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Bypass Line
A bypass line is required to connect the pipeline with related facilities such as a
booster station. The sizes for the bypass line shall be between 18-26 inches.
5.2. Kicker Line
A kicker line is required to connect the major barrel with the bypass line to
enable diversion of the fluid through the barrel to launch or receive a pig. For a
launcher the kicker line shall be connected to the major barrel as close as
possible to the end closure and for a receiver as close as possible to the reducer.
The kicker line of both launcher and receiver shall be located at the centre of the
major barrel because of bi-directional pigging operation. The sizes for the kicker
line is 12’’.
5.3. Balance Line
A balance line shall be provided on launchers to enable filling and pressurising or
depressurising (equalizing) of the barrel on both sides of the pig at the same
time.
This is to prevent a pig, which is ready to be launched from moving either forwards
(and thereby hitting and possibly damaging the pig trap valve) or backwards (and
losing the seal in the reducer). To ensure this, the balance line, branching off
from the kicker line, shall be connected to the minor barrel as close as possible
to the pig trap valve. The sizes for the balance line is 4’’.
5.4. Safety Relief Line
A pig trap system shall be protected against overpressure by providing relief
valves. The valve shall be provided at the highest point on the pig trap major
barrel and piped to vent system.
Where flare/vent system is not available, the valve shall be piped to a safe
location (atmosphere). Relief valves discharging to atmosphere should be located at
the maximum practical elevation to keep discharge piping (to safe location) as
short as possible. Dispersion analysis shall be performed to determine the safe
distances. The sizes for the bypass line is 2’’ in accordance with DEP 31.40.10.13-
Gen. Ref. [9].
5.5. Drain Line
Drain points shall be provided near end closure and near the pig trap valve at
lowest point of the barrel to allow maximum drainage of liquid accumulated in the
barrel.
Connection of drain lines to pressurized systems should be avoided to enable the
contents of the barrel to be emptied as necessary. In addition, before opening the
drain valve(s) the barrel shall be depressurised and vented to minimise vapour
release or over pressurisation of the drain system.
Welded Pipe
H.3.3.2.1 Unless otherwise agreed, coil and plate used for the manufacture of
welded pipe shall be
rolled from continuously cast (strand cast) or pressure cast slabs. The pipe shall
be SAWL, SAWH, or
HFW.
H.3.3.2.2 For HFW pipe, the abutting edges of the coil or plate should be sheared,
milled, or machined
before welding.
H.3.3.2.3 Coil and plate used for the manufacture of welded pipe shall be inspected
visually after
rolling. Visual inspection of coil used for the manufacture of welded pipe may be
either of the uncoiled
strip or of the coil edges.
H.3.3.2.4 If agreed for HFW pipe, such coil and plate shall be inspected
ultrasonically for laminar
imperfections or mechanical damage in accordance with K.4, either before or after
cutting the coil or
plate, or the completed pipe shall be subjected to full-body inspection, including
ultrasonic inspection.
H.3.3.2.5 If agreed, helical seam pipe made from coil/plate and containing
coil/plate end welds may be
delivered, provided that such welds are located at least 300 mm from the pipe ends
and have been
subjected to the same nondestructive inspection required in Annex K for coil/plate
edges and welds.
H.3.3.2.6 Intermittent tack welding of the SAWL or SAWH groove shall not be used,
unless the
purchaser has approved data furnished by the manufacturer to demonstrate that the
mechanical
properties specified for the pipe are obtainable at both the tack weld and
intermediate positions.
H.3.3.3 Jointers
Jointers shall not be delivered, unless otherwise agreeddescription of more
advanced iterative operations made possible by the programming
operators in Mathcad Professional, turn to Chapter 15, “Programming.”
Defining and using range variables
To define a range variable, type the variable name followed by a colon and a range
of
values. For example, here’s how to define the variable j ranging from 0 to 15 in
steps
of 1:
1. Type j and then press the colon key (:), or click on the
Calculator toolbar. The empty placeholder indicates that Mathcad
expects a definition for j. At this point, Mathcad does not know whether j is to be
a conventional variable or a range variable.
2. Type 0. Then press the semicolon key (;), or click on the
Calculator toolbar. This tells Mathcad that you are defining a range
variable. Mathcad displays the semicolon as two periods “..” to indicate a range.
Complete the range variable definition by typing 15 in the remaining placeholder.
This definition indicates that j now takes on the values . To define a range
variable that changes in steps other than 1, see the section “Types of ranges” on
page
103.
Once you define a range variable, it takes on its complete range of values every
time
you use it. If you use a range variable in an equation, for example, Mathcad
evaluates
that equation once for each value of the range variable.
You must define a range variable exactly as shown above. There must be:
• a variable name on the left,
• either a “:=” or a “≡” in the middle, and
• a valid range on the right.
Not e You cannot define a variable in terms of a range variable. For example, if
after having defined j
as shown you now define , Mathcad assumes you are trying to set a scalar variable
equal to a range variable and marks the equation with an appropriate error message.
One application of range variables is to fill up the elements of a vector or
matrix. You
can define vector elements by using a range variable as a subscript. For example,
to
define for each value of j:
• Type x[j:j^2[Space]+1.
Figure 8-4 shows the vector of values computed by this equation. Since j is a range
variable, the entire equation is evaluated once for each value of j. This defines
for
each value of j from 0 to 15
Exposures
Chloride-containing and carbonated samples (series 1 and 3) were exposed
out of doors in Milan. Ponding, i.e. accelerated chloride penetration (series
2), has been carried out using three-week cycles: one week of wetting the
concrete surface with 1 L of 3.5% NaCl solution, and two weeks of drying.
15.3.3 Corrosion tests
The free corrosion potential and polarisation resistance (Rp) of each rebar
were monitored. Corrosion potential was measured versus a saturated calomel
electrode (SCE) put in contact with the concrete surface by means of a wet
sponge. Rp was measured using the linear polarisation technique [25], by
applying a potential scan rate of 10 mV per minute in the range ±10 mV with
respect to the free corrosion potential. The mean corrosion rate (µm per
year) was calculated by means of the Stern–Geary relationship: icorr = 1.17 ×
C/R
p where Rp is the measured polarisation resistance (evaluated from the
slope of the potential/current density curve) and the constant C is assumed to
be equal to 26 mV [26].
The crevicegeometry is another factor which influences the repassivating
temperature. In
these experiments, the same crevice assembly was used in all tests and the currents
were
restrictedathigh temperatureto getareproducible crevicegeometryandthereby
reproducible
results. In general, the repassivation temperature increases with
increasingcrevicewidth due
to a higher diffusion flux out of the crevice. For the tests with a commercial
gasket it was
impossibleto maintain active corrosion for temperatures below 40°C. Visual
examination of
these specimens after exposure showed corrosion attack at only a few points. The
rest of the
crevicearea was coveredwithmaterial from the gasket.It appearsthat the gasket is
gluing itself
to the metal surface which gives a very tight crevice and a little electrolyte
volume. For such
a tight crevice redistribution of ion concentrations and current density may not
occur easily.
Inspection of attack profiles of less tight crevices at various temperatures (not
shown here)
indicates that sucharedistribution maybe a prerequisite
formaintaininganactivecrevice. This
may then explain the very high repassivation temperature observed with the soft
commercial
gaskets.For surfacesfacing commercial gasketsin practical systems, like large
flange connections, the same tightness may not be present over the entire surface
due to uneven surface
pressure and a less smooth surface finish. Thus, crevice corrosion may also be
possible with
commercial gaskets at temperatures below 4OOC.
Apart from being an interesting observation with respect to the mechanism of
crevice
corrosion, the temperaturehysteresis also has a practical implication which can
lead to serious
corrosion problems. If a temporary temperature increase during service initiates
crevice
corrosion, the materials studied here, and others of similar quality, may remain
active even if
the temperature is brought back to a low level within a short time.
All works associated with Heat Shrink Sleeves manufacturing shall be described in a
coating Manufacturing Procedure Specification (MPS) conforming to this document.
MPS
shall be submitted to QP for approval prior to start of works. It shall include but
not limited
to the details of materials (properties, compatibility, handling, storage and
safety), surface
preparation, field joint coating application (equipment, control and calibration
process),
inspection and testing (parameters, equipment, personnel), coating repair
procedures,
Quality Assurance and documentation.
4.3 The Contractor shall perform a Pre -application Qualification Test (PQT). This
test shall be
based on the approved MPS. PQT shall be submitted for QP approval prior to field
joint
coating application. The PQT shall qualify the coating materials and the coating
procedure
against the acceptance criteria specified in this document/MPS and approved by QP.
PQT inspection and testing results shall be fully documented and compiled in PQT
report
The origin of the lower design factor for fabricated assemblies is the 1955 edition
of ASME B31.8. There
was concern about the high stress levels that would be present in the case of a
field-fabricated branch
connection with a large diameter side outlet for a pipeline intended to be stressed
to 72% (Class 1
location) of the specified minimum yield strength of the pipe. When a sufficient
amount of
reinforcement is provided for branch connections, the stress level in the crotch
can be held down to
acceptable levels; however, when this reinforcement is a saddle or pad, tests
indicated that a
concentration of stress occurs at the points where tangents to the outside
circumference of the pad are
parallel to the axis of the header. In these two regions, the stresses resulting
from the tendency of the
pipe to bend around the edges of the reinforcement are directly additive to the
hoop stress. To lower
the stresses for this Class 1 location situation, the design factor for the header
pipe was set at 0.60
(equivalent to pipe for general use in a Class 2 location). At mainline valves, the
maximum hoop stress
permissible in the mainline pipe was 60% of the specified minimum yield strength of
the header pipe. In
1968, this requirement was included in the first edition of CSA Z184. Although the
effective design
factor (design factor times the location factor) is still 0.60 (0.8 times 0.75),
other changes in design and
location factors through the years have made it such that the pipe specified for a
fabricated assembly in
a Class 1 location is now heavier than the pipe specified for general use in a
Class 2 location;
consequently, the original concept of using readily available Class 2 location pipe
for the fabrication has
been undermined.
DGAs are intended to be surface water bodies of special concern where a heightened
protection might
be required. By allowing options other than increasing wall thickness recognizes
that many upstream
pipelines operate at very low stress levels (< 30% SMYS).
Notes:
1) For guidance, see CAPP 2015-011.
2) The concept of DGAs is similar in concept to high consequence areas (HCAs) for
hazardous liquid pipelines in
the United States. These HCAs include unusually sensitive areas (USAs) which mean
drinking water or
ecological resource areas that are unusually sensitive to environmental damage from
a hazardous liquid
pipeline release. See 49 CFR 195 – Transportation of Hazardous Liquids by Pipeline
195.450, for definitions,
and 195.6 for USAs. Drinking water USAs do not have adequate alternative drinking
water sources. If these
USAs are impacted, this would have a detrimental effect on human health
AUTOPIPE creates soil springs at every 1m spacing. The soil stiffness (K) per one
meter is determined as follows:
W d
K = s
Where: Ws = Pipe submerged weight (kg/m)
d = Pipe settlement (m)
4.3.3 Key Input
Design pressure, temperature and other operating parameters are defined as input
data. Maximum content density has been used in the analysis for operating
condition.
The rest of the key input is presented below.
Equivalent Density
Since there is no provision in AUTOPIPE to input individual coating thicknesses and
densities, an equivalent insulation thickness and density has been input.
Hydrodynamic Loading
Hydrodynamic loading has been applied using AUTOPIPE’s wave module.
AUTOPIPE computes hydrodynamic loading using Morison’s equations. Stokes 5th
Order wave theory has been used to calculate the flow velocities and the
accelerations.
The UDL has been calculated using Morison’s equations as given below:
FLat = 1/2 * ñ * Cd * D * U *I U I + /4 * ñ * CM * D2 * A
FL = 1/2 * ñ * CL * D * U *I U I
Where, FLat = Lateral force
FL = Lift Force
ñ = Fluid density
CD = Drag coefficient
CL = Lift Coefficient
D = Pipe diameter
U = Particle velocity
CM = Inertia coefficient
A = Particle acceleration
Considering export pipelines and risers, gas pipelines are the most vulnerable to
hydrate
problems. Blockages have occurred in export gaslines when as little as one barrel
of
water was accidentally diverted into the dry gas stream. The resulting hydrate plug
was
removed by depressurizing the line, with the excess gas routed either to a flare or
to an
alternative pipeline. The gas pipeline was then restarted behind a train of pigs
designed
to clear the water out of the line. Considering import flowlines and risers, in
which most
production fluids are very susceptible to hydrate formation, it is much better to
prevent
hydrates than to remediate hydrate plugs after they form. The conventional
techniques
of staying out of the hydrate region are as follows:
• The flowlines and risers are thermally insulated to a sufficient level that the
heat in
the fluids from the subsea wells is retained all the way to the platform, provided
that
a minimum fluid throughput is maintained. This insulation also provides a slow
cooldown when the subsea system is shut down.
• Before any short-term shut-downs, sufficient methanol or glycol is injected into
the
flowlines at the wells to delay hydrate formation.
• Before any long-term shut-downs, the flowlines and risers are depressurized, with
the excess gas routed into the export gas pipeline, and the fluid contents are
displaced by “dead oil” (oil from which all gas has been removed).
• Before restarting the subsea system, the flowlines and risers are heated by
circulating hot “dead oil”. Additional methanol or glycol is injected just prior to
re-introducing
the production fluids into the flowline.
1.7. Conflict of Information
The edition of each document current at the date of enquiry shall apply, together
with all published amendments. Where conflict occurs between the requirements of
this Specification and referenced Codes and Standards, the SUPPLIER shall notify
EMPLOYER in writing immediately for resolution. In all cases, the most stringent
shall apply. All deviations from the requirements of this Specification, its
appendices and the referenced Codes and Standards shall be stated on the
Purchase Order. In the absence of such a statement, full compliance with the order
of precedence below shall be assumed. The order of precedence for the documents
shall be as follows:
• Purchase Order
• This Specification
• Material Data Sheet
• Project Specifications
• International Codes and Standards
1.8. References
The Heat Shrinkable Sleeve (HSS) shall be designed in accordance with the Nigerian
National Standards and legislation, and International standards. Unless the edition
of any code, standard, regulation or document is specifically referenced the latest
edition shall be used.
1.8.1. Nigerian National Standards and Legislation
• The Mineral Oils (Safety) Regulations of the Federal Republic of Nigeria
• The Oil Pipeline Act (CAP 338 LFN 1990)
The standard was revised in 1978 to include SI metric dimensions. The outside
diameter and
wall thicknesses were converted to millimeters by multiplying the inch dimensions
by 25.4.
Outside diameters larger than 16 in. were rounded to the nearest millimeter, and
outside diameters
16 in. and smaller were rounded to the nearest 0.1 mm. Wall thicknesses were
rounded to the
nearest 0.01 mm. These converted and rounded SI metric dimensions were added to
Table 2. A
formula to calculate the SI metric plain end mass, in kilograms per meter, using SI
metric diameters
and thicknesses was added to section 5. The SI metric plain end mass was calculated
and was
added to Table 2. These changes in the standard were approved and it was designated
an American
National Standard on July 18, 1979.
Further revisions were made in 1984. The ANSI designations, which are no longer in
use, were
deleted from Table 1, and the list of specifications was revised to agree with
current ASTM and
API specifications. Additional sizes and thicknesses which had been added to API
specifications
were added to Table 2. That edition was approved as an American National Standard
on August
19, 1985.
The next edition included additional wall thicknesses and was approved by the
American
National Standards Institute on August 24, 1995.
The 1996 edition contained revisions to Table 2, adding pipe sizes, changing some
plain end
weights and masses, identifying metric pipe by the dimensionless designator DN, and
eliminating
the API Specification column. The 1996 edition was approved as an American National
Standard
on September 23, 1996.
The 2000 edition contained revisions to Table 2 to include the revised density for
steel incorporated into Section 5 previously. Table 1 was deleted and other
editorial changes to Sections 1, 2,
3, 5, 8, and 9 were made. The 2000 edition was approved as an American National
Standard on
December 1, 2000.
The current edition contains revisions to Section 5 and Table 1. It corrects the
equation for
nominal plain end weight. It adds the missing DN schedule numbers in Table 1. This
edition
was approved as an American National Standard on June 23, 2004.
10.0.1 The works under the contract will be delivered with a Technical Advisory
Inspector on site to ensure the works are executed safely, in an environmentally
friendly manner and to an ac-ceptable quality standard.
10.0.2 The availability and need for onsite Principal Representation will be based
on the project size, contract value and project risk and will be outlined in the
Project Specific Specification.
10.0.3 The Contractor must allow the Superintendent or their Representative access
to the drill cab and all drilling records at any time during the project.
The theory o f auto frettage is based on the fact that the stress in a thick‐
walled cyl indrical vesse l is h igher at the
bore than at the outs ide surface for a given internal pressure . I f such a vesse
l is sub j ected to a continuous ly increas ing
pressure , the entire vesse l wi l l deform e las tical ly unti l some pressure is
reached at which the material at the bore begins
to p lastical ly deform . As the pressure continues to increase , the boundary at
which material begins to yie ld moves from
the bore through the vesse l wall unti l it reaches the outer wal l , caus ing p
lastic co llapse [see KD -2 1 0 (e) (6 ) ] . In the pro -
cess of autofrettage , the pressure is increased from the po int o f first yie
lding at the bore to a pressure that wi l l p lace the
e lastic–p las tic interface at the des ired radius . The removal o f this pressure
then produces compress ive res idual tangential s tress at the bore and tens ile
res idual tangential stress at the outer wall .
(b) The effects of these res idual compress ive tangential s tresses are to
(1 ) increase the value of any subsequent app l ication of internal pressure which
wi l l cause the onset of additional
permanent deformation of the cyl inder
Flanged valves shall have raised face flanges with dimensions and tolerances in
accordance
with the requirements of ASME B16.5 or MSS SP-44-1996.
Welded ends shall be beveled to accommodate a butt weld connection to pipe in
accordance
with the manufacturing specification. The specifics of the matching pipe are
provided on the
Application Datasheet.
The Vendor shall indicate whether pipe transition pieces would be required to
accommodate the
butt weld to the matching pipe. Valves ends made of cast materials shall have
transition pieces
supplied and installed by the Vendor to accommodate the butt weld to matching pipe.
In some cases, the Company will require transition pieces and will specify this on
the
Application Datasheet. If transition pieces are required, the Company and Vendor
shall agree on
the supply of materials and the design of the end connection.
(2) reduce the effective mean stress value of the cyclic bore s tresses and thus
increase the fatigue l ife
(3) reduce the effective fracture mechanics stress intens ity factor at the tip of
a crack or crackl ike flaw near the bore
due to internal pressure . This wi ll retard the growth of fatigue or s tress
corros ion cracks near the bore surface .
KD-502 NOMENCLATURE
Non-welded line-up clamps shall be used for alignment of all pipes and equipment
work. Ground clamps shall be provided and insulated electrode holders and/or leads
shall be employed.
The clamps shall preferably be of the internal type for establishing concentricity
of the pipe bores without scoring or otherwise damaging the metal surfaces.
Application of external clamps is subject to where the use of internal clamps is
impracticable and at tie-in points and shall be approved by PRINCIPAL
Representative. The use of internal line up clamps for all nominal pipe sizes of 12
inches and larger is mandatory.
Clamps actual design shall be subject to the approval of PRINCIPAL Representative.
SUPPLIER shall use clamp types specified by an authorized inspector representing
PRINCIPAL specific for the work being done. Pipes shall have a length of at least 3
m for application with internal clamps.
desirable because a softer and more ductile grain structure is then obtained in the
metal in the area of the weld.
When welding mild steel pipe, the s~ower cooling rate of thethin-walled pipe does
make it possible to deposit the weld at a faster
rate without harmful effects to the welded joint. For this reason,downhill welding
is preferred when welding thin-wall mild steel pipe.
The ductility of the metal in the weld and in the surrounding areacan be further
improved by depositing several beads around the
weld. Each succeeding bead heats the previous bead, which coolsrelatively
slowly.The fabrication of cross-country transmission pipelines and other
low pressure storage vessels are examples where the downhill method of arc welding
(SMAW) is used. Since such fabrications will be ofmaterials less than 3/8 ofan inch
thick, the downhill technique allows
faster welding speeds with less tendency to bum through the root of the joint. In
contrast, thicker materials and many of the alloy steel materials require the
uphill welding method.
Downhill welding requires the use of fast-freezing, lightly coated electrodes such
as 6010, 6011, 6012, 7010, and 7014 that produce
minimum slag. As the electrode is moved down along the joint the molten puddle and
it's slag covering will tend to smother
Law wave and steep wave
In the wave type, buoyancy and weight are added along a longer length of the riser,
to
decouple the vessel motions from the touch down point of the riser. Lazy waves are
preferred
to steep waves because they require minimal subsea infrastructure. However lazy
waves are
prone to configuration alterations if the internal pipe fluid density changes
during the riser
lifetime. On the other hand, steep wave risers require a subsea base and subsea
bend stiffener,
and yet are able to maintain their configuration even if the riser fluid density
changes.
Buoyancy modules are made of syntactic foam which has the desirable property of low
water
absorption. The buoyancy modules need to be clamped tightly to the riser to avoid
any
slippage which could alter the riser configuration and induce high stress in the
armor wires.
On the other hand the clamping arrangement should not cause any significant damage
to the
external sheath of the riser as this might cause water ingress into the annulus.
Buoyancy
modules tend to lose buoyancy over time, and wave configurations are inherently
designed to
accommodate up to a 10% loss of buoyancy.
- L a qSand steep S
In the lazy S and steep S riser configuration there is a subsea buoy, either a
fixed buoy, which
is fixed to a structure at the seabed or a buoyant buoy, which is positioned by
e.g. chains. The
addition of the buoy removes the problem with the TDP, as described above. The
subsea buoy
absorbs the tension variation induced by the floater and the TDP has only small
variation in
tension if any.
‘S’ configurations are considered only if catenary and wave configurations are not
suitable for
a particular field. This is primarily due to the complex installation required. A
lazy-S
configuration requires a mid-water arch, tether and tether base, while a steep4
requires a buoy
and subsea bend stiffener. The riser response is driven by the buoy hydrodynamics
and
complex modeling is required due to the large inertial forces in action. In case of
large vessel
motions a lazy-S might still result in compression problems at the riser touchdown,
leaving a
steep4 as a possible alternative.
- Pliant wave
The pliant wave configuration is almost like the steep wave configuration where a
subsea
anchor controls the TDP, i.e. the tension in the riser is transferred to the anchor
and not to the
TDP. The pliant wave has the additional benefit that it is tied back to the well
located beneath
the floater. This makes well intervention possible without an additional vessel.
This configuration is able to accommodate a wide range of bore fluid densities and
vessel
motions without causing any significant change in configuration and inducing high
stress in
the pipe structure. Due to the complex subsea installation that is required, it
would be required
only if a simple catenary, lazy wave or steep wave configurations are not
viable.404 Part IV Riser Engineering
22.1.4 Component Descriptions
The components of a riser system must be strong enough to withstand high tension
and
bending moments, and have enough flexibilityto resist fatigue, yet be as light as
practicableto
minimize tensioning and floatation requirements, A short description of the most
common
riser components and auxiliary components (such as end fittings and bend
stifferners) is given
below.
- Riser joints
A riser joint is constructed of seamless pipe with mechanical connectors welded on
the ends.
For drilling risers, choke and kill lines are attached to the riser by extended
flanges of the
connector. The riser can be run in a manner similar to drill pipes by stabbing one
stalk at a
time into the string and tightening the connector.
- Buoyancy modules
Buoyancy modules can be attached to the riser to decrease the tension required at
the surface.
These modules may be thin-walled air cans or fabricated syntactic foam modules that
are
strapped to the riser. These buoyancy modules require careful design and the
material for their
construction needs to be selected appropriately so as to ensure that they have a
long-term
resistance to water absorption.
- Bend Stiffeners and Bellmouths
One of the critical areas of a flexible riser is the top part of the riser just
before the hang-off
arrangement. This area is prone to over-bending and hence an ancillary device is
incorporated
into the design to increase the stiffness of the riser and prevent over-bending of
the riser
beyond its allowable bend radius. The two devices used for this application are
bend
stiffeners and bellmouths. Figure 22.2 illustrates a schematic of both devices.
Flexible pipe
manufacturers tend to have a preference for one or the other device, yet bend
stiffeners are
known to provide a better performance in applications with high motion vessels.
Bend
stiffeners also provide a moment transition between the riser and its rigid end
connection. The
ancillary devices are designed separately from the pipe cross section analysis, and
specialized
software is used for this purpose. Global loads from the flexible riser analysis
are used as
input to the ancillary device design.
Bend stiffeners are normally made of polyurethane material and their shape is
designed to
provide a gradual stiffening to the riser as it enters the hang-off location. The
bend stiffener
polyurethane material is itself anchored in a steel collar for load transfer. Bend
stiffeners are
sometimes utilized subsea, such as in steep-S or steep-wave applicationsto provide
support to
the riser at its subsea end connection, and to prevent over-bending at this
location. Design
issues for bend stiffeners include polyurethane fatigue and creep characteristics.
Figure 22.3
shows an example of a bend stiffener. It is to be noted that bend stiffeners longer
than 20 ft
have been manufactured and are in operation in offshore applications.
Bellmouths are steel components that provide the same function as bend stiffeners,
Le. to
prevent over-bending of the riser at its end termination topsides. The curved
surface of aChapter22 Design of Deepwater Riser 405
bellmouth is fabricated under strict tolerances to prevent any kinks on the surface
that might
cause stress concentrations, and damage to the pipe external sheath.
Where piggy back lines or umbilicals are to be located on the pipelines for
installation as a bundle, then the piggy back lines/umbilicals shall be located
at the top center of the mainline. Piggy back lines shall be strapped to the
mainline by means of monel straps every 4 m all throughout the length of
the line. Suitable spacers/guide supports shall be provided at every 2 m.
Between the strap and the line as well as between the spacer and the line, a
strip of 6 mm thick neoprene shall be provided to avoid any damage to the
corrosion coating. Care shall be exercised to ensure the piggy back
line/umbilical does not foul with the pipeline anodes.
7.8.14 Stub End Pipelines
Incase the Contractor is required to tie-in to any existing stub-line,
Contractor shall deploy divers and shall check the condition of the lay down
heads and disconnect any shackles, slings, etc. Depending on the condition
of the pipeline from pre-construction survey, a survey may be carried out by
a ROV for 500 m length of the stub-ends, measured from the lay-down
heads to identify any obstruction, which may hamper the recovery
operations.
Further revisions were made to the standard in 1975. Additional sizes and
thicknesses
of steel pipe that had been added to API specifications were added to Table 2.
Table 3,
Dimensions and Weights of Welded Wrought Iron Pipe, was deleted in its entirety,
since
wrought iron pipe is no longer produced. These changes in the standard were
approved
and it was designated an American National Standard on June 5 , 1975.
The standard was revised in 1978 to include SI metric dimensions. The outside
diameter
and wall thicknesses were converted to millimeters by multiplying the inch
dimensions by
25.4. Outside diameters larger than 16 in. were rounded to the nearest millimeter,
and
outside diameters 16 in. and smaller were rounded to the nearest 0.1 mm. Wall
thicknesses
were rounded to the nearest 0.01 mm. These converted and rounded SI metric
dimensions
were added to Table 2. A formula to calculate the SI metric plain end mass, in
kilograms
per meter, using SI metric diameters and thicknesses was added to section 5. The SI
metric
plain end mass was calculated and was added to Table 2. These changes in the
standard
were approved and it was designated an American National Standard on July 18, 1979.
Further revisions were made in 1984. The ANSI designations, which are no longer in
use, were deleted from Table 1, and the list of specifications was revised to agree
with
current ASTM and API specifications. Additional sizes and thicknesses which had
been
added to API specifications were added to Table 2. That edition was approved as an
American National Standard on August 19, 1985.
The next edition included additional wall thicknesses and was approved by the
American
National Standards Institute on August 24, 1995.
The 1996 edition contained revisions to Table 2, adding pipe sizes, changing some
plain
end weights and masses, identifying metric pipe by the dimensionless designator DN,
and
eliminating the API Specification column. The 1996 edition was approved as an
American
National Standard on September 23, 1996.
The current edition contains revisions to Table 2 to include the revised density
for steel
incorporated into Section 5 previously. Table 1 was deleted and other editorial
changes to
Sections 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, and 9 were made. This edition was approved as an American
National
Standard on December I , 2000.
7. MANUFACTURING
7.1. Mother Pipe
Mother pipe shall be manufactured as within the requirements as stated in the DEP
31.40.20.37 Ref. [8] and line pipe specifications report. The carbon steel shall be
ISO 3183 Ref [22] PSL 2.
Company shall be notified if there is intent to upgrade or modify the strength of
either the mother pipe or induction bend after the bending process.
7.2. Qualification Test Bend
The test bends shall be manufactured with approved MPS as stated in the DEP
31.40.20.33 Gen. Ref. [6]
7.3. Production Bending
Induction bending shall be carried out in accordance with the qualified MPS.
Interruption of the induction bending operation shall result in rejection of the
bend.
7.4. Post-Bending Heat Treatment
Except acceptable properties can be demonstrated after bending for any L450 X65
line, the
Contractor shall provide a quench and temper heat treatment of the entire joint.
The temperature of each furnace-load of bends shall be monitored by thermocouples
connected directly to selected bends and shall be recorded. The type and location
of the thermocouples shall be as specified in the MPS.
7.5. Strip/Plate End Welds
Induction bends shall not contain coil-strip end welds or plate end welds.
7.6. Forming and Sizing after Bending
This shall be done according to ISO 15590-1 Ref [20] as amended by DEP 31.40.20.33-
Gen. Ref. [6]
7.7. Jointers and Girth Welds
Induction bends ordinarily should not contain girth welds. The DEP 31.40.20.33-Gen
Ref. [6] permits jointers during manufacture of bends on the condition that on
completion of the bend, the joiner shall be removed such that no effect from the
joiner shall remain including the heat affected zone.
7.8. End Preparation
Bends shall be square except otherwise specified by company. The cutting method
shall not affect the properties of the bend when compared to the mother pipe.
Tension
Tension on the pull section results from three primary sources: (1) frictional
drag between the pipe and the wall of the hole, (2) fl uidic drag from
viscous drilling fl uid surrounding the pipe, and (3) the effective (submerged)
weight of the pipe as it is pulled through the hole. In addition
to these forces that act within the drilled hole, frictional drag from the
portion of the pull section remaining on the surface (typically supported
on rollers) also contributes to the tensile load on the pipe.
Additional loads that the horizontal drilling rig must overcome during
pull back result from the length of the drill string in the hole and the
reaming assembly that precedes the pull section. These loads don ’ t act on
the pull section and therefore have no effect on pipe stresses. Nonetheless,
if a direct correlation with the overall rig force is desired, loads resulting
from the reaming assembly and drill string must be estimated and added
to the tensile force acting on the pull section.
Calculation of the tensile load required to install a pipeline by HDD
is complicated due to the fact that the geometry of the drilled path must
be considered along with properties of the pipe being installed, subsurface
materials, and drilling fl uid. Assumptions and simplifi cations
are typically required. A theoretical pulling load may be calculated by
hand or with the aid of one of several commercially available software
packages.
Regardless of the method used to calculate an HDD pulling load, the
design engineer should be aware that numerous variables affect pulling
loads, many of which depend upon site-specifi c conditions and individual
contractor practices. These include prereaming diameter, hole stability,
removal of cuttings, soil and rock properties, drilling fl uid properties,
drilled path geometry, and the effectiveness of buoyancy control measures.
Such variables cannot easily be accounted for in a theoretical
calculation method designed for use over a broad range of applications.
For this reason, theoretical calculations are of limited benefi t unless
combined with engineering judgment derived from experience in HDD
construction.
The fi rst step in calculating a pulling load is to analyze the drilled path.
This analysis can be based on the designed drilled path, a “worst-case”
drilled path, or “as-built” pilot-hole data, if available. Bearing in mind
that most pilot holes are drilled longer, deeper, and to tighter radii than
designed, a conservative approach in the absence of as-built pilot-hole
data is to evaluate a worst-case drilled path that accounts for potential
deviations from the design. This worst-case path should be determined
based on allowable tolerances for pilot-hole length, elevation, and curve
radius as defi ned in the contract documents. The design engineer should
be aware that deviations in these parameters are typical and are often due
At least one (1) reading per drill rod is required during the drilling of the pilot
hole, registering inclination, heading, length, depth and the orientation of the
bent sub. This information shall be recorded on the steering log and be available
for inspection of the superintendent as and when required.
7.7.2.3 The Contractor shall ensure proper calibration of all equipment before
commencing directional drilling operation and provide proof of calibration
documentation to the Superintendent’s Representative
For steel piping operating above –20F, alloy steel studs ASTM
A193 Grade B7, with ASTM A194 Class 2H semi-finished heavy
hex nuts shall be used except for sulphide stress cracking service
where stud bolts shall be ASTM A193 Grade B7M. For steel piping
operating below –20F, ie: blowdown service, ASTM A320, Gr L7
studs, with ASTM A194, Gr 7 semi-finished hex nuts shall be used,
except for sulfide stress cracking services where stud bolts shall be
ASTM A320, Gr L7M.
(2) Bolting threads and lengths shall conform to the dimensions listed
in the appropriate national or industry flange standard. Headed
bolts (rather than stud bolts) shall not be used without prior PTT
approval.
For steel piping operating above –20F, alloy steel studs ASTM
A193 Grade B7, with ASTM A194 Class 2H semi-finished heavy
hex nuts shall be used except for sulphide stress cracking service
where stud bolts shall be ASTM A193 Grade B7M. For steel piping
operating below –20F, ie: blowdown service, ASTM A320, Gr L7
studs, with ASTM A194, Gr 7 semi-finished hex nuts shall be used,
except for sulfide stress cracking services where stud bolts shall be
ASTM A320, Gr L7M.
(2) Bolting threads and lengths shall conform to the dimensions listed
in the appropriate national or industry flange standard. Headed
bolts (rather than stud bolts) shall not be used without prior PTT
approval.
(3) All bolts and nuts shall be coated with PTFE, or equivalent
material.
(4) For Austenitic bolting materials shall be in accordance with piping
material classification data sheets.
1.4.6 Proprietary Connectors
Proprietary connectors shall be used as required by project Specifications.
1.5 Design Considerations for Particular Piping Systems
1.5.1 General
This
(3) All bolts and nuts shall be coated with PTFE, or equivalent
material.
(4) For Austenitic bolting materials shall be in accordance with piping
material classification data sheets.
1.4.6 Proprietary Connectors
Proprietary connectors shall be used as required by project Specifications.
1.5 Design Considerations for Particular Piping Systems
1.5.1 General
This
Hole Conditioning
7.6.11.1 Conditioning of the borehole will be conducted when the reaming has been
completed. This operation is to remove any excess cuttings still left within the
hole and to improve the condition and stability of the borehole and the borehole
walls.
7.6.11.2 Conditioning reaming tools are to be in good working order and appropriate
to the ground conditions indicated.
7.6.12 Pipe Pullback
The SDV valve will be provided at the station inlet and outlet. In case of an
emergency event the SDV valves will cut off the gas supply from the suppliers and
to the pipelines.
The compressor station will be designed for locally manned, fully automatic,
permanent operation from Station Control Room with remote monitoring of the station
from the Central Control Room.
9.2 Pig Receiver
Pig Receivers will be provided at all pipelines entering the compressor station.
The pig receiver is described in section 10.8.
9.3 Filter Separator Skid
The filter separators, as described in section 10.1, shall be provided at Obigbo
Compressor Station at each gas supply source.
The filter separator design and operating conditions are: Parameter Value QIT
Source Obigbo Node Source Cawthorne and Alakiri Source Okono/Okpoho
Design Pressure
98.0 barg
98.0 barg
98.0 barg
The Contractor shall notify the Company of any conflict between this specification,
the Codes and Standards and any other specification included as part of the Project
documen-tation.
This specification and the guidelines set forth do not relieve the Contractor, its
Sub- Con-tractors and Vendors of the responsibility to provide a finished product
capable of perform-ing its intended service.
Any exception to this specification and referenced documentation shall be raised by
the Contractor and approved by the Company in writing, following the applicable
procedure for concession requests as defined in the Quality Management Procedures
of the Project.
During further stages of the project (detailed design) Contractor is obliged to
verify calcula-tions, the design and dimensions of all equipment using its own
calculations based on pro-cess, design, safety and warranty data given in the
tender documentation. The detailed de-sign must be agreed upon with the Company.
i. The Contractor shall be responsible for the design and construction of all
aspects of the HDD works including any temporary works and temporary supporting
structures. All de-sign assumptions regarding subsurface conditions, equipment
requirements, groundwater and other factors are the responsibility of the
Contractor and shall be fully documented.
ii. Based on the alignment shown in the Principal Drawings, the Contractor shall
design and size the excavated profile to accommodate all temporary and permanent
works.
iii. A design vertical and horizontal profile shall be submitted to the
Superintendent’s
Representative for review prior to commencement of work.
iv. The Contractor shall not proceed with any work until the Contractor’s RPE
certified design has been accepted by the Superintendent’s Representative.
Acceptance of the Contrac-tor’s design by the Superintendent’s Representative in no
way diminishes the responsibility of the Contractor for the design.
v. The HDD crossing shall be designed in accordance with this Specification and
the refer-enced documents by a person suitably qualified and having experience with
the design considerations required for this type of work. The profile design shall
take into account the following:
• Temporary works associated with the HDD construction;