called tyndall effect.
The colour of scattered light depands on the size of scattering particles.
RXN (CHEMISTRY)
Reactants:  products
conditons
Chemical Reaction : The process by which two or more chemical substances interact to form new substances with
different chemical properties.The interaction results from breaking of chemical bonds of reactants and electronic
changes.
• Chemical reactions are represented by balanced chemical equations with the help of chemical symbols of the
substances involved.Physical states, following LAW of CONVERSATION of MASS.
Types of Chemical Reactions :–
(i) Combination reaction : Two or more substances combine to form a (single) substance.
(ii) Decomposition reaction : One chemical substance splits to give two or more substances either by heat
e ne rgy (  ) (The rmolysis) or
light (Photolysis) or by electricity (Electrolysis).
(iii) Displacement Reaction : More reactive element displaces lessreactive element from its compound or salt.
(iv) Double Displacement Reaction : Two elements interchange their respective salts or compounds from each
other to form new compounds.
(v) (a) Oxidation (b) Reduction
 addition of oxygen or  removal of oxygen addition
 removal of hydrogen or  gain or addition of hydrogen addition of non of matallic
 Loss of electrons  gain of electrons. metallic element elements b
Natural oxidation in everyday life: is oxidiation reduction
 Corrosion  Rancidily
ACIDS BASES SALTS
Sour taste bitter taste
turns blue turns red Neutral Basic
BAR litmus to red litmus to blue (Strong acid+ (Strong base + weak
+ – strong acid) eg CH3COONa
provides H provides OH base eg Acidic
ions when ions when Nace) (Strong acid+
weak
dissociated dissociated base eg
pH less 7 Bases dissolve NH4cl)
in water to give
strong weak alkalies
acids acids pH more than
eg HC l HNO3 H2CO3 7 upto 14
H2SO4 CH3COOH
(Mineral HCOOH weak
acids)
strong
(Organic base
Complete acids) base
dissociation NaOH NH4 OH
Partial
dissociation KOH (Partically dissocialed
fully dissociated)
Indicators (i) Dyes Red Red to blue base

Blue blue to Red acid
(ii) Litmus
Purple neutral
(ii) Olfactory Odour change
Chemical properties of Acids
(i) Acid + Metal Metallic salt + H2(g)

(ii) Acid + Carbonates Metallic salt + CO2(g )  H2O
(iii) Acid + Bicarbonates Metallic salt + CO2(g )  H2O
TAKSHILA INSTITUTE
(32)
(iv) Acid + Base Salt + H 2O
(v) Acid + Metal Oxide Salt + H 2O
Acids dissolved in water give H + ions
HCl(aq )  H   Cl  (aq )
H 2SO4(aq )  2H (aq )  SO42(aq )
Bases or alkalies dissolved in water (or in molten-state) give OH – ions

NaOH (aq )  Na(ar )  OH (aq )
Ca (OH )2(aq )  Ca 2(aq )  2OH (aq )

pH scale : 0 7 14 Ph depends upon temperature
BAS IC
DI C NEUTRAL
A CI g De
sin H 2O c
re a H + rea si
Inc + ions CO io n ng
H N2 O s
Importance of pH in everyday life :
acidic in stomach (Hcl)
(i) In digestive system (ii) Tooth decay (Tooth paste is basic in nature)
basic (alkaline) in deodenum
(iii) Nature of soil (iv) Plants & Animals are pH sensitive

(v) Self defence by animals and plants through chemical warfare.
SALT
Common Salt NaCl Chemicals obtained from NaCl (aq solution of nacl is brine solution).
(i) NaOH (by chlor-alkali process)
(caustic soda)
(ii) Bleaching powder ( CaOCl 2 )
(iii) Baking soda ( NaHCO 3 )
(iv) Washing soda ( Na 2CO3 10H 2O )

1
Other Important Salt : Plaster of paris (POP)  CaSO4  H 2O
2
Acids, Bases & Salts.
(1) Chemical name of plaster of paris (CaSO4 .1/ 2 H 2 O) is calcium sulphate hemihydrate. It is a white substance
used for maintaining fractured bone fixed in its place, making toy etc.
(2) Slaked lime  Ca(OH)2  obtained by mixing lime to water CaO  H 2 O 

 Ca(OH) 2
(3) Soda acid fire extinguisher contains a solution of NaHCO3 and H 2SO4 .
(4) Acid present in bee sting that causes pain is HCOOH (Methanoic acid).
(5) pH range of our blood 7.0 to 7.8.
(6) Bleaching powder (CaOCl2 ) chemical name calcium oxychloride. Obtained by treating dry slaked lime [Ca(OH) 2 ] .
with chlorine. Deteriorates on exposure to air because it loses chlorine due to CO 2 present in air.
TAKSHILA INSTITUTE
(33)
CaOCl 2  CO 2 
 CaCO 3  Cl 2 .
(7) The acid present in vineger is CH 3COOH(acetic acid) .
(8) Concentration of H 3 O  ion decreases on increasing dilution (volume increased).
(9) The survival of aquatic life in river water becomes difficult when acid rain [pH  5.6] flows into the water.
(10) Tooth decay takes place when the pH of mouth is less than 5.5. The bacteria present in the mouth decompose
sugar and food particles that remain in the mouth into acids that corrode the tooth enamel made up of calcium
phosphate.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
METAL NON METAL
 Solid (except mercury, liquid at room temp.)  Solid or gaseous (except bromine, liquid at room temp.)
 Hard (except sodium & Potassium)  Soft (except Diamond - hardest substance)
 Lusturous  Non - Lusturous (except Iodine)
 Malleable and Ductile  Brittle
 Good conductor of heat & Electricity (Except mercury & Lead)  Poor conductor of heat & and electricity (except graphite)
 Sonorous  Non sonorous or dull.
Chemical properties of metals.
(1) (a) Metal + Oxygen Metal oxide
(B) Metal oxide Amphoteric oxides Show both acidic
Basic oxides. & basic properties
eg. Al203 and Zn0
eg K20 Na20
(2) Metal + Water Metal hydroxide + H 2(g)

Metal oxides + H 2(g)
(3) Metal + Dil Acids Salt + H 2( g )

displacement
(4) Metal + Salt solution Salt of first metal + metal
reaction
from original salt
(5) Metals do not evolve H 2 gas on reaction with dilute HNO3 as HNO3 is strong oxidising agent, it oxidises H 2
gas evolved into H 2O .
(6) Al - does not react with H 2O under ordinary conditions as the surface of Al-is covered with a thin layer of its
oxide.
(7) Silver & Gold do not react with oxygen.
Ca reacts with H 2 O
(a) 
 Ca(OH)2 (aq)  H 2 (g) +heat
Ca(s)  2 H 2 O(l )
Fe reacts with steam

(b) 
 Fe3O4 (s)  4H 2 (g)
3Fe(s)  4 H 2 O
Na reacts with cold water

(c) 
2NaOH(aq)  H2 (g)
2Na(s)  2H2O(l )
All above reactions are based on reactivity series of metals.
Metals arranged in their decreasing order of activity or reactivity
• Metal + metal  No reaction
TAKSHILA INSTITUTE
(34)
• Metal + Nonmetal  Electrovalent or Ionic compound by complete transfer of electrons from metallic atom
to non-metallic and forming corresponding positive and negative ions.
• Nonmetal + Nonmetal  Covalent compound by sharing of electrons.
Properties of Ionic compounds :
(1) Physical nature : Hard and solid crystalline but brittle.
(2) Melting & boiling points : High m.p. & b.p. due to strong electrovalent bond
(3) Solubility : Soluble in electrovalent and polar covalent solvent only
(4) Conduction of electricity : Good conduction in molten state or aquous solution state.
Occurance of metals
Free state Combined or

compound state
Least reactive
metals Minerals reactive metals
ores
concentration of ore
highly reactive Moderately Less reactive

metals reactive metals metals
Electrolysis of 
Sulphide ore
molten ore Carbonate Sulphide
ore ore
Roasting
Pure metal
Calcination Roasting Reduced to
metal
Oxide of metal
Purification
Reduction to metal
Purification
Corrosion : The slow eating up (natural reaction of oxidation) of metals or metallic objects by the action of air,
moisture etc. is called corrosion.
 Corrosion of iron is called rusting
 Corrosion is harmful or sometimes it is beneficial too
 Necessary conditions for corrosion :–
(i) presence of air (or oxygen)
(ii) presence of moisture (or water)
Prevention of rusting :
(i) by painting (ii) by applying grease or oil
(iii) by galvanisation (iv) by electroplating or chromoplatting
(v) by alloying
Metals: The elements which have the properties of lustre, malleability and ductility, high thermal and electrical
conductivities. The metals have a good tendency to loose electrons electropositive nature.
Non-metals: The elements which do not have the above mentioned properties. These have a good tendency to gain
electrons Electron negative nature.
Metalloids: The elements having the properties of metals as well as non-metals.
Malleability: The property due to which metals can be hammered into very thin sheets.
Ductility: The property by which metals can be drawn into thin wires.
Electrical conductivity: The phenomenon to allow flow of electrical current.
TAKSHILA INSTITUTE
(35)
Acidic oxides: Non-metallic oxides are acidic, they turn blue litmus red e.g., CO2, P2O5
When acidic oxides react with water, they form acids.
Basic Oxides:Metallic Oxides are basic, they turn red litmus blue and when they react with water they form bases.
Na2O  H 2O  2 NaOH
(sodium hydroxide)
Amphoteric oxides: Certain oxides of metal behave both as acidic as well as basic oxides. They are known as
amphoteric oxides. Al2O3 , ZnO
Neutral oxides: Certain non metals behave as neither acidic nor basic oxides. Such oxides are known as neutral
oxides. H 2O, CO , N 2 O
Monatomic: Elementary molecules containing only one atom.
Polyatomic: Molecules containing more than one atom.
Hydrides: Binary compounds containing hydrogen
Corrosion: Any process of chemical decay of metals due to the action of the surrounding medium is corrosion. Most
metals and alloys are attacked by oxygen, moisture and acids.
Froth floatation: A method of separation of ores in aqueous suspension by formation of a moderately stable form
by addition of a small quantity of suitable reagent surfactants and wetting agents.
Metals and Non-Metals
(1) Roasting : The ore is heated in presence of excess of air. It converts sulphide ores into oxides.
(2) Calcination :- The ore is heated in the absence of excess of air. It converts carbonate ores into oxides.
Refining: The process of purifying the crude metal.
Alloy: A homogeneous mixture of two or more metals or a metal and a non-metal.
Amalgam: Special class of alloys in which one of the constituent metals is mercury. For eg. Amalgmated Zinc
 Zn  Hg 
Superconductivity: The phenomenon of loss of electrical resistance by a metal on cooling it to extremely low
temperature.
Allotropes: The different forms of the same element having same chemical properties but different physical properties
are called allotropic forms. This phenomenon is called allotropy.
Some Common Alloys, their Constitutents, Properties and Uses
Alloy Constituents Properties Uses
Steel Iron 98%, Carbon (2%) Hard, tough and strong Construction of ships, bridges, vehicle, etc.
Stainless Steel (82%)Iron, Nickel, Chromium(18%) Hard and does not rust Surgical instruments, cutlery, utensils, etc.
Brass (80%)Copper and Zinc(20%) Malleable, strong, Utensils, screws, nuts and bolts.
resists corrosion,
Bronze (90% )Copper and Tin(10% ) Very strong and highly coins, medals,statuies ship's propellers, etc.
resistant to corrosion
Duralumin (95%)Alluminium,(4%)copper & strong, high strength Aircrafts, pressure
traces of Magnesium Resistant to corrosion cooker.
and Manganese(41% )
Magnllium (95% )Aluminium & (5%)Magnesium Very light and hard Balance beams and light instruments
CARBON
(we have millions of carbon compounds and millions are yet to be discovered)
Free state Combined state
Crystalline Amorphous
In living In non-
organisms living
system
Graphite Coke Charcoal
Diamond Buckminster
fullerene
CO2 Coal
Carbonates Petroleum Natural
gas
Corbohydrates Fats Proteins
TAKSHILA INSTITUTE
(36)
Simplest compounds of carbon are HYDROCARBONS (compounds having atoms of carbon and hydrogen only)
Saturated Unsaturated
ALKANE
ALKENE ALKYNE
(Suffix ANE)
(Suffix ENE) (Suffix YNE)
General formula
C nH 2n+2 General formula General formula
C nH 2n C nH 2n–2
Single bond between Double bond Triple bond

carbon atoms between C-atoms between C-atoms
CARBON & ITS COMPOUNDS.

Allotropy: The phenomenon of existence of element in two or more forms in same physical state which are chemically identical.
Organic compounds: Hydrocarbons and their derivatives are organic compounds. (Organic - chemical substances of animal or plant - origin.)
Hydrocarbons: Compounds made of carbon and hydrogen are known as hydrocarbons.
Some Common Fuctional Groups
Formula of functional group Name of functional group Sufix Formula of compound containing Name of Compound
functional group
-OH Alcoholic C 2H 5OH Ethanol
-CHO Aldehydic HCHO Methanal
-COOH Carboxyl CH 3COOH Ethanoic acid
>C=0 Ketonic H3C CO CH3 Propanone
-X (a halogen) Halogen CH 3-Cl chloromethane
-NH 2 Amino CH 3NH 2 Methanamine
-NO 2 Nitro CH 3NO 2 Nitromethane
Vulcanization: The process of heating natural rubber with sulphur to improve its properties. S2CI2, Tetrmethyl thiuram disulphide,Se,Te, organic
peroxides are used with additives to affect rate of vulcanization.
Catenation: It is a unique property found in some elements as in carbon in which carbon atoms have the ability of combining with themselves to
form numerous compounds in different ways.
Organic chemistry: Study of hydrocarbons and their derivatives is called organic chemistry.
Aromatic compunds: Organic compounds in which carbon atoms are arranged in a six members ring having characteristic properties. (Aroma-
smell)
Aliphatic compounds: Compounds in which carbon atoms are arranged one after another in a chain like fashion.
Saturated compounds: Compounds in which all the bonds between the atoms are single bonds.
Unsaturated compounds: Compounds which contain a carbon-carbon double bond or a carbon-carbon triple bond.
Homocyclic or Carbocyclic or Alicyclic Compounds: Organic compounds in which atoms like nitrogen, oxygen, sulphur are. present in the ring
in addition to carbon.
Functional Group: A characteristic group present in an organic compound. (Eg. aldehyde, alcohol, acidic etc.)
Alkanes: are the saturated hydrocarbons in which all the carbon bonds are singly bonded, because all the four valencies of carbon are satisfied.
They have the general formula Cn H 2 n  2
Isomerism: The phenomenon in which different compounds have different structural formulae but same molecular formulae.
Molecular formulae: Gives the exact number of arrangement of atoms of various elements present in a compound.
Combustion: Burning an organic compound in air or oxygen. Carbon dioxide and water are the products of combustion.
Molasses: The mother liquor left after the crystallization of cane sugar.
Rectified sprit: 95.6% pure alcohol.
Fermentation: Process of decomposition of organic compounds brought about by certain enzymes is known as fermentation.
Esterification: Formation of an ester by the combination of an acid with an alcohol.
CH 3 COOH  CH 3 CH 2 OH  CH 3COOC 2 H 5  H 2O
ethyl ethanoate
Propoerties of carbon compounds :
(i) Combustion : to produce CO2 , H 2O & Energy..
(ii) Oxidation : to form other organic compounds.
(iii) Addition reaction : in unsturated hydrocarbons.
(iv) Substitution reaction : in saturated compounds  displacement reaction.
Carbon Compound :
Cleaning action of soaps & detergents :-
A molecule of soaps & detergents are made of two parts, hydrophobic hydrocarbon part and a hydrophilic (water attracting) -ve charged
ionic head. When dissolved in water the tails gather together with the ionic heads pointing towards resulting in the formation of micelles. The
tail is attracted to the dirt ie, grease and -vely charged get attracted towards water.
Electron dot structure C5 H10
TAKSHILA INSTITUTE
(37)
H H
CO2
H C H
C C O C O
H
H C C
H H
H H
Denatured alcohol : The alcohol that is made unfit for drinking by adding poisonous substances such as methanol is known as denatured
alcohol Ethanol is supplied at concessional rates to industries & therefore the alcohol is denatured to make it unfit for drinking.
2
Cleansing action of a detergent is more effective than a soap because detergent does not form a precipitate with Ca 2  and Mg ions which
are responsible for the hardness of water.
Do You Know ?
1. Oxallic acid is obtained from  Cane sugar 2. Formic acid is obtained from  Red Ant
3. Glycerine is obtained from  Olive oil 4. Citric acid is obtained from  Lemon
5. Mallic acid is obtained from  Apple 6. Lactic acid is obtained from  Sour milk
7. Water gas is  CO  H 2 8. Producer gas is  CO  N2
9. White vitroi is  ZnSO4 .7 H 2 O 10. Gun power is  75% KNO3 , 12%, S, 13% charcoal
11. Laughing gas is  N 2O 12. Lunar Caustic is  AgNO3
13. Nitrolim is  CaCN 2 14. Oleum is  H 2 S2O7
15. Oil of vitriol is  Conc. H 2 SO4 16. Hypo is  Na2 S2O3 .5H 2O
17. Delta metal is  Cu  Zn  Fe 18. Brass is  Cu  Zn
19. Constantan  60% Cu, 40% Ni 20. Fusion mixture  Na2CO3  K 2CO3
BIOLOGY
Nutrition : Process of intake as well as utilization of nutrients by an organism.
Mechanical digestion: Digestion by physical activities of body parts like chewing etc.
Chemical digestion: Digestion involving various chemical reactions all of which are catalyzed by a number of enzymes.
Biological reactions: The chemical reactions occurring inside the bodies of living organisms.
Foods: Organic compounds used in the synthesis of new biomolecules and as fuels in the production of cellular energy.
Nutrient: A chemical substance that contributes to the growth of an organism.
Carbohydrates: An organic compound of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen in which the atoms of hydrogen and oxygen are in the ratio of 2 : l e.g., sugars,
starch and cellulose.
Fats: Any of glycerol esters of fatty acids which form a class of natural organic compounds. It is a concentrated source of energy.
Fatty acids: Monobasic aliphatic carboxylic acids; a constituent of fat, insoluble in water.
pH: An expression used to indicate acidity or alkalinity; a logarithmic index for the hydrogen ion concentration in solution. Neutral pH is 7, lower
levels are acidic, higher ones are basic.
Kidney: Organ which filters various liquid wastes from blood and separates them as urine, thus, maintains homeostasis and excreting waste.
Nephron: The anatomical and functional unit of the vertebrate kidney.
Urea: One of the end products of protein metabolism; soluble in water excretory waste of aquatic animals and amphibians.
Ureter: The fibromuscular tube that helps to pass urine from a kidney to urinary bladder.
Urethra: The membranous canal by which urine is conveyed from the urinary bladder to the exterior.
Uric acid: An end product of nucleic acid and protein metabolism with a low solubility in water, particularly abundant in certain terrestrial animals.
Dialysis: The process of selective filtering out small molecules and retaining large molecules such as proteins. The term also applies to the
purification of blood from a patient suffering kidney failure.
Diffusion: The spontaneous movement and scattering of particles (atoms and molecules) of liquids, gases and solids.
Osmoregulation: The process by which a cell or an animal controls the amount of water in its body and the concentration of various solutes and
ions in the body fluid.
Insulin: Secreted by beta cells of Islets of Langerhans in Pancreas, controls transformation of glucose into glycogen. It’s deficiency in the body
creates a disease called diabetes mellitius in which the level of glucose in the blood rises up.
TAKSHILA INSTITUTE
(38)
Glucagon: Secreted by the alpha cells of Langerhans, regulates the conversion of glycogen into glucose.
Glucose: A common hexose (six-carbon) sugar, chief fuel in the metabolism of living organisms.
Glycerol: A three-carbon alchols which is a constituent of all fats.
Glycolysis: Anaerobic process of enzymatic breakdown of glucose into pyruvic acid that occurs in the cytoplasm and releases only 5 per cent of
energy of glucose in the form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP).
Metabolism: Organisms take raw materials during nutrition and derive energy from the food prepared through the process of respiration.
Catabolism: Destructive metabolism involving breakdown of large organic molecules often with the liberation of energy e.g., respiration, digestion.
Chemosynthesis: A biological mechanism by which the energy can be derived from certain chemical reactions e.g.., some group of bacteria can
synthesize substances from inorganic matter.
Assimilation: Conservation of nutritive materials into protoplasm.
Exothermic reaction: A reaction in which heat is evolved.
Endothermic reaction: A reaction in which heat is absorbed.
ATP : Adenosine Triphosphate (energy coin).
NADP : Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide Phosphate.
Respiration: A fundamental biological process by which complex food is broken into simpler compounds along with release of energy in the
presence of oxygen.
Expiration: The act of breathing out air from lungs.
Aerobic respiration: Cellular respiration carried out with the help of oxygen. It includes glycolysis, oxidative decarboxylation, Kreb’s cycle,
electron transport chain and oxidative phosphorylation.
Anaerobic respiration: Cellular respiration carried out without the help of oxygen. It includes glycolysis and alcoholic fermentation in yeast and
lactic acid formation in skeletal muscles.
Anaerobe: An organism that does not require air or free oxygen for its cellular respiration.
Lung: Either of the paired air-filled sacs, usually in the interior part of trunk of most tetrapods which function an main organs of respiration.
Stomata: The pores on the leaf surface for exchange of gases, quarded by guard cell.
Lenticel: A gap in the bark of a twig through which exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide can occur.
Translocation: Movement of water, mineral salts and organic substances from one part of a plant to another.
Xylem: Plant tissue through which ascent of sap takes place.
Phloem: The tissue through which conduction of food takes place in plants.
Physiology: The branch of biology which deals with functioning and interrelationships of tissue cells, tissues and organs of the body.
RBCs or Erythrocytes: Round, biconcave, disc like structures, disc like structures, thinnest at the centre and without any nuclei. Main constituent
Å hemoglobin.The number about 5 million per cubic millimeter of blood.
Hemoglobin: A protein with iron containing molecules, transports oxygen.
WBCs or Leucocytes: Larger, fewer in number than the RBCs and with one nucleus each. The number about 5000 per cubic millimeter of blood.
They are of five types : lymphocytes, monocytes, neutrophils, eosinophils and basophils. Major function is providing immunity to body.
Arteries: The narrow blood vessels having thick and elastic walls. They carry mostly oxygenated blood from heart to various parts of body.
Veins: The wider, thin-walled blood vessels which carry mostly deoxygenated blood from various parts of the body to the heart.
Atrium (Auricle): The upper chamber of the heart receiving blood from the veins.
Pulse: The heart beat felt on certain arteries lying next to a bone. The pulse rate is the same as the heart beat rate and average between 70 and 90 beats
per minute in the resting state.
Capillaries: Very thin walled (walls just one cell thick) tiny blood vessels. Capillaries ultimately join to form venules.
Glomerulus: A tuft of capillaries inside the Bowman’s Capsule.
salivary pancreas
(i)Carbohydrates or Starch 
amylase
 Maltose  glucose
amylase
pepsin trypsin
(ii) Proteins 
in acidic medium
 peptones 
in alkaline medium
 amino acid
Lipase
(iii) Fats or Lipids    fattyacid and glycerol
Transportation in Animals - Circulatory system (Blood & Lymphatic)
(i) Organ - Heart
(ii) Vessels - Artery, Vein and Capillaries.
(iii) Connective tissues (fluid) - Blood and Lymph.
TAKSHILA INSTITUTE
(39)
Heart : Blood :
Right & Left Atrium (i) WBC- fight against diseases
Right & Left Ventricles (ii) RBC - Carry respiratory gases
(iii) Platelets - Clotting of blood
(iv) Plasma - medium(fluid)
Course of blood circulation :- Given by William Harvey, Human heart shows double circulation
Right Auricle Right ventricle Pulmonary Artery
Veins Blood
goes
to
Deoxygenated blood lung
for
purification
Impure Blood
Body Part
Impure Blood
Arteries Oxygenated
blood
Aorta Left ventricle Left Auricle Pulmonary vein
Excretory Organs : (i) Human - Kidneys, Lungs, Skin(Nephron is unit)

Kidney failure : Dialysis or kideny transportation.
Control and Coordination :-
PLANTS :
(A) Tropic Movement :
(i) Phototropism (ii) Geotropism (iii) Chemotropism
(B) Nastic Movement
Phytohormones :
Auxius :- Causes apical dominance in plants
Gibberellin :- Overcome genetic dwarfism in plants
Cytokinin :- Induces cell division in plants
Ethylene :- Brings artificial ripering of fruits
Abscisic Acid :- Stress homone
Control & Coordination in Animals :-
Receptor Effector
Sensory Neuron : Motor Neuron
(i) Photoreceptor - Light
(ii) Photoreceptor - Sound
(iii) Olfactoreceptor - Smell
Animal Nutrition
Alimentary canal Digestive Glands

Mouth Salivary Glands
or Buccal Cavity Gastric Glands
Pharynx Intestine Glands
Oesophagus Liver
Stomach Pancreas
Duodenum
Small Intestine
ileum
Colone
Large Intestine
Rectum
Anus
TAKSHILA INSTITUTE
(40)
Respiratory Tract Respiratory Organ Central Peripheral
Nervous System Nervous System
External Nostril Lungs
Nasal sac
Internal Nostril Brain Spinal cord Sympathetic
Nervous
Larynx System
Trachea
Bronchi
Cranial Spinal Vicoral
Alveoli
Nerves Nerves nerves
CELL (Basic unit of life)
Prokaryotic Cell Eukaryotic Cell
Fore Brain Mid Brain Primitive cell with Advance cell with well
incipient nucleus defined nucleus
Membrane bound cell All membrane bound
organelles like chloroplast, cell organelles present
Cerebrum and Sensory area Cerebellum Mitochondria
different lobes Motor area Medulla Golgi complex absent
(i) Olfactory Oblongata Ribosome 70s Ribosome 80s
(ii) Occipital Pons DNA without histone DNA with histone
(iii) Parietal eg. Bacteria Eg. Plant, Human Cell
(iv) Temporal
(v) Frontal
Active transport: An energy requiring mechanism which make the selective transportation of solutes (i.e., glucose, amino acids and salts) takes place.
Fermentation: The energy-yielding enzymatic breakdown (oxidation) of organism substrate, especially carbohydrates that takes place in certain
micro-organism such as yeast, moulds and bacteria under anaerobic conditions, usually accompanied by the evolution of heat and carbon dioxide and
formation of alcohol, latic acid and certain other organic acids.
Carbon fixation: Reduction of CO 2 into glucose, food-making process.
Tissue culture: In this, a small piece of tissue is cut from a plant and kept in a container with a nutrient medium under proper conditions. The tissue
grows out into an unorganized mass called callus. Small portions of callus are put in an other medium which induces differentiation of plantlets. These
plantlets are transplanted in pots or soil and raised to maturity.
Micropropagation : The production of plants by cells or tissues or organs in a synthetic medium is called micropropagation.
Fertilization: Fusion of male and female gametes.
Double Fertilization : In flowering plants two components of embryo sac egg and polar nuclei are fertilized at one time separately by the two male
gametes formed inside the pollen tube. This phenomenon is called double-fertilization. It occurs only in angiosperms.
Foetus: The embryo of a mammal, especially a human, when development has reached a stage at which main features of an adult form are recognizable.
Zygote : The fusion cell which gives way to the off spring or new individual. Zygote is formed by the fusion of two specialized cells called sex cells or gametes.
Regeneration : Ability of an organism to replace its part or to form a complete organisms from part of body.
Parthenogenesis : Process by which an organism is produces from unfertilized egg.
Embryo: The developing zygote.
Embryo: The developing zygote.
Placenta: A vascular organ that unites the foetus (embryo) to the wall of uterus in man and other mammals.
Pregnant: When the egg fertilizes and implants itself in the uterus, the women is said to be pregnant.
Puberty: The stage when man and women become capable of sexual reproduction.
Puberty Age : 10 to 12 years.
Secondary sexual characters: External features of sexually matured animals although not directly invled in copulation yet are significant in
reproductive behavior e.g.., breast of human females.
Semen: A fluid containing sperms and nutrients that are produced in male animal.
Sperm: The male sex cell.
Ovum or Egg: The female sex cell.
Gamete: The single sex cell involved in fusion during sexual reproduction.
Ovulation: The release of an egg from the ovary.
Spore: Minute asexual reproductive structure, generally comprised of one cell, wrapped in a tough coat and relatively resistant to environmental stresses.
Monosexual or dioecious: Organisms in which sexes are separate.
Bisexual, Monocious or hermaphrodite: Organisms in which every single individual can produce both male and female gametes.
TAKSHILA INSTITUTE
(41)
IUCD : Intrauterine Contraceptive Device.
AIDS : Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome.
HIV : Human Immunodeficiency Virus.
OC : Oral Contraceptive.
Enzyme: A protein catalyst produced within a living organism that accelerates specific chemical reactions Enzymes are also known as biological catalysts.
CNS (Central Nervous System): Series of nerves which link the CNS with various organs.
Reflex: An automatic response to a stimulus which is not under conscious control.
Reflex Action: Response that occurs at the level of spinal cord.
Relfex Arc: Path through which the stimulus passes.
S.No. Name of Organ Sympathetic System Parasympathetic System
1. Heart Increase contraction and rhythm Decrease contraction and rhythm
2. Bronchi Dilation Construction
3. Eye Dilation of pupil Construction of pupil
4. Urinary bladder Relaxation Contraction.
Cerebrum: The upper cap like a part of the brain. This makes the brain the organ of thought and intelligence.
Cerebellum: Sticking out of the top side of the brain stem just below the cerebrum is a small protuberance called cerebellum.
Instinct: A relatively complex and fixed behavior of an animal which is the characteristic of a species and is apparently unlearned.
Neuron: Nerve cell; functional unit of the nervous system, specialized to respond to stimuli by electrical impulses that are rapidly conducted along
the axon of the neuron to reach other cells with the axon synapses.
Synapse: The junction or region of union of axon of one neuron with the deindrite of another through which nerve impulses are transferred.
Homeostasis: Maintenance of constancy of internal environmental in the living organism.
Photosynthesis: It is a complex physiological mechanism by means of which green plants (with chlorophyll) are capable of capturing atmospheric
carbon dioxide and transforming it into food in the presence of sunlight and water.
Mechanism of Photosynthesis :
(i) Light Phase (ii) Dark Phase
(i) Carboxylation :- Carboxylation is the fixation of CO 2 into a stable organic intermediate. Carboxylation is the most crucial step of the calvin
cycle where CO 2 is utilised for the carboxylation of RuBP..
(ii) Reduction :- These are a series of reaction that lead to the formation of glucose. The steps involve utilisation of 3 molecules of ATP for
phosphorylation and two of NADPH for reduction per CO molecule fixed.
2
(iii) Regeneration :- Regeneration of the CO 2 acceptor molecule RuBP is crucial if the cycle is to continue uninterrupted. The regeneration steps
require one ATP for phosphorylation to form RuBP.
Respiratory Quotient :- During aerobic respiration, O2 is consumed and CO 2 is released. The ratio of the volume of CO 2 evolved to the
volume of O2 consumed in respiration is called the respiratory quotient (RQ) or respiratory ratio.
Volumeof CO 2 evolved
RQ 
Volumeof O 2consumed
Fermentation :- Incomplete oxidation of glucose is achieved under anaerobic conditions by sets of reactions where pyruvic acid is converted to
CO 2 and ethanol.
Clone :- Offspring that are genetically identical to the parent and to each other.
Hermaphrodite :- Organism passessing both male and female reproductive organs.
Pollination :- Transfer of pollen grains from another to stigma.
Syngamy :- Fusion of male gamete with the egg resulting in the production of zygote.
Vegetative Propagation :- Technique of growing of new plants from any vegetative organ of the plant.
Viviparous :- Organisms in which fertilization and development occur inside the body of the female.
Gametogenesis :- It is the process of formation of gametes - male and female in the reproductive cells.
Allogamy :- A condition where pollens from one flower are deposited on the stigma of another flower born on the different plants.
Autogamy :- A condition where flower is pollinated by its own pollen.
Geitonogamy :- A condition where pollens from one flower are deposited on the stigma of another flower borne on the same plant.
Inflorescence :- Arrangement of flowers on the floral axis.
Placentation :- Arrangement of ovules in the ovary.
Pomology :- Study of fruits and their cultivation.
Blastulation :- Process of formation of blastula from morula.
Gestation period :- A period between fertilisation of egg and the birth of young one.
Isogamy :- Fusion of two morphologically and physiological similar gametes.
Menstrual cycle :- Rythmic series of changes in the sex organs that occur after every 28 days.
Oogenesis :- Formation and development of ova in the ovary from primordial germinal cells.
Spermatogensis :- A process of formation of sperms from the primordial germinal cells (spermatogonia)
TAKSHILA INSTITUTE
(42)
Environment and Environmental Problems
 Living organisms and physical surroundings, with which on interacts, from the environments.
 Pollutants are substances that adversely change the environment.
 Pollutants are biodegradable and non-biodegradable.
 Pollution is an undersirable change in physical, chemical and biological characteristics of air, water, land.
 Pollution is of various types - such as air pollution, water pollution and soil pollution land pollution & radioactive pollution.
 Different techniques and practices are adopted to control pollution.
 Population and development affect the environment. There is a need for proper planning to maintain balance between population, development
and environment.
 Conservation relates to activities of human beings and judicious use of national resources.
 Government has enacted various laws and acts to conserve and protect the environment.
NUTRITION : The utilization of nutrients is (i) To provide energy, (ii) for body-building and growth and (iii) protects the bodyfrom diseases and
help in all metabolic activities.
Reproduction of AID
Steps of Nutrition in Animals :

(i) Ingestion (ii) Digestion (iii) Absorption (iv) Assimilation (v) Egestion
Digestion in Human Being :
Artificial vegetative propagation
TAKSHILA INSTITUTE
(43)
Heredity - Carrying Similarity among generations - by DNA

Mendal’s contributions - garden Pea plant
Evolution - of new species from pre-existed organisms which might be quite different in their physiology, nutrtion, habital etc.
Endocrine Glands Hormones
Hypothalums Growth horome
Pituitary (hypophysis) (i) Growth hormone
(ii) Trophic hormones; (iii) Prolactin
(iv) Vasopressin
Types of Food Material
(v) Oxytocin Carbohydrate
Energy Producers
Thyroid Thyroxin Fats
Parathyroid Parathormone
Adrenal Adrenalin and Corticoids Body Builders Protein
Pancreas Insulin and Glucagon

Regulators Minerals and vitamins
Testes Testosterone
Ovary Estrogen and Progesterone Biocatalyst Enzymes
Model Test Paper forT.N.T.S.E / N.T.S.E
TAKSHILA INSTITUTE
(44)

  
   
     
TAKSHILA INSTITUTE
(45)
TAKSHILA INSTITUTE
(46)
A Victory Path for IIT-JEE / NEET & AIIMS / FOUNDATION
STREAM PLANNING
TAKSHILA INSTITUTE
(47)

Tips & Tricks PDF

Caricato da

Informazioni sul documento

Titolo originale

Copyright

Formati disponibili

Condividi questo documento

Condividi o incorpora il documento

Opzioni di condivisione

Hai trovato utile questo documento?

Questo contenuto è inappropriato?

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

Tips & Tricks PDF

Caricato da

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

TIPS & TRICKS

MATHEMATICS, SCIENCE &

Copyright © Takshila Institute®

The All India Institute of Medical Sciences (AIIMS)

2. Prove that 6  4 5 is irrational.

0 Constant polynomial f ( x )  a , a is a constant

3 Cubic polynomial f (x)  ax3  bx2  cx  d , a  0, a, b, c, d ,  R

(ii) Graph of a quadratic polynomial f ( x )  ax 2  bx  c is a parabola open upwards like  if a  0 .

p( x)  x3  (sum of zeroes) x2  (sum of product

DIVISION ALGORITHM FOR POLYNOMIALS :

If The system has The Graphs is

iii. cos ec 2  1  cot2 ,cosec 2   cot2   1,cot2   cos ec 2  1

v. cos ec (90  )  sec  vi. sec(90  )  cos ec  

14. STATISTICS & PROBABILITY

Upper limit  Lower limit

2. Find the median and mode of the following data:

(ii) By completing the square : Let the quadratic equation be ax 2  bx  c  0 , a  0

Let the quadratic equation be ax 2  bx  c  0 , a  0

Let quadratic equation is ax 2  bx  c  0 , a  0

(i) The sum of the roots of the equation ax 2  bx  c  0 , a  0

(ii) The product of the roots of the equation ax 2  bx  c  0 , a  0

* for three terms take a - d, a, a + d * for five terms take a - 2d, a - d, a, a + d, a + 2d

a – 5d a – 3d a – d middle term a + d a + 3d a + 5d * for two terms take a - d, a + d

* for four terms take a - 3d, a - d, a + d, a + 3d

 sumof abscissas sumof ordinates 

 x1 + x 2 + x 3 y1 + y 2 + y 3   sumof abscissas sumof ordinates 

Area of ABC , whose verticies are A( x1 y1), B( x2 y2 ) and C ( x3 y3 ) is

Self Practice Questions

(i) Circumference 2 r or d , where d  2 r is the diameter of the circle.

(A) Right circular cylinder r

(i) Area of base = r 2 (ii) C.S.A/L.S.A. = 2rh h

(B) Hollow cylinder r

(i) Area of each end = (R 2  r 2 ) (ii) C.S.A / L.S.A = 2h(R  r)

T.S.A = 6  (side) 2 C.S.A/ L.S.A = 4  (side) 2

i.e. 0  P(E)  1 , for all event.

Plug key or switch (open) or Variable resistance

A closed plug or switch or Ammeter A

A wire joint Voltmeter V

w work Energy consumed

-- --- --------- --- -- --- --

Refraction through prism: When light passes through a prism

At infinity At the focus F, Highly diminished point-sized Virtual and erect

IMAGE FORMATION BY A CONVEX MIROR FORDIFFERENT POSITIONS OFTHE OBJECT

IMAGE FORMED BY A CONVEX LENS FOR DIFFERENT POSITIONS OF THE OBJECT

pole in direction of incident light as positive.

Distance of the image from the optical centre 

Indicators (i) Dyes Red Red to blue base

(i) Acid + Metal Metallic salt + H2(g)

H 2SO4(aq )  2H (aq )  SO42(aq )

Bases or alkalies dissolved in water (or in molten-state) give OH – ions

Ca (OH )2(aq )  Ca 2(aq )  2OH (aq )

(iii) Nature of soil (iv) Plants & Animals are pH sensitive

(ii) Bleaching powder ( CaOCl 2 )

(iii) Baking soda ( NaHCO 3 )

(iv) Washing soda ( Na 2CO3 10H 2O )

(2) Slaked lime  Ca(OH)2  obtained by mixing lime to water CaO  H 2 O 

(7) The acid present in vineger is CH 3COOH(acetic acid) .

(8) Concentration of H 3 O  ion decreases on increasing dilution (volume increased).

(2) Metal + Water Metal hydroxide + H 2(g)

(3) Metal + Dil Acids Salt + H 2( g )

Fe reacts with steam

Na reacts with cold water

• Metal + metal  No reaction