Assessment & Evaluation of Structure Using Advanced Undistructive Methods

ASSESSMENT & EVALUATION OF STRUCTURE USING ADVANCED UNDISTRUCTIVE METHODS
ABSTRACT
Reinforced and pre-stressed concrete are widely used for the construction of infrastructures such
as bridges, industrial structures, buildings, etc. Most of the time, the quality of the concrete mix is
assumed to be guaranteed but due to the congestion of reinforcement and the quality control
exercised during placing and vibrating, honeycombs and voids are likely to be present in the
hardened concrete. The presence of voids leads to the early deterioration of concrete and corrosion
also sets in. The corrosion of reinforcement causes damage to the cover concrete and also section
loss in the area of steel. In the case of pre-stressed concrete members, the corrosion leads to a
catastrophic failure without any warning. Hence, it becomes necessary to evaluate the condition
of concrete using Non Destructive Techniques (NDT) and Partially Destructive Techniques (PDT).
The Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity (UPV) method which is widely adopted till now gives the relative
quality and integrity of concrete and is based on the transit time. The rebound hammer gives the
quality of concrete in the cover zone based on the rebound number.
In this study, the efficiency of the advanced non destructive techniques namely Ground Penetrating
Radar (GPR), Ultrasonic Pulse Echo (UPE) and Impact Echo (IE) methods have been studied on
different concrete specimens. The major advantage is that all are one sided techniques and can be
used from one side only and it can be carried out in a rapid manner also. With the development in
the signal processing, the details/features such as thickness, reinforcements, voids, etc., can be
seen in the form of images. The cross sectional images namely B-scan and C-scan are obtained by
processing the reflected signals.
In the present work, a unique two storey large scale reinforced concrete specimen has been
constructed with various features such as thickness variations in the slabs, different reinforcement
percentages, inclusion of voids, PVC pipes, steel plates/box in the structure. The efficiency of the
advanced NDT techniques namely GPR, UPE and IE have been studied extensively on this unique
Guided by: Dr. Ashad Ullah Qureshi
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Email: conceptsbookspublication@gmail.com
Web: https://researchitout.blogspot.com/
large scale reinforced concrete structure constructed with various features. The UPV testing
(IS:13311-Part-1 and ASTM-C597) is a point based measurement and gives the quality of concrete
based on the velocity. The limitation of the ultrasonic pulse velocity method in identifying the
honeycombs, voids created by the presence of PVC pipes and steel box, etc., has been
demonstrated.
For the determination of minimum size of void that can be detected using GPR and UPE and also
the effect of reinforcement on the determination of void, experimental studies were carried out
with different sizes of voids kept at different locations i.e., at different depths under the
reinforcement. The 25 mm, 50 mm and 75 mm cubical voids were introduced. The voids were
created with Expanded Polystyrene (EPS) blocks and the dielectric constant of EPS is 1.05 which
is closer to air and the advantage of this is taken in the simulation of voids. The effect of
reinforcement on the determination of vi
void in radar is to be explored because the signals from the radar is of electromagnetic in nature,
and reflected because of the metallic nature of the reinforcement. The limitation of the UPV
method in determining the honeycombs and voids have been explained and demonstrated in this
research work.
To study the evaluation of the presence of duct, influence of first layer of reinforcement and the
efficiency of grouting, two concrete specimens were cast, one with duct under the reinforcement
and the other specimen with the duct between the reinforcement. One duct was fully grouted to
half the length and the other half was partially grouted. All the three methods namely radar, UPE
and IE have been used for the evaluation of different parameters. The size of the duct has been
determined using GPR and UPE and compared with the actual.
Comprehensive literature study has been carried out on the radar technique as a non destructive
tool for the evaluation of concrete structures. Not much information is available on the minimum
spacing of reinforcement that can be measured using radar and also the determination of the second

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layer of reinforcement and also the determination and influence of duct. Casting of large number
of concrete specimen requires more time and the profile inside the specimen cannot be shifted. So,
in order to collect more data with various profiles, a simulated specimen was constructed. Using
this specimen, various configurations of reinforcement meshes, with and without ducts, different
size of defects, have been studied in detail.
The need for a holistic approach in the evaluation of concrete structures has been demonstrated in
this study. In addition for the radar technique, the influencing parameters with respect to the
reinforcement and duct have been studied in detail and guidelines are arrived.

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CONTENTS
Chapter 1. Introduction 1 - 15
1.1 General
1.2 Importance Of Nondestructive Testing
1.3 Basic Methods For Ndt Of Concrete Structures
1.3.1 Rebound Hammer Test
1.3.2 Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity (Upv) Test
1.3.3 Penetration Resistance Test
1.4 Advanced Ndt Methods For Concrete Strctures
1.4.1 Ground Penetrating Radar (Gpr)
1.4.2 Impact-Echo Method (Ie)
1.4.3 Ultrasonic Pulse Echo (Upe)
1.4.4 Additional Testing Methods
1.5 Need For Research
Chapter 2. Literature Review 16 - 26
2.1 General
2.2 Ground Penetraing Radar (Gpr)
2.3 Ultrasonic Pulse Echo Technique

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2.4 Impact Echo Method

2.5 Summary
Chapter 3. SCOPE AND OBJECTIVES 27 - 28
3.1 General
3.2 Motivation For The Present Study
3.3 Objectives And Scope Of The Present Study
Chapter 4. EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION BASED ON

ULTRASONIC PULSE VELOCITY TECHNIQUE 29 - 33
4.1 General
4.2 Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Method
4.3 Concrete Blocks With Honeycombs
4.3.1 Evaluation With Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity
4.4 Summary
Chapter 5. EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES ON GROUND PENETRATING

RADAR 34 – 42
5.1 General
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5.2 Principle Of Ground Penetrating Radar (Gpr)
5.3 Experimental Procedure
5.3.1 Two Dimensional Data Collection Setup
5.4 Evaluation Of Unique Reinforced Concrete Multistory Specimen
5.4.1 First Floor Slab
5.4.2 Second Floor Slab
Chapter 6. EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES USING
ULTRASONIC PULSE ECHO 43 – 47
6.1 General
6.2 Ultrasonic Pulse Echo Equipment: A1220 Monolith
6.2.1 Features
6.3 Ultrasonic Tomograph Mira System (Acsys, Russia)
6.3.1 Synthetic Aperture Focusing Technique (Saft) And Saft-C
Chapter 7 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS 48 – 52
7.1 General7.2 Unique Reinforced Concrete Multistory Specimen
7.3 Determination Of Voids In Concrete

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7.4 Determination Of Duct And The Efficiency Of Grouting In Post

Tensioned Ducts
7.5 Concrete Prisms With Real Honeycombs
7.6 Summary
Chapter 8 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 53 – 56
8.1 General
8.2 Summary
8.3 Conclusions
8.4 Suggestions For Future Research
APPENDIX – A REFRENCES
APPENDIX – B LIST OF PUBLICATION

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List of Figures
Chapter 1. Introduction
1.1 World’s tectonic plates 1
1.2 Seismic zone map of India 2
Chapter 2. Literature Survey
2.1 Schematic diagram depicting the 19

experimental work carried out in this research
Chapter 3. Material Properties of Structural Masonry
3.1 XRD pattern of fly ash 21
3.2 Mortar strength with partial t 26
replacement of fly ash with cement
3.3 Compressive strength of 1:6 cement 27

mortar with partial replacement of fine
aggregate with fly ash
3.4 Comparison between the substitution 28
of fly ash with cement fine aggregate
in 1:6 cement mortar
3.5 Woven wire mesh placed along 30
the bed joint in alternate course

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3.6 Stress distributions in the 33
composite masonry
3.7 Clay brick prism (unreinforced) and 33
fly ash brick prism (unreinforced and reinforced)
3.8 Comparison of compressive strength 34
of brick masonry
3.9 Stress-strain curve of clay brick masonry 35
3.10 Stress-strain curve of fly ash brick masonry 35
3.11 Splitting of brick masonry 36
3.12 Triplet bond test on brick masonry 39
Chapter 4. Experimental Investigation on Masonry Walls
4.1 Photographs of the brick masonry 41
pier specimens
4.2 Photograph of the clay brick &fly 43

ash brick masonry wall panel specimens
4.3 Axial load test setup with the data 45
acquisition system
4.4 Vertical splitting & Crushing of the 46
unreinforced clay brick masonry (UCBM)
4.5 vertical shearing & splitting of 47
unreinforced fly ash brick masonry (UFBM)

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4.6 vertical splitting of unreinforced clay 48
brick masonry (UCBM10)
4.7 vertical shearing of unreinforced fly 49
ash brick masonry (UFBM10)
4.8 Axial strength of clay brick masonry 50
and fly ash brick masonry
(UCBM, RCBM, UFBM and RFBM)
4.9 Photograph of the clay brick 51
masonry wall panel specimen
4.10 Lateral in-plane shear compression 52
test set up
4.11 A simple structural layout model 53
of a rural masonry house located in Coimbatore
4.12 Diagonal compression test – 54
Experimental set up
4.13 Photograph of the unreinforced clay 55
brick masonry wall (CBP)
4.14 Photograph of the unreinforced 56
clay brick masonry wall (CBP10)
4.15 Photograph of the unreinforced clay 57

brick masonry wall (CBP20)

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4.16 Photograph of the reinforced clay 58

brick masonry wall (CBPR)
4.17Photograph of the reinforced clay 58
brick masonry wall (CBP10R)
4.18 Photograph of the reinforced clay 59
brick masonry wall (CBP20R)
4.19Comparison of load-deformation 60
curves obtained on clay brick masonry wall panels
Chapter 5. Finite Element Modeling
5.1 Micro Meso Macro level modeling 66
5.2 Solid 185, 3D solid element type used 68
for the brick unit
5.3 Shell 63 for the woven wire mesh 69
5.4 Micro level modeling of brick 70
masonry prism
5.5 Deformation of the unreinforced clay 71
brick masonry under triplet shear test
5.6 Meso level modeling of the brick 73

masonry prism
5.7 Stress distribution on unreinforced clay 74
brick masonry prism (UCBP)
5.8 Macro level modeling of brick 75
masonry prism

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5.9 Stress – strain curve of the unreinforced 75

clay brick masonry prism (UCBP)

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CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 GENERAL
Concrete is widely used for the construction of civil infrastructures such as bridges, power plant
structures, ports and harbours, etc. Mostly concrete is made at site and in the hardened state, defects
such as voids, honeycombs are likely to present in the structure. These defects lead to the early
deterioration in concrete materials and hence the life of the structure is reduced. In addition, cracks
in concrete occur due to various reasons. At present the Rebound Hammer and Ultrasonic Pulse
Velocity testing methods are being used for the evaluation of concrete integrity, which is of
qualitative in nature. The advanced non-destructive methods such as Radar, Ultrasonic Pulse Echo
and the Impact Echo are being attempted for this purpose and the defects can be quantified. The
advantage of using these advanced NDT methods is that it is one sided technique. Most of the
time, it may be required to use one or combination of the methods in estimating the defects/
damage. For the forensic analysis of concrete structures, it becomes necessary to know the various
features of the reinforced concrete structure such as thickness, presence of reinforcement and
ducts, PVC pipes, embedment’s, honeycombs, etc., in a rapid manner. In India, application of these
methods is still in the primitive stage. In this chapter, different types of non destructive techniques
available for the condition assessment of concrete structures are presented. The advantages and
the limitations of different methods are also discussed. The need for the research work that has
been studied in this thesis is also described.
1.2 IMPORTANCE OF NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING
Non Destructive Testing (NDT) of civil engineering structures is a potentially valuable tool for
monitoring the performance of new structures or detecting and evaluating deterioration in older
structures. The inherent cost savings compared to existing destructive evaluation techniques are
considerable.
Nondestructive testing is often necessary to test concrete structures after the concrete has hardened
to determine whether the structure is suitable for its designed use. Ideally such testing should be
done without damaging the concrete. The tests available for testing concrete range from the
completely non-destructive, where there is no damage to the concrete, through those where the

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concrete surface is slightly damaged, to partially destructive tests, such as core tests and pullout
and pull off tests, where the surface has to be repaired after the test. The range of properties that
can be assessed using non-destructive tests and partially destructive tests is quite large and includes
such fundamental parameters as density, elastic modulus and strength as well as surface hardness
and surface absorption, and reinforcement location, size and distance from the surface. In some
cases it is also possible to check the quality of workmanship and structural integrity by detecting
voids, cracking and delamination. Currently, there are a number of nondestructive testing
techniques available for this monitoring and evaluation, though proper implementation procedures
for these techniques must be developed. There is also a need to evaluate the various non-destructive
testing techniques available to determine which are best suited for specific types of damage or
even the absence of damage.
Non-destructive testing may be useful for the typical situations as follows:
• Quality control of pre-cast units or construction in situ

• Removing uncertainties about the acceptability of the material supplied owing to apparent
non-compliance with specification
• Confirming or negating doubt concerning the workmanship involved in batching, mixing,
placing, compacting or curing of concrete
• Monitoring of strength development in relation to formwork removal, cessation of curing,
prestressing, load application or similar purpose
• Location and determination of the extent of cracks, voids, honeycombing, delamination,
bonding and similar defects within a concrete structure
• Determining the concrete uniformity, possibly preliminary to core cutting, load testing or
other more expensive or disruptive tests
• Determining the position, quantity and size of reinforcement.
• Increasing the confidence level of a smaller number of destructive tests
• Determining the extent of concrete variability in order to help in the selection of sample
locations representative of the quality to be assessed
• Confirming or locating suspected deterioration of concrete resulting from such factors as
overloading, fatigue, external or internal chemical attack or change, fire, explosion,
environmental effects
• Assessing the potential durability of the concrete
• Monitoring long term changes in concrete properties
• Providing information for any proposed change of use of a structure for insurance or for
change of ownership.
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• Structural member dimensions

• As a forensic tool to evaluate the member thickness, the quantity and distribution of
reinforcements and ducts in concrete structures.
Most of the time, the structural details may not be available and it becomes necessary for the
engineer to evaluate the presence and to quantify the reinforcements in order to evaluate the
condition of the structure. It will also be useful for the future extension of the structure and will
also be highly helpful in retrofitting of reinforced concrete framed structures to meet the high
seismic demand.
1.3 BASIC METHODS FOR NDT OF CONCRETE STRUCTURES
The following are the basic and commonly used methods for NDT of concrete structures.
1.3.1 Rebound Hammer Test
The principle is based on indirectly measuring the surface hardness of concrete and the method
essentially consists of impacting the concrete surface in a standard manner. This is achieved by
activating a spring loaded mass by a given energy and measuring the rebound of a rider on a
graduated scale. The rebound number is correlated to the compressive strength through a
calibration graph. The most commonly used rebound hammer is commercially known as “Schmidt
Hammer”. This method, although simple and inexpensive has serious limitation particularly in
estimating the compressive strength in the absence of reliable calibration graphs. However, a
systematic testing following the procedure outlined in the manual of the testing instrument and the
standards helps to make a qualitative assessment, with regard to delamination of cover concrete.
For more realistic assessment, the following factors need to be considered and recognised before
hand.
• Size and age of concrete

• Surface texture
• Concrete mix characteristics
• Carbonation level in concrete and
• Moisture content
Detailed procedure for conducting the test and guidelines for interpretation and statistical
implications are outlined in IS 13311 Part 2, ASTM C805-85 and BS 1881Part 202.

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1.3.2 Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity (UPV) Test
This method is basically a wave propagation method using the properties of sound waves passing
through elastic medium. In concrete, the measurement consists of determining the velocity of
pulses of longitudinal vibrations passing through the concrete. The development of this method
dates back to mid 1940s and since then substantial research and development works have been
carried out. With the development of reliable measuring instruments, the ultrasonic testing has
become widely accepted worldwide in spite of limitations.
The pulse velocity can be used to establish:
• the homogeneity of concrete

• the presence of cracks, voids, and other deficiencies
• changes in the structure of the concrete which occur with time
• the quality of the concrete in relation to standard requirements
• the quality of one element of concrete in relation to another element
• the values of elastic module of concrete
Factors which influence the UPV values are given below and these are to be given due
consideration in interpretation.
• Surface condition
• Moisture content
• Temperature of concrete
• Shape and size of specimen
• Reinforcement
Guidelines to consider the above factors and corrections to be made are covered in Standards, the
instrument manual, and several published literature. Estimation of strength using pulse velocity
value is carried out only with the help of standard correlation graphs obtained from laboratory
tests. As the strength of concrete is influenced by several parameters, estimation of strength from
UPV values should be made with abundant caution. The UPV scanning is also to be done in a
systematic way on well defined grid points which will be invariably same as those used for rebound
hammer test. The UPV testing (IS: 13311, Part-1and ASTM-C597) is a point based measurement
and gives the quality of concrete based on the velocity. However, there is a limitation of the
ultrasonic pulse velocity method in identifying the honeycombs, voids created by the presence of
PVC pipes and steel box, etc. The other limitations are that it is a point based measurement, both

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the faces of the member are required for testing, coupling agent is required and no image can be
obtained.
1.3.3 Penetration Resistance Test
This method formed one of the important developments in the United States during1960s and
1970s. In this technique, a powder-actuated driver is used to fire a hardened alloy probe into a
concrete and the exposed length of the probe is considered as a measure of the penetration
resistance of concrete. Windsor Probe a commercially available equipment consists of a powder-
actuated gun or driver, hardened alloy probes, loaded cartridges, a depth gauge for measuring
penetration of probes, and other related accessories. The probes have a diameter of 6.3 mm, length
of 73 mm, and frustro critical point at the tip. The rear of the probe is threaded and screwed into a
probe-driving head which is 12.6 mm in diameter and fits snugly along with a rubber washer into
a bore of the driver. Correlation of the penetration resistance to compressive strength is based on
calibration curves obtained from laboratory tests on specific concretes with particular type of
aggregates. ASTM C803 gives this standard test method entitled “Penetration resistance of
hardened concrete”. This technique offers a means of determining the relative strength of concrete
in the same structure or relative strengths of different structures. Because of the nature of the
equipment, it cannot and should not be expected to yield absolute values of strength. The
penetration of the probe into the concrete is affected by the hardness of the aggregates, as the probe
directly comes in contact with aggregates as already explained. Hence calibration charts are
absolutely necessary.
1.4 ADVANCED NDT METHODS FOR CONCRETE STRCTURES
1.4.1 Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR)
The Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) method, originally used for geophysical surveyssuch as sub-
grade investigations, is a very effective technique for investigating theintegrity of concrete
structures. It is particularly suited for the assessment of largestructures such as reinforced and pre-
stressed concrete bridges, non-ballasted railwaytracks, highways, and tunnels. GPR is an
electromagnetic investigation method. It isalso known as surface penetrating radar or
electromagnetic reflection method. Radarprinciple works in Reflection mode where a signal is
emitted through an antenna intothe structure under investigation. The transmitting antenna sends
a diverging beam ofenergy pulses in to the structure and the receiving antenna collects the energy
reflectedfrom interfaces between materials of differing dielectric properties. A strong
reflectionwill be received from the air/concrete interface at the surface whilst other,

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generallyweaker reflections will occur wherever distinct boundaries occur beneath the
surface.Electromagnetic pulses of frequency 500 MHz to 3000 MHz from radar transmitter
aredirected into the material having pulse duration of ! 1 nanosecond. The wavespropagate through
the material until a boundary of different electrical characteristics isencountered (i.e.,) reflected at
interface of different layer and reinforcement along itstravel path (Figure 1.1). Reflected energy
caused by changes in material properties isrecorded and analyzed. The signal recorded is usually
referred to as a scan or trace (Figure 1.2). The vertical axis gives time axis or calibrated depth and
the horizontalaxis corresponds to the length in the X-direction.
Figure 1.1 Principle of radar surveying
Figure 1.2 Trace (Radargram)

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Both the propagation velocity of the pulses and the intensity of the reflections are afunction of the
dielectric properties of the materials, which are defined by the complexpermittivity ( ) of the
material
where ε = complex permittivity; ε"’= real part of complex permittivity; andε ” = imaginary part
of complex permittivity. For virtually lossless materials, such as materials with very low electric
conductivity, which mostly applies to concrete and masonry in a dry condition, the imaginary
part can be neglected. Then the following relation between the propagation velocity (v) of the
electromagnetic impulses and the permittivity (") can be established by approximation.
Where v = propagation velocity of electromagnetic impulse; and c = speed of light in vacuum

(2.99792458 108 m/s). If the permittivity of the material under investigation is known, the depth
of the reflectors, and thus their position, can be determined from the propagation time.
GPR can be put to a variety of applications in the concrete industry, such as
• Estimation of the thickness of elements from one surface

• Localization of reinforcing bars and metallic ducts and estimation of the concrete cover
depth
• Determination of most important features of construction
• Localization of moisture variations
• Localization and the dimensions of voids
• Localization of cracking
• Estimation of bar size
• Location of moisture in the surface near region in concrete and brickwork
• Location of voids and other inhomogeneities in concrete
• The advantages are as follows:
• Equipment is portable
• It can rapidly and effectively investigate large area
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• Immediate continuous graphic display of results is possible

• Requires only one accessible surface
• No coupling medium is required
• Sensitive to materials changes and features of structural interest
• No special safety precaution is required
Figure 1.3 shows the GPR equipment setup.
Fig 1.3 GPR equipment setup (GSSI,USA)
GPR equipment contains the following three basic units.
1. Antennas
2. Control units
3. Recorder and display unit
A test method and the procedure are given in ASTM D 4748 for the non-destructive determination
of thickness of bound pavement layers using short-pulse radar. This test method permits accurate
and nondestructive thickness determination of bound pavement layers. This test method is widely
applicable as a pavement system assessment technique. The advantage in GPR is that, it is a line
measurement and the details in the cross section can be evaluated in a single run. The cross
sectional images namely B-scan and C-scan are obtained by processing the reflected signals.
1.4.2 Impact-Echo Method (IE)

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Impact-Echo (IE) is a method for non-destructive evaluation of concrete and masonry, based on
the use of impact-generated stress (sound) waves that propagate through the structure and are
reflected by internal flaws and external surfaces. Impact-Echo can be used to make accurate
measurements of thickness in concrete slabs and plates. It can also be used to determine the
location and extent of flaws such as cracks, delaminations, voids, honeycombing and debonding
in plain, reinforced and prestressed concrete structures. It can locate voids in the subgrade directly
beneath slabs and pavements. It can be used to determine thickness or locate cracks, voids and
other defects in masonry structures where the brick or block units are bonded together with mortar.
The P and S waves are reflected by internal interfaces or external boundaries. The arrival of these
reflected waves at the surface where the impact is generated produces displacements which are
measured by a receiving transducer as shown in Figure 1.4.
Figure 1.4 Principle of the impact echo test(Impact-Echo Instruments, LLC)
If the receiver is placed close to the impact point, the displacement waveform is dominated by the
displacements caused by P wave arrivals. The displacement waveform can be used to determine
the travel time, t, from the initiation of the pulse to the arrival of the first P wave reflection. If the
P wave speed, Cp, in the test object is known, the distance T from surface to the reflecting interface
can be determined. At the initial development of impact echo, time domain analysis was used to
measure the time from the start of the impact to the arrival of the P wave echo. This method was
feasible but the process was time consuming and required skill to properly identify the time of P

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wave arrival. A key to the development was the use of frequency analysis instead of time domain
analysis of the recorded waveforms as shown in Figure 1.5.
Figure 1.5 Schematic diagram illustrating how impact-echo works(Impact-Echo Instruments,

LLC)
The P wave produced by the impact undergoes multiple reflections between the test surface and
the reflecting interface. Each time the P wave arrives at the test surface, it causes a characteristic
displacement. Thus the waveform has a periodic pattern that depends on the round-trip travel
distance of the P wave. If the receiver is close to the impact point, the round trip travel distance is
2T, where T is the distance between the test surface and reflecting interface. The time interval
between successive arrivals of the multiple reflected P wave is the travel distance divided by the
wave speed. The frequency f, of the P wave arrival is the inverse of the time interval and is given
by the approximate relationship:
f = Cp / 2T (1.3)
Where, Cp: P wave speed through the thickness of the plate and T: depth of reflecting interface.
Above equation gives the basic relationship for interpreting the results of impact echo tests. If the
test object is a solid plate, the frequency calculated according to above is called the plate thickness
frequency. In frequency analysis of impact echo results, the objective is to determine the dominant
frequencies in the recorded waveform. This is accomplished by using the Fast Fourier Transform
(FFT) technique to transform the recorded waveform into the frequency domain. The
transformation results in an amplitude spectrum that shows the amplitudes of the various
frequencies contained in the waveform. For plate-like structures, the thickness frequency will
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usually be the dominant peak in the spectrum. The value of the peak frequency in the amplitude
spectrum can be used to determine the depth of the reflecting interface by expressing Eq. 1.3 as
T = Cp / 2 f (1.4)
In the case where the wave encounters a flaw, a part of that wave reflects back to the surface of
the slab. Here another distinct peak will be observed: one large amplitude peak at a lower
frequency, corresponding to the slab bottom, and another smaller amplitude peak at a higher
frequency corresponding to the flaw.
The impact echo method was found to have different applications. Unlike the pulse velocity test,
impact echo requires only one accessible surface. Also, this method offers the advantage of rapidity
at the data collection phase and with coverage of large areas of the element. Skilled personnel who
can provide a reliable and thorough interpretation of the IE data are required. Also, since Impact
echo is almost exclusively used as a point method: the operator, based upon his knowledge of the
method and structure, or at random, selects a number of points for testing. With this method of
local, punctual readings, important information can be missed when the points are badly selected
or not enough. Figure 1.6 shows a commercial impact echo test instrument along with its
components. The main components of an impact-echo test system are:
• an impact source
• a displacement transducer, and
• a computer or waveform analyzer
Figure 1.6 Impact echo instrument(Germann Instruments, Denmark)

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1.4.3 Ultrasonic Pulse Echo (UPE)
Ultrasonic-pulse echo measures the transit time (t) from an emitted impulse to the arrival of the
reflected signal from an internal or external interface. Ultrasonic-echo needs only one side access
with transmitter and receiver at one side as shown in Figure 1.7.
Figure 1.7 Ultrasonic-echo testing for slabs with (a) longitudinal wavesand (b) transverse waves
(H. Wiggenhauser et al)
For concrete testing lower frequencies compared to ultrasonic testing of steel have to beused
because of the sound attenuation from absorption (pore structure) and scattering(aggregates). An
interface with a great impedance change (e.g. concrete / air) produces a clear reflection signal like
shown in Figure 1.8a. The reflected signal is attenuated by absorption and scattering due to the
inhomogeneous concrete structure. If wave speed (c) is known the thickness can be calculated
according to testing problem.
A) Thickness/geometry
d = c/2 * t (1.5)
Where

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t = measured transit time; c = known or estimated wave speed,
d = calculated thickness / depth position
Figure 1.8b shows the case of integrity testing for good and bad concrete quality or workmanship.
Bad quality results from decreased density and modulus of elasticity of concrete. The wave speed
is calculated as follows:
B) Void detection
The detection of an object or a void at a depth d1 is shown in Figure 1.8c. Two cases are possible
as follows:
• The object (void) produces a significant reflection in case of a significant impedance

change: time t1 can be measured; depth d1 can be calculated according to testing problem
(A) if wave speed (c) is known - Direct detection
• The object (void) produces no reflection that can be measured. From testing in the sound
area (Positions 1 and 3) time (t) of the back wall reflection is known but disappeared
because of the object (void) - Indirect detection. In this case several positions along a line
have to be measured.

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Figure 1.8 Concrete members and typical recordings for ultrasonic-echo for (a) Sound concrete
member (b) member with good and bad concrete quality (c) void with direct detection (upper
part) and indirect detection (lower part) (H. Wiggenhauser et al)
Ultrasonic-echo needs only one side access with transmitter and receiver at one side. Longitudinal
waves or transverse waves can be used for measurement. For longitudinal waves wet coupling is
required and for transverse waves dry point contact array system without any coupling agent is
adopted. For concrete, lower frequencies of 50 KHz issued because of the sound attenuation from
absorption (pore structure) and scattering(aggregates). Concrete is an inhomogeneous material and
the aggregates are nearly the same size as the ultrasonic wavelength and hence several transmitters
and receivers in array is preferred to reduce the structural noise from its inhomogeneous structure.
Low frequencies from 25 kHz allow thickness measurement from more than 1 m but with limited
resolution of objects, e.g. single rebars. Higher frequencies from about 150 KHz allow high
resolution of objects but limited penetration. Thickness measurement with higher frequencies can
be limited with less than 0.5 m. Figure 1.9 shows the commercial equipment namely A1220
monolith – Ultrasonic Pulse Echo for concrete structures
Figure 1.9 Ultrasonic Puslse Echo instrument - A1220 Monolith(ACSYS, Russia)
The transmitter and receiver are housed in the same unit which consists of A 24 element (6 x 4)
matrix antenna array. The antenna array elements construction allows to test without using any
contact liquid, i.e. with dry-point-contact. All of the elements have an independent spring load,
which allows to test on uneven surfaces.

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1.4.4 Additional Testing Methods
A list of additional test methods is given below and research works continue to perfect the method,
instrumentation and reliability.
• Radiography and radiometry

• Holographic and acoustic emission technique
• Photoelastic method
1.5 NEED FOR RESEARCH
The ultrasonic pulse velocity method used is used for the evaluation of quality and integrity of
concrete. It is an indirect means of assessing the quality based on the velocity values and on the
past experience. Smaller defects such as honeycombs are not reflected in the UPV values. The
presence of pipes and embedment’s are not reflected in the UPV values and hence advanced
methods such as Ground Penetrating Radar, Ultrasonic Pulse Echo and Impact Echo techniques
are essentially to be used for then on destructive evaluation of reinforced concrete structures. A
holistic approach is required for the non-destructive evaluation of reinforced concrete structure
considering the interdependence of various elements of the reinforced concrete structure.
The Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) technique is used for the identification of defects in concrete,
presence of reinforcements and ducts, delamination etc.The radar works on the principle of
electromagnetic waves. If there are reinforcements, the waves get reflected because of the metallic
nature of the reinforcement. If the spacing of the reinforcement is very close, the reinforcements
look like a steel plate. Hence the minimum spacing of reinforcement that can be determined using
radar is to be explored. In the pre-stressed concrete the ducts are placed above the secondary
reinforcement and the effect of secondary reinforcement on the determination of ducts is to be
studied. Similarly the defects in concrete in cover zone play an important role in the durability of
concrete structures. The size of the defect present in concrete and the effect of reinforcement on
the presence of voids using radar technique are to be studied in detail. To study various parameters
in concrete, it will be difficult to cast a large number of concrete specimens and hence, there is a
need to formulate an experimental technique for studying various parameters such as the
reinforcement spacing, effect of reinforcements on the presence of ducts, determination of voids,
etc., using radar.
The Ultrasonic Pulse Echo (UPE) technique is used in the identification of voids and presence of
ducts in concrete specimens. The thickness estimation of the concrete members can be made from
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one side. The size of the voids that can be determined using ultrasonic pulse echo will give
additional information for the application in real field conditions. Hence, there is a need to study
the determination of voids in concrete and the minimum size of voids that can be determined using
ultrasonic pulse echo technique. The influence of the secondary reinforcements on the
determination of voids is also to be studied.
The Impact Echo (IE) technique is used for the thickness evaluation of concrete members,
determination of voids in concrete and in post tensioned ducts. The IE technique is a punctiform
test method. It means one measurement only gives information about one point of the structure.
To get more detailed information about the structure scanning techniques measuring at multiple
points are more useful. The combination of measurement results of several points to a line (B-
Scan) or, measurements in two different orientations, to an area representing a surface of a
structure (C-Scan) will give a better idea of the structure. The efficiency in the detection of
voids/honeycombs, buried objects such as pipes, plates etc., with IE are to be compared with that
of GPR and UPE. The efficiency of the IE technique in determining the condition of grouting in
post tensioned members is to be explored with the wheel based scanning IE system.

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CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 GENERAL
In the recent years, the non destructive techniques such as radar, ultrasonic pulse echo and impact
echo are gaining importance for the condition assessment of concrete structures similar to that of
the traditional methods such as rebound hammer and ultrasonic pulse velocity methods. The
Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) shortly called as radar technique is a very effective method for
investigating the integrity of concrete, thickness measurement and reinforcement identification in
concrete structures. The Ultrasonic Pulse Echo is a one-sided technique which can be used for the
thickness measurement, localization of reinforcement and ducts, and the characteristics of surface
cracks. The Impact-Echo (IE) method is used to detect thickness, voids, honeycombing of concrete
and masonry structures. The overall review of these techniques for the condition assessment of
concrete structures is given in the following sections.
2.2 GROUND PENETRAING RADAR (GPR)

Bungey J.H. et al. (1993) used a technique called simulation tank which consisted of an emulsion
of oil and water and the proportion of water and oil was formulated in away that it was equivalent
to the dielectric constant of concrete. It was reported that this method is not suitable for assessing
concrete slab specimens or concrete structures in the field. Failure to allow for differences in
relative permittivity could lead to an error in cover estimation of up to 30% in some cases.
Micheal et al. (2003) in their work used GPR for subsurface exploration and monitoring. They
have used for inspection of various foundations floor systems such as structurally suspended slabs,
retaining walls, decks, tunnels, balconies and garages. Several case studies were carried out to
locate rebar, tension cables, grade beams, conduits, voids and slab thickness. From the studies and
experiments, they found that GPR provides an efficient and versatile means for concrete evaluation

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studies. There bar, tension cables, grade beams were successfully located and the thickness of slab
member was determined.
Maierhofer.C. (2003) presented the application of Ground Penetrating Radar for nondestructive
evaluation of concrete infrastructure. The possibility of performing nondestructive measurements
quickly and with convenient recording of the measurements results is particularly beneficial. The
technique is well-suited for locating tendon ducts at depths down to 50 cm, detecting voids and
detachments, and measuring thickness of structures that are only accessible from one side. This
paper shows that GPR can be used for regular inspection, searching for the cause of damaging,
and quickly assessment of civil engineering structures. This case study demonstrates the wide
range of application of GPR for nondestructive investigation of concrete structures. Data
interpretation can be simplified by the analysis of 3D data cubes and visualization of slices in
different orientations. To detect the structure behind reinforcement, the relative polarization that
suppresses reflections from rebars should be selected. When several reinforcement grids are laced
inside the concrete structure, the GPR technique cannot supply definitive results as the
electromagnetic pulses are almost completely reflected and do not penetrate in to the element.
Another disadvantage is that when the moisture content is too high, the absorption of
electromagnetic waves increases sharply and scattering effects are enhanced. They have concluded
that the antenna frequencies from 500 MHz to 2.5 GHz have yielded very good results for
inspection of concrete structures.
Vincent Utsi et al. (2004) discussed that Ground Penetrating Radar is one of the methods used for
the determination of depth and position of reinforcement bars in concrete. Recent work suggests
that GPR can also be used to estimate rebar diameters. This work presents the results of
GPRmax3D simulations for two centre frequencies of GPRs applied to a range of rebar sizes at
different depths. This is compared with real measurements of different rebar sizes in air using a
4GHz GPR system. A further comparison is made with measurements of rebar depths and sizes
obtained from a practical GPR survey of ceilings in a series of prefabricated blocks of flats
originally erected in the late 1960s.

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Shaw et al. (2005) focused their work on the use of neural network approach to automate and
facilitate the post processing of ground penetrating radar results. Signal reflections from
reinforcing bars displaying hyperbolic image are detected using multilayer perceptron (MLP)
network. The results show that the use of MLP network approach could be effective in the
identification and location of embedded steel reinforcing bars. Casting of a large number of
specimens was impractical and so an alternative approach known as simulation tank which was
filled by oil/water emulsion was used. This emulsion was designed to have similar dielectric and
conductive properties of real concrete and so large number of data were taken efficiently and
cheaply. A radar SIR-2 model of Geophysical survey and system instruments (GSSI)was used for
inspection and 1 GHz antenna was used. Encouraging successful results were obtained in bar
identification, lateral positioning and depth estimation. Promising results were obtained but further
development is essential.
Andreas Loizos et al. (2007) used GPR to capture continuous pavement layer thickness. The
present paper focuses on the accuracy of pavement asphalt layer thicknesses estimation using GPR
data analysis by employing different estimation approaches based on material dielectric properties.
The control unit of the GPR system was connected to a 1 GHz air-coupled horn antenna which
operates as a transmitter and receiver together and has a penetration depth ranging between 0.5 m
and 0.9 m. During the data collection the antenna was suspended approximately 0.5 m above the
pavement surface. A comparative analysis of GPR data and asphalt-drilled cores data incorporating
a variety of pavements was performed. Pavement thickness measurements are necessary for quality
control purposes for new, reinforced or rehabilitated road pavements. Thus using GPR the
thickness of old as well as rehabilitated pavements were determined accurately.
Frank Lehmann (2008) adopted radar for the inspection of tunnel lining thickness. Radar wave
with frequency of 0.5 to 1.7 GHz is used. The in-situ groundwater had soaked the tunnel lining
and thus heavily decreased the penetration depth. In parts, the usable depth range was well below
the aim of 40cm and thus did not have the required reliability to test the whole tunnel lining.
Additionally, concrete-grouting boundaries with little difference in electrical impedance can

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hardly be detected. It is clearly visible, that the concrete cover of the inlaid reinforcement decreases
towards the crown. A following open cut confirmed a concrete cover of only 5mm. Ground
Penetrating Radar for lining thickness determination was refrained from at a very early stage in
the testing. The two decisive reasons were the following: It was not possible to distinguish the two
cases ‘GPR penetration depth is too shallow’ and ’lining thickness is adequate’. The difference in
electrical impedance between adjacent layers was not big enough. A minimum required void
thickness of 6mm was too big to draw conclusions about the bond quality.
Paulo J.S. Cruz et al. (2008) discussed the testing of prestressed concrete bridges using GPR. The
main aim of their research is to show the strong need and usefulness of radar technique, which can
provide non-visible Information about structural geometry and integrity required for strengthening
and rehabilitation purposes of bridges. GPR issued to locate tendon ducts and ordinary
reinforcement which is fundamental in rehabilitation works. Inspection of bridge decks in case of
prestressed concrete bridges is critical task but it is successfully carried by GPR which replaced
radiography methods. Three large concrete bridges located in northern part of Portugal are
inspected. In first two cases, the position of tendon ducts is located, which is a fundamental element
of safety of bridges. In the last case study they detected different materials and construction
defects. They concluded that the tendon ducts were in some cases shifted with respect to the
original design location. They concluded that GPR is progressively replacing other techniques,
such as radiographies, as it is usually considered faster and safer to apply.
Che Way Chang et al. (2009) used ground penetrating radar for the detection of cylindrical objects
buried under concrete. Physical and theoretical modeling and experimental results of buried
reinforcing steel bar were obtained and studied using measurements of radar gram data.
Reinforcing steel bars of radii 1.6 cm and 1 cm were detected and radius was estimated from radar
gram data. Several concrete specimens were cast and tests were carried on them to study the effects
of varying reinforcing steel bars diameter in the GPR response. Depth of rebar and diameter of
various bars were calculated. Digital image processing technique was used to enhance the quality
of the reflected signal prior to its evaluation to get better results.

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Vega Perez-Gracia et al. (2009) adopted ground penetrating radar technique to obtainan imaging
the subsurface with maximum resolution. Horizontal and vertical resolution are related to the
ability of the system to detect as different anomalies two close targets placed in the same plan or
in a vertical plan, respectively. This work presents a resume of several simple experiments made
with two commercial 1.0 and 1.6 GHz centre frequency antennas. Raw data were obtained during
the evaluation of modern or ancient structures. The images obtained in these evaluations are
compared to the results obtained in the laboratory measurements. In laboratory, GPR
measurements were carried out with a commercial 1.6 GHz nominal centre frequency antenna.
GPR measurements allow determining the horizontal position of the bars when resolution was
available to determine these targets as separated anomalies. Plain structures(experimental
configurations, load bearing wall and slab) allow obtaining better resolution than more complex
ones (historical building). Also, properties of the different materials affect the final resolution.
Bala.D.C. et al. (2010) used GPR for condition assessment and quality control of concrete
pavements. 1000 MHz antenna was used and the presence of reinforcement along the road with its
depth, concrete thickness was determined successfully. Data were collected in a grid format of
dimension 2m x 2m with inter line spacing 10 cm between two adjacent lines in both X and Y.
The presence of rebar which were covered with the RCC layer could be detected clearly. The rebar
plan map with its array dimension (27 cm x 27 cm) was detected. The position of rebar from the
top surface was detected. It was concluded that the radar technique was useful for the determination
of second layer of reinforcements and also the underlying objects and that the presence of first
layer affects the radar signals in penetrating further. Them asking effect of rebars on the relatively
deeper objects was observed in which some utility objects lying below the second layer of rebar
and in the middle of the depth profile was not identified clearly.
Lai.W. L, Kind.T. and Wiggenhauser.H (2010) reported a new approach to evaluate corrosion of
reinforcement in concrete by ground penetrating radar. Pulse GPRs were used to monitor the
continuous corrosion process in concrete, in which the changes of amplitudes, travel times and
Short Time Fourier Transform (STFT) spectrograms associated with the bar reflections were

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continuously measured. The yearly long corrosion process of reinforcement bar was rapidly
accelerated within 10 days by impressing 2A direct current across two embedded reinforcement
bars serving as anode and cathode. When corrosion started, it was found that the travel times,
amplitudes and the frequency spectra from the bar reflection reached a maximum or minimum, but
the trends of these parameters were then reversed when the crack became wide open. The results
presented in this paper will pave the way for future corrosion characterization using GPR, both in
laboratory and in field.
Raktipong Sahamitmongkol (2010) discussed that the relationship between the amplitude of the
reflected response of Ground Penetrating Radar pulse and the scanning angle is experimentally
investigated. It is found that amplitude of a reflected radar wave increases when the size of rebar
increases and changes with scanning direction. The amplitude of reflected radar wave from a rebar
with specific size is maximized if scanning direction is perpendicular with the axis of reinforcing
bar. Empirical formulation for the relationship between size of rebar and amplitude of reflected
wave is proposed based on the experimental result. The method can be modified and applied for
the detection of reinforcement arrangement as well as to measure the size of reinforcement in the
actual reinforced concrete structure.
Piervincenzo Rizzo (2010) discussed that civil infrastructures such as bridges, buildings, and
pipelines ensure society's economic and industrial prosperity. Quantitative and early detection of
defects in pipes is critical in order to avoid severe consequences. This paper describes about the
usage of ground penetrating radar for pipeline inspection. In pipe applications, pipes can be
measured from the ground surface or from the inside by moving the probing system along the pipe
length. GPR provides an accurate estimation of broken wires in some pipe segments. However,
some results showed that the number of broken wires in pre-stressed concrete pipes can be either
underestimated or overestimated. A second level of inspection for ferrous mains would be the use
of electromagnetic methods to ascertain the amount of pitting, corrosion, or graphitization that has
taken place.

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2.3 ULTRASONIC PULSE ECHO TECHNIQUE

Thomas Voigt et al. (2003) studied the in situ testing of early age concrete strength using ultrasonic
technique and compared the wave reflection measurements on mortar and concrete to strength. It
is shown that the reflection loss is linearly related to the strength gain of mortar and concrete at
early ages. The experiments have revealed relationship between the homogeneity of the tested
materials and the consistency of the reflection measurements. The repetition of simultaneous
measurements of wave reflections and compressive strength on mortar results in similar strength-
reflection loss relationships. Multiple measurements on the same concrete gave multiple strength
reflection loss relationships. The accuracy of the strength predictions made with the proposed
method is discussed and compared to that of other nondestructive test methods.
Schickert et al. (2003) demonstrated the ultrasonic reconstruction by the Synthetic Aperture
Focusing Technique (SAFT) has a great potential to image concrete elements and detect embedded
objects. Its algorithm focuses ultrasonic signals received at many aperture points by coherent
superposition, yielding a high-resolution image of the region of interest. Using this approach,
several problems caused by the strongly inhomogeneous structure of concrete are diminished,
where scattering of transmitted pulses leads to disturbing phenomena such as attenuation and
structural noise. This contribution is intended to review the work of the writers on the application
of SAFT reconstruction to concrete testing. First, consequences of scattering of ultrasonic waves
in concrete are qualitatively explained. Then the use of SAFT is discussed in comparison to
traditional A-scan and B-scan techniques. Different reconstruction algorithms and
implementations are presented for one-, two-, and three-dimensional AFT. Pulse-echo
measurement systems are described, which are able to acquire large sets of data on linear and
planar apertures employing single transducer, transducer array, and scanning laser Doppler
vibrometer arrangements. To illustrate the application of the SAFT techniques, examples from
laboratory and field experiments are described comprising imaging of back walls, tendon ducts
containing faults, layers, and reinforcement in concrete elements.

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Hui Xiang et al. (2008) developed an algorithm to determine the dynamic properties of the concrete
prism specimen through the progression of damage. The proposed algorithm used ABAQUS to
simulate the dynamic response of the specimens. AMATLAB program was used to update the
material properties by minimizing the sum of squared differences between the measured and
simulated harmonic frequencies. Excellent agreement was obtained between the reconstructed
elastic modulus values and values obtained by testing the prisms according to ASTM C 215.
Pristov Ed et al. (2011) studied the efficiency of the Ultrasound-Echo technique on a test slab with
built in delaminations and air voids at known locations. They concluded that ultrasound-Echo
method proved to be effective in the measurement of concrete slab thicknesses and in the detection
of delamination and void areas. Using the measured P-wave speed gave accurate thicknesses in
cases of known actual thicknesses. At the location of a delamination or air void the peak resonant
frequency shifted from the thickness resonance to a low frequency resonance. In general, the low
frequency shift increased as the delamination size increased and as the depth decreased. A surface
area plot of the collected data clearly showed the accuracy in identifying the delaminated and air
void locations.
2.4 IMPACT ECHO METHOD

The Impact-Echo (IE) method was introduced by Sansalone and Carino (1986) and isused to detect
thickness, voids, honeycombing etc. of concrete and masonry structures. The strength of the
method is its ability to measure the thickness of concrete parts with good accuracy with one side
accessibility such as foundation slabs, tunnel lining etc. Use of long wavelength low-frequency
stress waves of impact-echo distinguishes with other traditional ultrasonic methods (Schubert, F
and Wiggenhauser, H., 2004). The dominant frequencies that appear as peaks in the spectrum are
associated with multiple reflections of stress waves within the structure, and they provide
information about the thickness of the structure, its integrity, and the location of flaws (Ertugrul,
2005).

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Sansalone M and Carino N.J (1989) demonstrated the feasibility of detecting delaminations in
reinforced concrete slabs using the impact-echo method a nondestructive technique based on
transient wave propagation. The results of two laboratory studies were discussed. One study
involved detecting artificial delaminations embedded at unknown locations in a reinforced
concrete slab. All the artificial delaminations in the slab were located. The second study was aimed
at showing the feasibility of detecting delaminations in reinforced concrete slabs with asphalt
concrete overlays. Two reinforced concrete slab specimens with corrosion induced delaminations
were tested. Prior to overlaying the slabs with asphalt concrete, the depths of delaminations as
determined by impact-echo testing were verified by drilling at selected points. After the asphalt
concrete layers were applied, the slabs were retested. It was found that the impact echo method
could successfully locate the delaminations in the slabs through the asphalt concrete layer.
Lin.J.M. and Sansalone.M.J (1996) summarized the results of a feasibility study in which the
impact-echo method was used to determine the interfacial bond quality in layered concrete
structures, such as in bridge decks with overlays or at the interface between repair concrete and
the concrete in the structure being repaired. In this context, bond quality involves both the tensile
strength and the amount of unbonded fraction of area at an interface. This paper focuses on how
bond tensile strength affects impact echo results. Results obtained from numerical (finite element),
experimental, and field studies were presented. The numerical studies were used to quantify the
stresses in the waves generated by elastic impact to determine whether these waves could be used
as a measure of bond tensile strength. Experimental and field studies were performed to study
impact-echo results obtained from a layered concrete plate with a variety of interface conditions
varying from strongly-bonded to delaminated as well as conditions produced by removal of
concrete by jack hammering and hydro demolition. The pull off test method was used to determine
bond strengths in both the experimental and field studies. The results showed that the stresses
generated by short-duration (20 – 100μs),elastic impacts are much too small to serve as a measure
of bond tensile strength.

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John S Popovics (1997) studied the effects of Poisson’s ratio on impact echo analysis. An exact
analysis model for impact echo data, Guided Wave Analysis (GWA), based on elastic guided wave
propagation theory was introduced and experimentally demonstrated to be a powerful alternative
to the existing Impact Echo analysis Model(IEM). It was shown that the IEM model cannot account
for changing values of the material Poisson’s ratio, whereas the new GWA model can.
Relationships among the Poisson’s ratio, shear-wave velocity, and longitudinal wave-velocity of
a material and the associated impact-echo test results were developed through the use of the GWA
model. This development involved a parametric investigation of predicted impact-echo test results
for solid- and hollow-rod structures. The significant effect of Poisson’s ratioas well as
longitudinal- and shear- wave velocity on such impact echo results was demonstrated, and
directions of future work were suggested. Conclusions concerning the validity of the GWA and
IEM models and the significance of IEM analysis errors, owing to the disregard of Poisson’s ratio
as a significant factor, were also given.
Mary Sansalone (1997) discussed about the contributions of the people and the organizations that
carried out the theoretical, numerical, laboratory and field studies that established the method and
who developed the software and instrumentation that gave rise to a patented impact-echo field
system. It also provides a unified explanation of impact-echo theory as it applies to the testing of
structural elements, including plates(slabs, walls, bridge decks, pavements, etc. ), bars (beams and
columns), and hollow cylinders (pipes and tunnel and mine shaft liners) and to the detection of
flaws within these elements.
Carino.N.J. (2001) described impact-echo method as a technique for flaw detection in concrete.
The purpose of the paper was to provide an overview of the technique and to discuss the important
parameters involved in this type of testing. One of the key features of the method was the
transformation of the recorded time domain waveform of the surface motion into the frequency
domain. The impact gave rise to modes of vibration and the frequency of these modes was related
to the geometry of the test object and the presence of flaws. The principles involved in frequency
analysis were discussed. The importance of the impact duration in relation to flaw detection and

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other factors affecting the smallest flaw that can be detected were also reviewed. The paper
concludes with a summary of the ASTM standard governing the use of the impact-echo method
for measuring the thickness of plate-like structures. The author concluded that even though the use
of frequency analysis has aided in interpreting test results, experience is needed in setting up
optimal testing parameters, recognizing valid recorded waveforms, and analysing test results.
Yiching Lin et al. (2002) developed a simple device for detecting the time of an impact
demonstrated its efficiency in measuring the depth of surface-opening cracks in concrete. Surface-
opening cracks in concrete were relatively deep so that a mechanical impact instead of an
ultrasonic transmitter is used to generate stress waves with enough energy for successful
evaluation. A technique called the time-of-flight diffraction technique with impact-generated stress
waves was adopted for detection of surface opening cracks in concrete. Because the initial time of
the impact was unavailable in a mechanical impact device, two receivers were employed in the
test. One of the receivers was used to determine the time of the impact indirectly. Laboratory
studies were carried out on concrete specimens containing cracks with depths of 0.158 and0.90 m.
Field studies were performed on a dam damaged by an earthquake. Experimental results show that
the new device can be used to accurately determine the crack depth in concrete. Using the device,
the cost and effort for evaluation and signal analysis can be reduced, which largely enhances the
evaluation efficiency.
Schubert F and Wiggenhauser H (2004) found that in the impact-echo testing of finite concrete
structures, reflections of Rayleigh and body waves from lateral boundaries significantly affect
time-domain signals and spectra. They demonstrated by numerical simulations and experimental
measurements on a concrete specimen that these reflections can lead to systematic errors in
thickness determination. These effects depend not only on the dimensions of the specimen, but
also on the location of the actual measuring point and on the duration of the detected time-domain
signal.
Sarah L. Gassman, and Waleed F. Tawhed (2004) performed impact-echo tests on a precast,
reinforced concrete bridge slab that was removed from a maintenance bridge built in 1953 in South

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Carolina. Impact-echo tests were first performed to nondestructively assess the initial condition
and the distribution of damage throughout the slab by analyzing the variation in propagation wave
velocity. It was found that the velocity varied by as much as 900 m/ s throughout the slab. After
the in-service condition was assessed, the slab was subjected to a full-scale static load test in the
laboratory and impact-echo tests were again performed, this time to evaluate the initiation and
progression of damage (stiffness loss and crack development) within the slab. After structural
failure of the slab, a reduction in propagation wave velocity up to6% was observed correlating to
a reduction in slab stiffness. Cracks were detected within the concrete slab that was not visible
from the surface. It was found that areas with preexisting damage experienced more crack growth
when subjected to the load test than those that were initially intact. Also locations exhibiting
stiffness loss, crack propagation, and localized damage could be differentiated such that the
method can be used to make decisions between rehabilitating and replacing concrete bridge decks
depending upon the severity of damage.
Ufuk Dilek and Michael L. Leming (2007) assessed the fire damage of a concrete slab using the
pulse velocity and impact-echo testing. Both the NDE techniques and the laboratory testing of thin
disks identified the presence of damage as a result of the fire. Analysis of the relatively thin
concrete specimens permitted assessment of the presence and of damage in thin layers, and
provided important and degree useful data on concrete properties for engineering assessment
which was not available from NDE alone. Compressive strength results were consistent with the
results of other tests but largely inconclusive by themselves. Impact-echo testing was able to
identify the presence of a severely deteriorated concrete layer but could not identify the extent or
depth of damage or clearly identify less damaged areas. A distressed layer of concrete was found
by subsequent laboratory testing to be limited to a near-surface zone in some areas as suggested
by the pulse velocity evaluation, but pulse velocity based analysis resulted in an overestimate of
the depth of the damage. The findings highlighted a shortcoming of using conventional strength
testing alone on investigations involving relatively thin layers of damage and pointed out several

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key limitations in the use and interpretation of nondestructive evaluation and associated analysis
in a field assessment project.
Chiamen Hsiao et al. (2008) investigated the impact response of concrete blocks and studied the
feasibility of using the impact-echo method for detection of flaws in concrete blocks. Numerical
studies were carried out to acquire the transient responses of intact concrete blocks subjected to
impact. In addition, the impact responses of concrete blocks containing flaws were explored.
Numerical results were verified by experimental studies on concrete blocks with/without flaws. It
was shown that the impact response of a concrete block was composed of frequencies
corresponding to the modes of vibration of the block. Among these frequencies, there was a
predominant frequency and its value depended on the geometry and dimensions of the block for a
given P-wave speed in concrete. It was also shown that the presence of a flaw disrupted the modes
of vibration. A shift of the predominant frequency to a lower value is a key indication of the
presence of the flaw. In addition, multiple wave reflections between the impact surface and the
surface of the flaw produce a large amplitude peak in the spectrum at the frequency corresponding
to the depth of the flaw.
Algernon D., et al. (2008) used the scanning laser vibrometer and obtained the 2Dvisualization of
the elastic waves propagating along the surfaces of concrete specimens. Time slices were prepared
so that the wave field becomes apparent. The results obtained provide an appropriate basis for the
comparison with numerical results from3-D Elastodynamic finite integration technique (EFIT)
calculations. Examples were presented for the application with phased array ultrasonic echo, air-
coupled ultrasonic echo and impact-echo.

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2.5 SUMMARY
Based on the review of literature, it can be seen that a holistic approach is required for the non
destructive evaluation of various elements and features in a reinforced concrete structure. The
scope for determining the minimum spacing of reinforcement using radar, influence of the first
layer on the determination of second layer, influence of the main/secondary reinforcements in the
determination of ducts and the minimum size of void that can be determined using radar and
ultrasonic pulse echo are promising.

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CHAPTER 3
SCOPE AND OBJECTIVES
3.1 GENERAL
The scope and objectives for the present research work have been formulated based on the
observations from the literature survey and the gaps identified in the conventional ultrasonic pulse
velocity method and advanced non destructive techniques namely ground penetrating radar,
ultrasonic pulse echo and impact echo for the non destructive evaluation of reinforced concrete
structures.
3.2 MOTIVATION FOR THE PRESENT STUDY
Based on the review of literature, the following are the gaps identified in the existing data base.
i. A holistic approach is required for the non destructive evaluation of various elements and
features in a reinforced concrete structure. i.e. the interdependence of various elements to be
considered in adopting the various on destructive techniques.
ii. Application and comparison of radar, ultrasonic pulse-echo and impact echo techniques are
required in measuring the thickness, identification of reinforcements, defects in concrete and other
embedment’s.
iii. Not much information is available on the minimum spacing of reinforcement that can be
determined using radar.
iv. The determination of the outer layer of reinforcements using radar and the influence of the
presence of first layer is not available.
v. In the determination of presence of ducts, the influence of the main/secondary reinforcements

are not available in the literature.
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vi. The minimum size of voids that can be determined using radar and ultrasonic pulse echo and
the influence of reinforcement on the determination of the voids are not available in the literature.
3.3 OBJECTIVES AND SCOPE OF THE PRESENT STUDY
The objectives of this work have been set out as follows:
1. Application of radar, ultrasonic pulse-echo and impact echo techniques in measuring the
thickness, identification of reinforcements, defects in concrete and other embedments such as
presence of PVC pipes, steel embedments such as steel plates, box and ducts.
2. To construct a two storey reinforced concrete structure with different concrete grades with
various features such as thickness variations in the slabs, different reinforcement percentages,
inclusion of voids, PVC pipes, steel plates/box in the structure and evaluate its condition using
advanced NDT methods.
3. To evaluate the different size of voids in concrete specimen that can be determined using radar
and ultrasonic pulse echo and the influence of the reinforcement on the voids using radar technique.
4. To determine the presence of duct in concrete member and the effect of secondary reinforcement
in determining the location of duct and also the efficiency of grouting in post tensioned ducts in
concrete member.
5. To evaluate the real honeycombs in concrete using GPR and UPE
6. To formulate a new experimental technique for simulation studies for studying the determination
of minimum spacing of reinforcement, influence of the first layer on the determination of second
layer of reinforcement and presence of ducts and voids using radar technique.

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CHAPTER 4
EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION BASED ON ULTRASONIC PULSE
VELOCITY TECHNIQUE
4.1 GENERAL
In this work, it is proposed to demonstrate the limitation of the Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity (UPV)
method in identifying the honeycombs, voids created by the presence of PVC pipes, ducts, steel
embedments, etc., and to prove that a holistic approach is required for the non-destructive
evaluation of various elements and features in a large-scale reinforced concrete structure. The
limitation of the ultrasonic pulse velocity method in the evaluation of different sizes of voids in
concrete specimens and also the presence of duct in concrete is also proposed. The experimental
programme was suitably designed to achieve the goals mentioned above and this chapter explains
the details of the experimental programme carried out during the research study to assess the
quality of structures using ultrasonic pulse velocity method. The following are the specimens
constructed and evaluated using the UPV method.
1. Unique reinforced concrete multistory specimen: The specimen is a two story reinforced
concrete framed structure with slabs of different thicknesses at two levels. Different features such
as PVC pipes, honeycombs and steel embedment were introduced.
2. Concrete prisms containing different sizes of voids: Different sizes of cubical voids varying
from 25 mm, 50 mm and 100 mm were introduced in concrete prisms of size 300 mm x 300 mm
x 820 mm. The voids were placed in different configurations.
3. Concrete blocks with duct: Two concrete blocks of size 700 mm x 700 mm x 700mm are cast
with 55 mm metallic duct. One specimen was left with the duct ungrouted and the other was filled
with 13 mm strands and grouted with cement.

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4. Concrete blocks with real honeycombs: The concrete blocks of size 300 mm x300 mm x 500
mm were made partly with fine Expanded Polystyrene Chips (EPS) and remaining portion with no
fines concrete to simulate real honeycombs.
4.2 ULTRASONIC PULSE VELOCITY METHOD
The Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity (UPV) test is basically a wave propagation test and consists of
transmitting ultrasonic pulses of 54 kHz frequency through concrete medium and measuring the
transit time. The equipment used is the PUNDIT (Portable Ultrasonic Non-Destructive Digital
Indicative Tester). The path length divided by transit time gives the velocity which is usually
expressed in km/sec and can be correlated to concrete quality. For acoustic coupling, grease is
used at the measuring points. Measurements of transmit time are made at each grid points and the
velocities are calculated by dividing the thickness of the member by the transit time. The general
guidelines for assessing the integrity of concrete based on the velocities are given in Table 4.1 as
per IS 13311, Part -1.
Table 4.1 Velocity Criterion for Concrete Quality Grading
Sl. No. Pulse Velocity Concrete quality grading

km/sec
1 Above 4.5 Excellent
2 3.5 to 4.5 Good
3 3.0 to 3.5 Medium
4 Below 3.0 Doubtful
4.3 CONCRETE BLOCKS WITH HONEYCOMBS
Two concrete specimens of size 600 x 300 x 300 mm were made with M 30 grade concrete
(Identification 3A and 3B). The specimen 3A was vibrated with needle vibrator. The specimen 3B

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was made by placing no fines concrete in the bottom of the mould for a length of 300 mm and to
a depth of 60 mm. The other 300 mm was filled with expaned polystyrene chips of size 25 mm.
Figure 4.1 a shows the details of the induced voids in the cover concrete before concreting. The
concrete was placed in layers and levelled with hand. No vibration was used for specimen 3B. The
cast specimen is shown in Figure 4.1 b shows the presence of voids in the cover zone as well in
the interior of the specimen.
Figure 4.1 a Honeycombs in the cover concrete
Figure 4.1 b View of the cast specimen with honeycombs

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4.3.1 Evaluation with Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity
Figure 4.2 shows the grid lines for the blocks 3A and 3B. The ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV) test
by direct transmission was carried out with 54 kHz transducers. The UPV values are presented in
Tables 4.2a and 4.2b for specimens 3A and 3B respectively.
Figure 4.2 Grid lines for Blocks 3A and 3B
Table 4.2a Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Values in km/sec – Speciemn-3A
Table 4.2b Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Values in km/sec – Speciemn-3B

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It can be seen that the UPV values are low for specimen 3B compared to 3A. However the UPV
values are around 4.0 km/sec indicating the quality of concrete is good as per standard practice.
This shows the limitation of the UPV method in identifying the defects in concrete.
4.4 SUMMARY
The limitation of the ultrasonic pulse velocity method for the evaluation of integrity of concrete
was demonstrated on four types of concrete specimens. In the first one, a concrete slab of size 24
m x 24 m containing honeycombs embedments such as steel box and cracked specimen, PVC pipes
of different diameters were evaluated. The UPV values show that the concrete quality is good and
do not indicate the voids induced by these inserts. In the second experiment, concrete prisms
containing different sizes of cubical voids of sizes 25 mm, 50 mm and 75 mm were evaluated with
UPV at closer spacing. The UPV value does not indicate the presence of these voids. In the third
experiment, two concrete blocks of size 700 mm x 700 mm x 300 mm were cast with55 mm GI
ducts. One duct is ungrouted and the other duct is fully grouted for half the length and the
remaining length ungrouted. The UPV values of these specimens indicate that the concrete quality
is excellent and do not indicate the presence of duct. In the fourth experiment, two blocks were
made, one with fully compacted and the other is loosely compacted with no fines concrete at the
bottom for a depth of 60 mm. The UPV values show the difference between these two blocks, but
the UPV value of around 4.0 km/sec for the honeycombed block indicates that the concrete quality
is good. These specimens were evaluated with the advance NDT methods namely radar, ultrasonic
pulse echo and impact echo techniques and the results are presented in subsequent chapters.
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CHAPTER 5
EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES ON GROUND PENETRATING RADAR
5.1 GENERAL
Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) plays an important role in the condition assessment and
evaluation of reinforced and pre-stressed concrete structures and also serves as a forensic tool in
the evaluation of various parameters such as thickness, presence of reinforcement, spacing of
reinforcement, and cover thickness to the reinforcement, presence of other elements such as PVC
pipes, steel embedment, honeycombs and voids. Using GPR, the following studies were carried
out.
1. Unique reinforced concrete multistory specimen: To identifying the presence of reinforcement

and its spacing, the presence of embedments, PVC pipes and honeycombed areas.
2. Concrete Prisms containing different sizes of voids: To study the different size of voids that can
be determined using radar and the effect of reinforcement on the determination of voids.
3. Concrete blocks with duct: To study the effect of reinforcement on the evaluation of presence
of duct and also the influence of duct in determining the second layer of reinforcement.
4. Concrete blocks with real honeycombs: To study the capability of determining the honeycombed
concrete.
5. Simulated specimen for parametric studies: To study the following parameters:
i. Identification of minimum reinforcement bars and the minimum spacing that can be measured
using radar.
ii. Study on the minimum spacing of reinforcement mesh that can be measured using radar.
iii. Study on the presence of duct and the influence of reinforcement

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5.2 PRINCIPLE OF GROUND PENETRATING RADAR (GPR)
GPR is an electromagnetic investigation method. It is also known as surface penetrating radar or

electromagnetic reflection method. Radar principle works in Reflection mode where a signal is
emitted through an antenna into the structure under investigation. The transmitting antenna sends
a diverging beam of energy pulses in to the structure and the receiving antenna collects the energy
reflected from interfaces between materials of differing dielectric properties. A strong reflection
will be received from the air/concrete interface at the surface whilst other, generally weaker
reflections will occur wherever distinct boundaries occur beneath the surface (Figure 5.1).
Figure 5.1 Principle of radar surveying
Electromagnetic pulses of frequency 500 MHz to 3000 MHz from radar transmitter are directed
into the material. The waves propagate through the material until a boundary of diffe.ent electrical
characteristics is encountered (i.e.,) reflected at interface of different layer and reinforcement along
its travel path. Reflected energy caused by changes in material properties is recorded and analyzed

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.The signal recorded is usually referred to as a scan or trace. The vertical axis gives time axis or
calibrated depth and the horizontal axis corresponds to the length in the X-direction.
The depth of penetration depends upon several factors such as electrical conductivity of the
medium and dielectric constant. The electro-magnetic energy penetrates deeper in resistive
materials (dry sand, ice and dry concrete) than in conductive materials (wet concrete, salt water
and wet soil). The energy is absorbed by the conductive material sand hence does not penetrate
deep. The technique is eminently suitable to investigate materials with low electrical conductive
materials such as concrete, sand, wood and asphalt. Table 5.1 indicates the dielectric constant of a
few common materials. The dielectric constant of the material governs the velocity of the energy
propagation, being inversely proportional to the square root of the dielectric constant.
Table 5.1 Typical material properties and velocity of propagation
S. No. Material Dielectric constant

1 Air 1
2 Water 81
3 Granite 5-8
4 Dry sand 3-6
5 Wet sand 25-30
6 Dry soil 3-5
7 Fresh concrete 11
8 Dry concrete 6-8
9 Asphalt 4
Manual scanning with surface contacting equipment has been used for a much wider range of
structural applications. Recently this technology is used for periodical inspection and maintenance
of important structures (atomic reactor). GPR has been put to a variety of application in the

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concrete industry, such as estimation of the thickness elements from one surface; localization of
reinforcing bars and metallic ducts and estimation of the concrete cover depth. The radar
technology is used for periodic inspection and maintenance of the reinforced concrete and masonry
structures and it is an important means for the inspection of civil structures. GPR equipment
contains three basic units namely antenna, control unit, recorder and display unit. Figure 5.2 shows
the GPR equipment setup.
Figure 5.2 GPR equipment setup
The advantages of using GPR are as follows:
• It can rapidly and effectively investigate large areas

• Equipment is portable
• Immediate continuous graphic display of results is possible
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• Requires only one accessible surface

• No coupling medium is required
• Sensitive to materials changes and features of structural interest
• No special safety precaution is required
5.3 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
The GPR equipment SIR-20 setup is switched on to structure scan data collection mode and is
used to collect the data. A single monastic antenna which acts as transmitter cum receiver with
centre frequency 1600MHZ was used to carry out the test. Initial program Figure 5.2 GPR
equipment setup similar to all computer program such as creating folders and files was done for
system parameter setup. Figure 5.3 shows the GPR equipment system ready for scanning, then the
mode of data collection setup on the system, whether two-dimensional (2-d) or three dimensional
(3-d) setup is chosen.
Fig 5.3 GPR equipment system ready for scanning

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5.3.1 Two Dimensional Data Collection Setup
2-D data collection has three types of files parameters with extension (*.).They are project files
(*.rpj), data files (*.dzt) and macro files (*.cmf). In these actual radar profiles are stored in data
files only in RADAN program. The data files take its name and acquisition from project file. It is
a file header which contains acquisition parameter settings. In the file header dialog box, input the
values of dielectric constant, number of samples to be taken per scan and scan per second. Similarly
in configuration window select the type of utility (i.e. concrete) and antenna frequency. Then data
collection setup screen will appear, click on run button, and then start data collection by moving
the antenna along the line profile. The reflected scanned signals are collected as2-D image in the
line scan mode. 2-D data collection is speedy and easy to work but it is used for visually noticing
the presence of target in the field.
5.4 EVALUATION OF UNIQUE REINFORCED CONCRETE MULTISTORY

SPECIMEN
Ground penetrating radar equipment is used with 1.60 GHz frequency antenna for the evaluation
of the large scale reinforced concrete specimen shown in Figure. The first floor slab, second floor
slab, beam and the columns were divided into 50 mm grid spacing in both the directions.
5.4.1 First Floor Slab
The first floor slab was divided into grids of size 50 mm x 50 mm. A portion of 2.0 m x 2.0 m
within the beams was considered for scanning. The data was collected from the top face on the
first floor slab. Figure 5.4 show the measurement on the first floor slab. Figure 5.5a and 5.5b show
the radar gram for the first floor slab before and after migration. The data was collected in both
the directions and processed using RADAN software. Figure 5.6 shows the three-dimensional view
of the reinforcements present in the first floor slab. The spacing of the reinforcements obtained

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was matching with the actual. The sloping portion of the first floor slab, i.e. the back wall reflection
was obtained and is shown in Figure 5.7.
Figure 5.4 Data collection with radar using 1.6 GHz antenna
Figure. 5.5a Reinforcements before migration

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Figure 5.5b Reinforcements after migration
Figure 5.6 Reinforcements in first floor slab – 3D

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Figure 5.7 Radar gram in sloping portion of first floor slab
5.4.2 Second Floor Slab
The second floor slab was also divided into grids of 50 x 50 mm over an area of 2.0 m x 2.0 m
between the beams. The radar data was collected on the top and bottom side of the slab. The data
is processed using RADAN software. Figure 5.8 shows the C-scan which gives the reinforcement
obtained after processing. The absence of top reinforcements in the centre portion is comparable
to the actual provided. The presence of steel box and the PVC pipe is shown in Figure 5.9.

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Figure 5.8 C-scan at 45 mm from top face
Figure 5.9 C-scan at 70 mm from top face

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CHAPTER 6
EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES USING ULTRASONIC PULSE ECHO
6.1 GENERAL
Ultrasonic Pulse Echo (UPE) technique is a one sided method used for thickness measurement of
concrete members, detection of voids and post tensioned ducts in concrete. With the advancement
in data processing, the images in the form of B-scans and the C-scans can be obtained. UPE
techniques with both the equipment A1220Monolith and MIRA tomography system were used for
the evaluation of different parameters of all the four different specimens which were tested using
UPV and radar techniques.
6.2 ULTRASONIC PULSE ECHO EQUIPMENT: A1220 Monolith
The equipment used is the low frequency ultrasonic flaw detector for concrete namelyA1220
Monolith. The unique feature of A1220 Monolith is that it provides testing atone-side access of
the testing object, which makes it possible to test concrete structures such as buildings, bridges,
tunnels, etc., in situ. Another main advantage of the equipment is that no coupling agent and special
preparation of the object’s surface is needed to make investigation. Due to the special structure of
antenna array, which issued as transducer with A1220 Monolith, testing on the rough surfaces is
possible.A1220 Monolith consists of electronic unit with a screen and keyboard and, an antenna
array. The transmitter and receiver are housed in the same unit which consists of a 24element (6x4)
matrix antenna array. The antenna array elements construction allows to test without using any
contact liquid, i.e. with dry-point-contact. All of the elements have an independent spring load,
which allows to test on uneven surfaces. Figure 6.1shows the ultrasonic pulse echo equipment.

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Figure 6.1 A1220 MONOLITH –UPE Equipment
The results of testing are displayed on the liquid-crystal display as A-scans or B-Scans (in modes
BAND or MAP, rebuilding the image of object’s section). All the results of testing (signal forms
with parameters) can be saved in non- volatile memory of the device and transferred to an external
PC for further processing, printing and archiving. Besides, the special software (PLAINVISOR)
allows reconstructing the B-scan and E-scan images of the internal structure of the tested object.
6.2.1 Features
The device can display the results in different forms as follows:

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i. A-scan form
The results display in form of an A-scan is convenient for measuring thickness of the object of
control, flaw searching and analysis in selected area of the object. The fully digital section of the
device can display signals both in detected form and as a radio signal, which is very important for
data analysis. This allows additional possibilities of interpreting the signals, such as differentiating
useful signals from noise, and detects signals from various reflectors.
6.3 ULTRASONIC TOMOGRAPH MIRA SYSTEM (ACSYS, Russia)
The low-frequency linear ultrasonic tomograph MIRA is a multifunctional focusing array system
using shear waves and tomographic methods of signal processing. The tomograph MIRA is used
for imaging of the internal structure of objects from concrete and reinforced concrete using pulse-
echo technique of testing at one-side access. It issued to determine the flaws, cracks, honeycombs,
positioning of ducts etc., and also to assess the state of reinforcement bars to some extent in
concrete. The MIRA tomograph consists of 12 measuring units, combined into a focusing antenna
array, controlling unit and interface unit of PC type, which receives and processes signals and
controls the operation of the system. The measuring block contains a matrix antenna of48 (12
blocks with 4 elements in each) low-frequency broadband shear wave transducers with dry contact
and ceramic wear-resistant tips. Figure 6.2(a) shows the main unit with a CD scan and Figure
6.2(b) shows the antenna which is fixed on the bottom side of the main unit.

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Figure 6.2 a Ultrasonic Tomograph MIRA System
Figure 6.2 b View of various dry point contact (DPC) transducers
6.3.1 Synthetic Aperture Focusing Technique (SAFT) and SAFT-C
Although, concrete is considered an isotropic, elastic solid, where by definition the material
properties of the material are independent of direction, the inherent inhomogeneity of concrete,
requires many combinations of data points to map out and to accurately reconstruct, an image
depicting the internal conditions of a test element. To overcome this obstacle, spatial averaging of
a large number of single measurements per unit area is performed using an array of low frequency,
short pulse, DPC transducers and a mathematical algorithm known as Synthetic Aperture Focusing
Technique (SAFT) is used to generate 2D or 3D images. The method coherently combines pulse-
echo measurements at a multitude of transmitter/ receiver locations to form an image of the
ultrasonic reflectivity of the test area under investigation. The Mira’s SAFT algorithm is based on
a modified SAFT analysis version known as SAFT-C (C for combinations). The principle of
SAFT-C entails the digital processing of simultaneous combinations of test points to enhance the
resolution and the signal-to noise ratio of the final images. The data is collected using a Digitally
Focused Array(DFA), the basic principle consists of independently capturing the echo signals from
every set (pair) of antenna sensors being triggered, and digitally focusing on each point to visualize

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the given cross section. The SAFT-C method produces a narrow synthetic beam by the coherent
summation of the phase adjusted pulses(A-scans) at different angles. As the first row of transducers
produces the pulse, the remaining rows captured the returning pulse at different angles (Figure
6.3).
Figure 6.3 SAFT-C processing of the signals from each set of DPC modules
The full set of received reflections (pulses) contains the signals from all the sequentially increasing
combinations of transmitter–receiver pairs of transducers. The total number of combinations
between emitting and receiving transducers is given by the following relationship:
where (N) is the total number of transducer combinations (emitting and receiving rows)and (n) is
the total number of transducer modules or rows. The image reconstruction of the test results is
obtained as a B-scan (Figure 6.4).

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Figure 6.4 B- Scan image

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CHAPTER 7
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
7.1 GENERAL
The nondestructive testing of concrete structures involves the evaluation of concrete quality with
respect to the integrity of concrete. In addition, it is necessary to indentify the presence of
reinforcements, PVC pipes, steel embedment’s, thickness of the members; cover to the
reinforcement etc., the basic method such as Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity (UPV) for the evaluation
of integrity of concrete is widely used. The integrity is established based on the pulse velocity
values and the relative performance is obtained and has its own limitations. With the advancement
in testing methods for concrete structures, the Radar, Ultrasonic pulse echo and the Impact echo
are gaining importance. The efficiency of these methods for the evaluation of different parameters
in concrete structures has been attempted. For this purpose a large scale reinforced concrete
specimen with various features, concrete specimen with different sizes of voids, concrete slab
specimen with grouted and ungrouted ducts were constructed. In addition concrete specimen
containing real honeycombs were also cast and evaluated with various techniques. All the above
specimens were evaluated with GPR, UPE and IE for different parameters. In addition, a simulated
specimen was constructed exclusively for radar studies in determining the minimum spacing of
reinforcement, presence of duct and the influence of first layer and the duct on the second layer of
reinforcement.
7.2 UNIQUE REINFORCED CONCRETE MULTISTORY SPECIMEN
In this study a two storied concrete structure was constructed with two slabs. The first floor slab
was of different thicknesses with uniform spacing of reinforcement. The second floor slab was
made with two different thicknesses and inserts such as PVC pipes, steel box, steel plate and
honeycombed concrete were provided. Initially the slabs were evaluated with the UPV method.
The UPV values indicate that the concrete is excellent and does not show the presence of voids

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induced by the steel box or PVC pipes. Both the slabs were evaluated with the advanced methods
namely GPR, UPE and IE and the results are presented below. The thicknesses evaluated by the
three techniques are given in Table 7.1.
Table 7.1 Thickness estimation of slabs
Actual Thickness Thickness found (mm)

(mm) Radar UPE IE
200 200 200 199
300 300 300 297
400 400 400 393
In the radar technique, the accuracy of thickness determination of the slab depends on the velocity
of the electromagnetic wave which in turn depends on the dielectric constant of the material. This
can be easily calculated by temporarily having a steel plate on the bottom of the slab. The thickness
of the slab can be obtained over a line in the form of a line scan. It can be done in a rapid manner
for a large area and can be carried out on a rough surface. The UPE technique also gives the
thickness very accurately and it is based on the shear wave velocity given as input for thickness
calculation. In the manual UPE technique, a B-scan is obtained by testing at a number of closer
grid spacing. The UPE can be carried out on rough surfaces and no coupling agent is required. In
the UPE tomography based system the thickness can be obtained in the form of a B-scan at a
particular location instantaneously and with good accuracy Using IE, the thickness can be
determined accurately provided the P-wave speed is estimated correctly. The maximum error in
the estimation of thickness with IE technique is within 2 %. In the manual based IE technique, the
repeatability at each point can be seen by testing several times at a point. In the wheel based
automatic impact or, the repeatability at each point cannot be obtained, but the thickness plot can

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be obtained in the form of B-scan very quickly. Only one side access is required for the evaluation
of thickness with Radar, UPE and IE technique. Using UPV the thickness estimation is not possible
form one side.
The detection of reinforcements was done with radar in a rapid manner. The exact spacing of
reinforcements in the slabs is obtained in the form of B-scans and C-scans. The embedment’s such
as steel plate and steel box can be determined effectively with radar and ultrasonic pulse echo
techniques and can be seen as images in the form of B scan and C-scan. The absence of
reinforcements was also obtained using radar which otherwise impossible with other methods. In
the impact echo method it can be determined based on the frequency spectra. Out of all the
methods, the UPE tomography system is very simple to operate and the images can be obtained
instantly on the screen. Hence this can be adopted to the field structures in a easy manner. The
ultrasonic pulse velocity values are greater than 4.0 km/sec at all the locations namely the voids
induced by the presence of pipes, duct, etc. and has its own limitation. The evaluation of this
structure demonstrates that a holistic approach is required form on destructive evaluation of
concerned structures.
7.3 DETERMINATION OF VOIDS IN CONCRETE
In this study, the minimum size of void that can be determined in concrete specimen was evaluated
with radar and UPE technique. Cubical voids of 25 mm, 50 mm and75 mm were included in
concrete prism specimens at various depths. The influence of reinforcement in the determination
of the void was also considered. Based on the studies it is inferred that a void size greater than 50
mm can be effectively detected using radar and UPE and obtained as an image in the form of B-
scans. With the radar technique, it was found that the presence of reinforcement influences the
effective determination of the void. The specimen was also evaluated with UPV method and
average velocity greater than 4.0 km/sec which indicate that the quality of concrete is good. Thus
the velocity values do not show the presence of the void and this shows the limitation of the UPV
method.
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7.4 DETERMINATION OF DUCT AND THE EFFICIENCY OF GROUTING IN POST

TENSIONED DUCTS
In this work, two concrete blocks, one with empty duct and the other with partially and fully
grouted duct was studied. Also the influence of reinforcement on the presence of duct in the radar
technique was considered by placing the duct under the reinforcement in one specimen and
between the reinforcement in the other specimen. Initially the blocks were tested with UPV and
found that the velocity values are great than4.2 km/sec indicating the concrete integrity is good.
The UPV method does not show the present of the void induced by the duct. The specimen was
evaluated with radar, UPE and IE techniques. It was found that the reinforcements and ducts in
concrete can be evaluated and obtained as an image in the form of B-scan and C-scan using radar
very effectively. However, the determination of second layer depends on the spacing of first layer
of reinforcement mesh. The location of the duct was obtained in the lines can. In the UPE
technique, the thickness of the specimen was obtained very accurately. The duct was located with
the UPE technique. Table 7.2 gives the comparison of depth of the specimen and the duct evaluated
with radar and UPE technique. It can be seen that the maximum error in the estimation of the depth
of duct is 6.4 % with radar and 2 % with UPE technique.
Table 7.2 Comparison of results obtained with radar and UPE
Parameters Radar UPE Actual Percentage of variation (%)

data data values Radar UPE
Thickness of 291.4 298.7 300 2.9 0.43

specimen,
mm
Duct 96.4 88.1 90 -6.4 2.1
location, mm

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With the UPE tomography system, the duct and the reinforcement can be obtained in the form of
B-scan ad C-scan. Based on the studies carried out in this research work, it can be inferred that the
location of the duct from the top surface can be located with 94 %accuracy in GPR and 98 %
accuracy with UPE.
The efficiency of grouting in the ducts was evaluated with the IE technique and it was found that
there is a shift in the frequency for the grouted and ungoruted regions. This was confirmed by
taking a core sample. Thus the IE is an efficient method in evaluating the grouting in post tensioned
ducts.
7.5 CONCRETE PRISMS WITH REAL HONEYCOMBS
Two concrete blocks were made one with no fines concrete in the cover zone and the remaining
portion uncompacted and the second block fully compacted. Initially the blocks were tested with
UPV and found that the velocity values are great than4.0 km/sec indicating the concrete integrity
is good. These blocks were evaluated with radar and UPE techniques. Based on the study it was
found that there is a difference in the B-scan image of the honeycombed concrete to that of the
solid specimen. Similarly with the UPE technique, the B-scan and C-scan images were obtained
for the honeycombed concrete and found that there is a variation compared to the solid specimen.
7.6 SUMMARY
The application of GPR, UPE and IE techniques were adopted for the evaluation of different
parameters such as thickness, presence of reinforcements, embedment’ss in concrete such as steel
plates. The efficiency and the accuracy of one method over the other was studied and compared.
The minimum size of void that can be determined using radar and UPE was studied and it was
found that a size of void greater that50 mm can be detected with radar and UPE. However, the
reinforcements have an influence on the detection of voids in concrete. The duct in post tensioned
members can be determined with radar and UPE accurately. The efficiency of grouting in post
tensioned ducts can be determined with the UPE and IE techniques. The honeycombs present in
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the concrete can be evaluated wit radar, UPE and IE techniques. With the advanced NDT methods,
the features inside the concrete can be obtained in the form of images. Based on the radar
experiments in the simulated specimen, it can be summarized that a minimum spacing of 30 mm
for 32 mm diameter bar can be determined. The presence of first layer has an influence on the
determination of the duct placed under the first layer. Similarly the type of first layer of
reinforcement and the duct has an influence on the determination of the second layer of
reinforcement mesh.

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CHAPTER 8
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
8.1 GENERAL
This study is aimed to demonstrate the need for a holistic approach for the nondestructive testing
and evaluation of concrete structures. The limitation of the ultrasonic pulse velocity method has
been highlighted and the need for advanced NDT is demonstrated using Radar, UPE and IE
techniques. In this research study the efficiency of one technique over the other has been compared
in evaluating different parameters. The advantage of using these techniques is that there are no
coupling agents. In the first study, a unique reinforced concrete multistory specimen with various
features was constructed. One slab was made with three different thicknesses and the other slab
was made with two thicknesses. Inserts such PVC pipes, steel embedments such as steel box and
steel plate, honeycombed concrete were introduced in the slabs. The second study is on concrete
specimen containing different sizes of voids at different locations. The third study is on blocks
containing empty duct, partially and fully grouted duct. In addition concrete specimen containing
real honeycombs were also cast and evaluated with various techniques as fourth study. Initially all
the specimens were evaluated with UPV method to demonstrate the limitation the UPV in
identifying the voids and the need for a holistic approach in the evaluation of concrete structures.
All the above specimens were evaluated with GPR, UPE and IE for different parameters. In the
fifth study, a new experimental setup was made for studying various parameters with radar
technique such as minimum spacing of reinforcement that can be measured, influence of top
reinforcement mesh in the detection of duct and the influence of top reinforcement mesh in the
determination of the second layer of reinforcement. In total28 configurations were studied using
this simulated experimental setup and guidelines were arrived.
The novelty of this research study is the unique creation of the large scale specimen with various
features such as various reinforcements ratios, absence of reinforcements, inclusion of different

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grades of concrete, etc., For the study of effect of reinforcement spacing with radar, a simulated
sand specimen was developed which is novel one.
8.2 SUMMARY
To demonstrate the need for advanced NDT techniques for the evaluation of concrete structures, a
unique two storied reinforced concrete specimen was designed and constructed with various
features such as different thicknesses, different reinforcement ratios in top and bottom portion of
the slab, induced honeycombs, and steel embedment’s such as steel box and steel plate, PVC pipes,
etc.,
The specimen was evaluated with Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) for thickness measurement,
identification of reinforcements, steel embedment’s , honeycombs, etc. The images in the form of
B-scan and C-scan as obtained for the radar measurements give the reinforcement distribution.
The depth slice (C-scan) also provides useful information in identifying the steel embedment and
the PVC conduits. The back wall reflection gives the thickness of the slabs. On the detection of
simulated voids with EPS blocks in concrete, it was found that a size of 50 mm cubical void and
greater can be determined. The presence of reinforcement affects the determination of the void
with radar technique. The duct was determined with 94 % accuracy and it was found that the top
layer of reinforcement influences the determination of duct. The honeycombs in the cover concrete
and in the interior zone were determined with respect to the solid specimen. In the parametric
study, it was found that a minimum spacing of 30 mm,40 mm and 50 mm can be determined for
32 mm, 16 mm, and 8 mm diameter bars respectively.
The application of Ultrasonic Pulse Echo (UPE) technique for reinforced concrete structures has
been studied for thickness measurement, identification of steel embedment’s, honeycombs,
efficiency of grouting in ducts, and different sizes of voids created artificially. Two types of UPE
techniques were adopted namely the MonoloithA1220 and the Ultrasonic tomography system. It
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was found that the UPE technique provides information on the exact thickness of concrete member
in all the tested specimens. Embedment such as steel plate and honeycombs can be identified.
Artificially created voids can be located with limitations. Voids which are of size greater than 50
mm can be located using UPE technique. The real honeycombs present in the concrete can be
evaluated using UPE. The presence of duct and efficiency of the grouting in the post tensioned
duct can be determined using UPE with 98 % accuracy. The B-scans and the C-scans provide
useful information in the form images. With the Monolith A1220, the B-scans and C-scans are to
be developed whereas the ultrasonic tomography system gives the B-scans at each location
instantaneously.
Thickness and identification of flaws/defects were evaluated on different concrete specimens with
the Impact Echo (IE) technique. Two types of impact echo systems have been used for the
experiments. In addition, the efficiency of grouting in the post tensioned ducts was also studied.
From the analysis of experimental data, it is observed that the accuracy of the thickness obtained
is in the range of 98 % to 100 %. The technique is also successful in identifying the location of
buried pipes/ducts and the identification of defects. The voids present in the post tensioned ducts
can be evaluated effectively with impact echo technique by observing the change in the frequency.
The impact echo method requires smooth surface to get good results. In the manual impact echo
method, it possible to repeat the impact at each location three or four times to get the repeatability
values and eliminate the extremes while processing, whereas this is not possible in the wheel based
impact echo system n which only one impact is given at a point. In the wheel base Impact, the data
is picked up at fixed 25 mm spacing.
The limitation of the UPV technique was also highlighted by evaluating all the concrete specimens
with the ultrasonic transmission method. The Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity method can be used for
the evaluation of integrity of concrete based on the pulse velocity values. It was found that the
velocity values do not show much variation for the voids induced by the EPS blocks, PVC pipes,

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steel box and ducts in concrete. It demonstrates the need for the advanced NDT techniques for the
evaluation of concrete structures to detect the internal features as images in the form of scan report.
8.3 CONCLUSIONS
Based on this study the following are the major conclusions arrived:
1. Concrete specimens with various thicknesses can be evaluated with 97 % to 100 %accuracy in
radar and ultrasonic pulse echo techniques. The impact echo provides accuracy up to 98 %
accuracy in determining the thickness of concrete. This can be achieved to 100 % when the P-
wave speed of concrete is determined accurately.
2. The presence of PVC pipes, steel embedment, such as boxes and plates can be determined using
radar and ultrasonic pulse echo. But the accuracy depends upon the user’s knowledge on predicting
the features from the collected images. The accuracy in all the methods lies in the range of 95 %
to 100 %.
3. Artificially created voids can be located with radar and UPE with 95 % accuracy. Voids which
are of size greater than 50 mm can be located using radar and ultrasonic pulse echo techniques. In
the radar technique, the presence of reinforcement influences the determination of the voids.
4. The presence of duct can be determined in a rapid manner using radar technique and the
efficiency of grouting in the post tensioned ducts can be evaluated using the impact echo and to
some extent with the ultrasonic pulse echo technique. Hence, a combination of techniques is
required for the evaluation of concrete structures.
5. In the radar technique, a minimum clear spacing of 30 mm, 40 mm and 50 mm can be determined
for 32 mm, 16 mm, and 8 mm diameter reinforcement bars respectively. For lesser spacing of
reinforcements the image in B-scan looks like a sheet of metal. The second layer of reinforcements
can be located, if it is shifted from the first layer of reinforcement by more than 25 mm with respect
to the top reinforcement
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6. In the radar technique, for 12 mm diameter reinforcement mesh of 150 mm spacing, the duct at
a minimum depth of 38 mm can be detected clearly in 3D (C-scan) view when the duct is under
the reinforcement. When the duct is placed between the reinforcements and even if it is closer, the
duct can be seen in the C-scan.
7. The Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity can be used to evaluate the integrity of concrete only. At the same
time, the advanced techniques such as Ground Penetrating Radar(GPR), Ultrasonic Pulse Echo
(UPE), and Impact Echo (IE) can be used effectively to determine and locate the sizes and various
defects in concrete accurately.
8.4 SUGGESTIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH
The collection of data manually with radar, UPE and IE at closer spacing involves sufficient time
and the accuracy depends on the personnel who collect the data. Thus automation can be made for
collecting the data with all the three methods and also helpful in the inaccessible areas. The data
fusion of all the three techniques for better visualization can be made in the future programme of
work.

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CHAPTER-9
REFRENCES
REFRENCES
[1]. Lai W. L, Kind T. and Wiggenhauser H (2010), “Detection of accelerated reinforcement

corrosion in concrete by Ground Penetrating Radar”, BAM, Federal Institute of Materials Research
and Testing, Division VIII.2.
[2]. Piervincenzo Rizzo (2010), “Water and Wastewater Pipe Nondestructive Evaluation and
Health Monitoring: A Review”, Advances in Civil Engineering, Article ID 818597.
[3]. Raktipong Sahamitmongkol (2010), “Effect of scanning direction on amplitude of reflected

pulse radar from steel bar”, Journal of Building Appraisal, 6, 21–33. doi:10.1057/jba.2010.11
[4]. ASTM C803/C803M-03(2010), “Standard Test Method for Penetration Resistance of

Hardened Concrete”.
[5]. Bala, D.C, Garg, R.D, Jain, S.S., (2010), “Rebar Detection Using GPR: An Emerging
Destructive QC Approach”, International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications,
Vol.1 (4), pp. 2111-2117.
[6]. Che Way Chang & Chen Lu,(2009), ‘Measurement Radius of Reinforcing Steel bar in
Concrete using Digital Image GPR’, Construction and building materials, Vol.No.23, Issue 2, pp.
1057-1063.

Contact: 6260651575, 9179357477
[7]. Vega Pérez-Gracia, Daniel Di Capua, Ramón González-Drigo, Lluís Pujades, (2009),
“Laboratory characterization of a GPR antenna for high resolution testing: Radiation pattern and
vertical resolution”, NDT & E International, Vol. 42, Issue 4, , pp. 336-344.
[8]. Chiamen Hsiao, Chia-Chi Cheng, Tzunghao Liou, and Yuanting Juang,(2008), “Detecting
flaws in concrete blocks using the impact-echo method”, NDT&E International, Vol. 41, pp. 98 –
107.
[9]. Frank Lehmann (2008) Practical application of non-destructive test methods at a single-shell
tunnel lining’ NDT.net - The e-Journal of Nondestructive Testing
[10]. Hui Xiang, S.M, Craig M. Newtson, and Clinton Woodward, P.E., (2008), Journal of
Materials in civil engineering, pp: 701-706.
[11]. Paulo J.S. Cruza, Lukasz Topczewskia, Francisco M. Fernandesa, Christiane Trelab and
Paulo B. Lourenco,(2008), “Application of radar techniques to the verification of design plans and
the detection of defects in concrete bridges”, Structures and Infrastructure Engineering, pp.1-13.
[12]. Pristov, Ed.; Wayne Dalton.; and Garland Likins. (2008),” Measurement of Concrete
Thickness and Detection of Defects Using Ultrasound Methods”,9th International Conference on
Concrete Pavements, San Francisco, California, pp. 463-474.
[13]. Algernon, D. et al (2008), “Imaging of the Elastic Wave Propagation in Concrete Using
Scanning Techniques: Application for Impact -Echo and Ultrasonic Echo Methods”, Journal of
Nondestructive Evaluation, Vol. No. 27, Issue 1-3, pp. 47-57

Contact: 6260651575, 9179357477
[14]. Ufuk, D., and Michael L.L., (2007), “Comparison of Pulse Velocity and Impact-Echo
Findings to Properties of Thin Disks From a Fire Damaged Slab”, Journal of Performance of
Constructed Facilities, ASCE, pp. 13-21
[15]. Andreas Loizos, Christina Plati, (2007),“Accuracy of pavement thickness estimation using
different ground penetrating radar analysis approaches”, NDT&E International, Vol. No. 40, pp.
147-157.

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APPENDIX – B
LIST OF PUBLICATION
[1] “Experimental Studies of Different RCC Structure”, International Research Journal

of Engineering & Technology, Volume: 6, Issue 2, pp 55-57, June 2016.

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ASSESSMENT & EVALUATION OF STRUCTURE USING ADVANCED UNDISTRUCTIVE METHODS

Guided by: Dr. Ashad Ullah Qureshi

Guided by: Dr. Ashad Ullah Qureshi

1.2 Importance Of Nondestructive Testing

1.3 Basic Methods For Ndt Of Concrete Structures

1.3.1 Rebound Hammer Test

1.3.2 Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity (Upv) Test

1.3.3 Penetration Resistance Test

1.4 Advanced Ndt Methods For Concrete Strctures

1.4.1 Ground Penetrating Radar (Gpr)

1.4.2 Impact-Echo Method (Ie)

1.4.3 Ultrasonic Pulse Echo (Upe)

1.4.4 Additional Testing Methods

1.5 Need For Research

Chapter 2. Literature Review 16 - 26

2.2 Ground Penetraing Radar (Gpr)

2.3 Ultrasonic Pulse Echo Technique

Guided by: Dr. Ashad Ullah Qureshi

2.4 Impact Echo Method

Chapter 3. SCOPE AND OBJECTIVES 27 - 28

3.2 Motivation For The Present Study

3.3 Objectives And Scope Of The Present Study

Chapter 4. EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION BASED ON

4.2 Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Method

4.3 Concrete Blocks With Honeycombs

4.3.1 Evaluation With Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity

Chapter 5. EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES ON GROUND PENETRATING

5.2 Principle Of Ground Penetrating Radar (Gpr)

5.3 Experimental Procedure

5.3.1 Two Dimensional Data Collection Setup

5.4 Evaluation Of Unique Reinforced Concrete Multistory Specimen

5.4.1 First Floor Slab

5.4.2 Second Floor Slab

Chapter 6. EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES USING

ULTRASONIC PULSE ECHO 43 – 47

6.2 Ultrasonic Pulse Echo Equipment: A1220 Monolith

6.3 Ultrasonic Tomograph Mira System (Acsys, Russia)

6.3.1 Synthetic Aperture Focusing Technique (Saft) And Saft-C

Chapter 7 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS 48 – 52

7.1 General7.2 Unique Reinforced Concrete Multistory Specimen

7.3 Determination Of Voids In Concrete

Guided by: Dr. Ashad Ullah Qureshi

7.4 Determination Of Duct And The Efficiency Of Grouting In Post

7.5 Concrete Prisms With Real Honeycombs

Chapter 8 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 53 – 56

8.4 Suggestions For Future Research

APPENDIX – B LIST OF PUBLICATION

Guided by: Dr. Ashad Ullah Qureshi

1.1 World’s tectonic plates 1

1.2 Seismic zone map of India 2

Chapter 2. Literature Survey

2.1 Schematic diagram depicting the 19

Chapter 3. Material Properties of Structural Masonry

3.1 XRD pattern of fly ash 21

3.2 Mortar strength with partial t 26

replacement of fly ash with cement

3.3 Compressive strength of 1:6 cement 27

the bed joint in alternate course

Guided by: Dr. Ashad Ullah Qureshi

3.6 Stress distributions in the 33

3.7 Clay brick prism (unreinforced) and 33

fly ash brick prism (unreinforced and reinforced)

3.8 Comparison of compressive strength 34

3.9 Stress-strain curve of clay brick masonry 35

Assessment & Evaluation of Structure Using Advanced Undistructive Methods

Assessment & Evaluation of Structure Using Advanced Undistructive Methods