BRM Reference Material

Research

Systematic and scientific procedure

Adds to Body of Knowledge

1. Basic or Fundamental : Not related to any specific problem. It is generic in nature and finding
cannot be immediately applied

e.g. Changing preferences of Indian buyers after globalization

2. Applied : Specific to a problem and immediate application

e.g. To find out effectiveness of advertisement programme for a particular product(increase in

business)

Business

• Economy

• Sector / Industry

• Company

• Manager -> Decision Making, Risk, Resources (Time Money Labour, Material, etc.)

• Revenue, Cost, Efficiency, Productivity, Customer,

• Stakeholders

• Departments -> Interlinked

• Marketing, Finance, HR, Production, Supply Chain, etc.

• Automobile : Maruti Suzuki, Tata Motors, M&M - 4 wheeler, 2 wheeler

• FMCG : HUL, Colgate(CP),

• Retail : Future Group(Big Bazar), Avenue Supermart (D-Mart)

• Pantaloons

• Pharma: Cadilla, Sun Pharma,

• Airline: Indigo, Spicejet

Business Research :

Decision making tool in the hands of Manager or Decision maker

Decision Maker : Business Problem

Researcher : Research Problem

Deductive:

Inductive:

Concept : e.g. distance,

Construct : is Abstract.

e.g. Presentation quality construct is presented by 3 concepts Keyboard Speed, Format

Accuracy, Manuscript Errors.

Language Skill construct is presented by 3 concepts Vocabulary, Syntax, Spelling.

Presentation Quality Construct – Concept are Format Accuracy, Keyboarding Speed,

Manuscript/Content errors.

Job Interest Construct – Components may not be known. - Motivation, Salary/Wages

Variable : synonym with construct OR property being studied

Dichotomous: is var with two values (presence or absence)

Continuous: e.g. temperature, Income, Age, oil production, etc.

Discrete: No of vehicles, No. of defects.

Independent(IV) and Dependent(DV): No. of vehicles sold VS. Revenue, Raw material VS Cost

Moderating or Interaction(MV):

Extraneous var(EV)

Control Var(CV):

Confounding var (CFV)

Intervening var (IVV)

Working Days in a week (IV) VS Productivity(DV).

Worker’s Age(MV)

Weather (CV)

Job Satisfaction, Routine work (IVV)

Meeting attendance(CFV)
Research Statements

Deduction:

All employees of TATA go through Tata Code of Conduct and follow the same (Premise1)

Anil is TATA company employee (Premise2)

Anil follows the code of conduct (Conclusion)

Induction: (Why?)

Qs: Company spent Rs. 10L on promotional campaign but sales did not increase why?

(Hypothesis)Campaign was poorly executed (because we know that generally it has positive
impact on Sales)

Retailers were not having sufficient stock during the campaign

There was heavy rain which has impacted the retail stores

Amit has good performance record.

Induction (Why?) Hypothesis: Amit is proactive

Fact: (Amit proactively handles customer complaints and helps in customer satisfaction)
Deduction: proactiveness in work helps increase performance

Hypothesis:

Descriptive:

Hypothesis statement:

Descriptive Hypothesis format: Lux has @13% market share of toilet soaps in India

Research Qs: What is the market share of “Lux”/ “Soap” for HUL

Relational:

Correlational: Young Women (under age of 35 years) purchase fewer units of Pantaloons
newly launched designer wear than Women > 35years.

Explanatory(Causal): Increase in family income(IV) leads to increase in % of income

saved(DV). Loyalty to particular grocery store(IV) increases the probability of purchasing
the private brands (DV) sponsored by that store.

Exploratory research:

Conclusive research:
 Descriptive and Causal

Qualitative

Quantitative

Business Research Process

Steps

1. Problem or opportunity identification

2. Decision Maker and Business Researcher meeting to discuss problem or opportunity
3. Define Business or Management Problem and hence Research Problem
4. Formal research proposal and dimensions to problems
5. Approaches to research
6. Fieldwork and Data collection
7. Data preparation and Data entry
8. Data Analysis
9. Interpretation of results and presentation of findings
10. Management decision and its implementation

Case : Airline

(Rs. Cr)

Q1(Apr-Jun) Q2(Jul-Sep) Q3(Oct-Dec)

500 475 458

Management Problem:

Declining Revenue Q on Q : North Zone revenue impacted most : Increased cost, New Competitor

Research Problem: Shift of customers to competitors, To understand the reasons. Data on Flight details,
cost, frequency, route, time, facilities, etc.

Questionnaire to be filled by the customers

Case 2:

Team building Activity to improve employee motivation:

Business Problem : Low Productivity, High Turnover of employees/manpower

Research Problem : Low productivity linked to low motivation

 Hypothesis : H0 : There is no impact of employee motivation on Productivity

H1 : There is impact of employee motivation on Productivity

Case 3:

Case – McDonald’s Entry into Indian Market:

Opportunities:

• Population size and growth in Population

• High income Indians prefer urban areas.

• Majority of wealthy urban Indians live in most populated and cosmopolitan cities in India

• Growing GDP country

• High income people seek variety and are willing to spend on International food including
Fast Foods

Problems

• Diversity, Culture, Religion

• This type of junk food is unhealthy

• Only for rich people

• Infrastructure – Transportation and Storage

• Lower quality Agri products

Eating Out (Options)

Udipi, Chaats, Namkeens, Pizza, Sandwich and Burgers, Frankie, Pav Bhaji, Wada Pav and
Chinese

The average Indian breakfast like Dosa, Idli, Upma, Poha, Paratha, Puri Bhaji or similar such
dishes plus milk, tea or coffee is available at a price Rs. 15-25 per head.

• Core Competency: Convenience to people for Fast Food at competitive price (value for
money). Consistency of quality, production of food, use of raw material.

• Research and Surveys:

• Large eating out Market in India with increasing tendency to spend by customers
(Urban area and middle class or higher)

• Eagerness to taste American food but not as substitute for Indian food. (So adapting
to Indian tastes was critical)
 • Half population is vegetarian (This will need a separate Menu to be created)

• Target Customer (Customer Perception):

• A family with Children (Fun place)

• Urban customers travelling frequently (Great Taste and quick service not to impact
work schedule)

• Teenagers (Affordable, Hangout with friends)

Case 4:

Cincinnati Zoo:

• Increase Revenue

• Increase Membership and Sales

• Understand Visitors behaviour.

Benefit of research:

Key outcomes:

• Weather impacts the customer visits. So plan as per the weather forecast.

• Opening food outlets at specific times of the day when demand is highest

Benefits:

• Increase in target customers. By @ 4-5 % rise in ticket sales.

• Increase in Food revenue by 25% by optimising mix of products and to match

peak purchase times. E.g. keeping ice cream kiosks in the final hour before zoo
closes.

• Better inventory planning and labour scheduling has helped in reduction of

costs. Eliminating slow selling products. Targeting visitors with specific
promotions enabled 18% increase in merchandised (retailed) sales

Case 5:

Auto Dealership :

Adopt lean approach. For Demand chain.

Auto Manufacturers have adopted lean manufacturing (Eliminate/reduce unnecessary wastages

in the business) successfully. Can the similar approach be used in Auto Dealership business?

Based on research by Forrester Group

Observation: 40% of time the dealers have the wrong cars.

 Benefits: it was possible to lower the Demand chain related costs up to 53%

Case 6:

Walmart and RFID technology:

Problem of inventory, tracking and understand Supply chain movement of goods.

Walmart asked its top 100 suppliers to start using RFID. E.g. Goodyear one of largest tyre
manufacturing company started using RFID microchip in its tyres. This was also helping to relay
tyre information to drivers about inflation and wear about tyre and helped in safety of vehicle.

Helped in product recalls. Inventory Management (get average age of inventory)

Benefits : Walmart could save $8.4 billion a year due to the same.

Research Process:

Stage 1 : Clarifying research Question

Management Qs

Research Qs

Stage 2: Research Proposal

Allocating resources and Budgets

Assessment : Value the research info – Value Vs Cost.

Evaluation methods

Stage 3: Research Design

Type, purpose, timeframe, scope, environment

Sampling Design

Pilot testing

Stage 4: Data Collection and Preparation

Stage 5: Data Analysis and Interpretation

Stage 6: Research Reporting(reporting the results)

Last : Management Decision

Stage 3: Research Design

Type, purpose, timeframe, scope, environment

Sampling Design

Pilot testing

Research Design is the blueprint for fulfilling objectives and answering questions.

It is the plan and structure of enquiry, formulated in order to obtain answers to research questions on
business aspects.

Selection of a design may be Complicated by the availability of large variety of methods, techniques,
procedures, protocols and sampling plans.

e.g. One may decide on a secondary data study, case study, survey, experiment or simulation.

e.g. following Qs might be raised

If Survey is selected, should it be administered by email, computer, telephone, Internet or

personal interview?

Should all the data be collected at one time or at regular intervals?

What kind of structure will the Questionnaire or Interview guide possess?

What Question wording should be employed?

Should the response be scaled or open ended?

How the reliability and validity be achieved?

Will the characteristics of the interviewer influence the responses to the measurement
questions?

What kind of training should the data collectors receive?

Is a sample or a census to be taken?

What type of sampling should be considered?

Essentials of Research Design:

An activity-based and time- based plan

A plan always based on Research question

A guide for selecting sources and types of information

A framework for specifying the relationships among the study’s variables

 A procedural outline for every research activity

Types of Research Design (Purpose)

Exploratory:

Includes techniques like secondary data analysis, surveys, focus groups and two stage
design

For understanding and assessing the critical issues of problems.

Used when problem is not clearly defined

It is not used in cases where definite result is needed.

But used for subsequent research to attain conclusive results for a particular problem-
situation

i.e. used to obtain necessary information and to develop a proper foundation for
conducting detailed research later.

e.g understanding consumer behavior in a market. Study buying preferences/behavior

for a new product

e.g. Initial research statement prior to exploratory research: To investigate the

consumer decision making process for Organic food products and to segment
the market according to the basket size

After study it was realized that psychographics of individuals(attitude, interest,

opinion) are extremely critical. So study must include analyzing psychographic
profile of existing consumers and potential consumers with similar mindset.
Hence revised research statement is:

To investigate the consumer decision making process for Organic food products
and to segment the market – existing and potential - according to their
psychographic profile.

e.g. exploratory analysis of new channel of distribution that are being utilized by
marketers to promote and sell products and services.

Mainly conducted:

To analyze a problem situation

To evaluate alternatives

To discover new ideas

Both Qualitative and Quantitative techniques are used

 Qualitative techniques are mostly used (in-depth interviews, projective techniques, elite
interviewing and document analysis)

Two stage design: Exploration is done in 2 stages

Clearly defining the research problem

Develop research design

Descriptive

Called as Formal research

Objectives are clearly established

Details are gathered about all aspects of problem situation

e.g. A Foreign Ice cream company wanted to find out how to target Indian
consumers to high-end ice creams. The study was conducted to find out dessert
consumption habits of Upper class metro Indian consumers (upper income
bracket)

e.g. The customer portfolio management division of a large private bank wanted
to study the investment behavior of bank customers in government
instruments, mutual funds & securities, Bullion and FD (this was done using
longitudinal studies i.e. multiple time periods e.g. for each quarter for 5 years)

Causal (Explanatory or Predictive)

Aims to identify the cause and effect relationship between variables. E.g studying effect
of Price, Advertising and Marketing on Sales.

(Experimental research design is used to find cause effect relationship)

Experiment of Sales Persons undergoing Sales training and then seeing the impact on
Sales generated.

Sales Training Programme, Sales/Revenue, Sales person, Sending sales person to

training, Extraneous Vars(store size, temperature, season, advertising efforts of
competitors, weather condition, geographical location)

Concepts / Terms in Experiments: Independent Var, Dependent Var, Test Unit,

Experiment, Extraneous var.

Control of Extraneous Variables: Randomization, Matching, Use of Experimental Design,

Statistical Control.

Factors to consider while selecting Research design

The degree of Formality : Exploratory or Formal (Descriptive)

Purpose of study : Reporting, Descriptive, Causal

 Method of data collection: Monitoring or Communication study

Control of variables: Power of researcher to control: Experimental, Ex post facto (no

control on variables)

The time dimension: Cross sectional (conducted once), longitudinal (repeated over a
period of time)

The scope of study: breadth and depth of study : Case, Statistical study

The research environment: Field settings, Laboratory research, Simulation

Subject’s perception: Actual routine, modified routine

e.g. Problem statement: To find out customer profile for investment in Mutual Funds(MF) Vs
Traditional Instruments for IT salaried employees in Pune

Type: Exploratory research design,

purpose: understand the customer profile,

timeframe: One month

scope: find out demographic parameters and explore other parameters of investments
decisions in MF for IT employees

environment: Field study

Method of data collection : Primary data collection using Questionnaire. It will be

circulated through email and collected through email.

This will be conducted once during this period

Sampling Design:

Target population of IT salaried employees in Pune

Convenience Sampling (non probability) to be used: collecting data from

Employees of IT firms Infosys and Tech Mahindra at Hinjewadi IT park

Sample size : 40 is selected based on the availability of time

Qualitative and Quantitative research

Qualitative Research Methods

 Depth Interviews

Unstructured

Semi-structured

Structured

Focus Groups

Dual-Moderator

Two-way

Dueling-Moderator

Mini Groups

Projective Techniques

Association

Completion

Construction

Expressive

Sociometry

Scales : Rating Scales

Scales:

Nominal: Categorical data: Gender, Colour, Department Names, States, streams (Science,
Commerce, Arts, etc.)

Classification, Identification can be by numbers but no order/significance

Mode

Ordinal: Order a> b> c

Ranking : Beauty Contest Ranks 1 2 3 4 5

Median

Non parametric methods

Interval:

Ordinal + equality of intervals: diff. between 1& 2 is same as 2 & 3 and so on

 Calendar Time: time diff between 4 to 6 pm is equal to time diff between 9 to 11am

Temperature in Deg. Celsius

Ratio:

Interval + absolute zero

Weight, height, distance,

Income, Return rates, Productivity rates, cost

Validity

Is the extent to which a test measures what we actually wish to measure.

Reliability

Has to do with the accuracy and precision of a measurement procedure

Practicality

Is concerned with a wide range of factors of economy, convenience and interpretability

Components of Attitude

Affective Component (Feelings)

Cognitive Component (Beliefs)

Behavioural Component (Actions)

Measurement of attitude

Scaling(Attitude Scale and scaling)

Is the process of measuring quantitative aspects of subjective or abstract concepts. It is a

method to assign numbers or symbols to some attributes of an objects.

Types of Scales

Single item scales

Itemized category scales

e.g. level of hotel service (tick one)

Highly satisfied, Satisfied, Somewhat satisfied, Unsatisfied, Highly unsatisfied.

Comparative scales

e.g. Rate sweets shop X in comparison with sweets shop Y in Wakad. (tick one)

Excellent, Good, Both are same, Poor, Very poor

Constant sum scales

e.g. Respondents need to divide given number of points say 100 among two or
more attributes.

For a Supermarket

Characteristics No. of
Points
It is conveniently located
Has enough range of products
All items in stores are conveniently located
Prices are affordable
Billing counters are sufficient
Parking facility is adequate
Total 100

Paired comparison scales

Rank order scale

Rank from 1(best) to 3(least)

Affordable Cost High Mileage

Activa – Honda
Access – Suzuki
Jupiter – TVS

Pictorial scale

Smiling Face scale

Continuous scale

How did you find overall service of Pizza Hut?

Best Worst

100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0

Q sort scale

When no. of objects or characteristics to be rated are very large in no. then it is
difficult for respondents to rank order. Then Q-sort scaling is used.
 Multi Item scales

Likert scale

Semantic differential scale

News Paper:

1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Comprehensive News Limited News
coverage coverage
Contemporary Old Fashioned
Interesting Uninteresting
Supplements Supplements
Balanced coverage of Unbalanced coverage
news of news
Quality of language is Quality of language is
High Poor
Not inclined towards Inclined towards a
political party political party
Appealing to youth Not at all appealing
to youth

Stapel scales

+5,+4,+3,+2+1 Friendly Crew -1,-2,-3,-4,-5

Measurement Scales:

Likert Scale (Interval Data) for Summated Rating Scale

For Vacuum Cleaner:

Strongly Agree Neither Disagree Strongly

Agree Agree Disagree
nor
Disagree
The Product is Costlier 1 2 3 4 5
I don’t find time to use a 1 2 3 4 5
vacuum cleaner
Advertising of product is not 1 2 3 4 5
convincing enough
Using vacuum cleaner is 1 2 3 4 5
cumbersome
Competitor’s vacuum cleaner 1 2 3 4 5
has better features
Demonstration by sales person 1 2 3 4 5
is very effective
 e.g. Qs. Internet is superior than traditional libraries for Searches

The service personnel solved the query or your problem to your satisfaction

Ranking Scales

(Ordinal)

Paired-Comparison Scale

Forced Ranking

Comparative Scale

e.g. 4 cars :- Brezza(Maruti), Creta(Hyundai), Duster(Renault), Ecosport(Ford)

6 paired comparisons

BC, BD, BE

CD, CE, DE

Forced Ranking (1 (Most preferred) to 4(Least preferred))

B-

C-

D-

E-

Comparative Scale

Compared to your previous mobile performance, the new one is?

Better Same Lower(worse)

1 2 3 4 5

Methods of Data Collection

Primary and Secondary Data

Primary Data
Is collected directly from respondents using data collection methods like Survey, Interview,
Questionnaires, measurements, direct observations or tabulation.

Direct (Non-disguised)

Observation: (Can be disguised also)

Direct: structured or unstructured

Contrived: Subject has some advanced knowledge of being participant in the

observation study. But are unaware of aspects being observed.

Focus Groups

Groups of individuals selected and assembled by researchers to discuss and

comment on, from personal experience, the topic that is the subject of
research. (6 to 12 members)

Dual-Moderators:

Presided by 2 facilitators or moderators. There is division of work. One

ensures smooth flow of interactive session and other ensures all topics from
checklist are covered.

Two-way:

Consists of 2 groups. One group discusses relevant topics and the other
group monitors responses. Second group then analyzes the observed
interactions and conclusions.

Dueling-Moderator:

2 facilitators take opposite stance on the specific topic and ensure all
topics are covered and both sides are analyzed.

Mini Groups:

Consists of 3 to 6 respondents with a single moderator.

Depth Interviews

Structured, Semi- Structured, Unstructured

Structured: Fixed set of carefully worded, sequential open-ended questions

Content Analysis

Study of content of articles/news, advertising topics, etc.

Indirect (Disguised)

Projective Techniques
 Is an unstructured, indirect form of questioning that encourages respondents to
project their underlying motivations, beliefs, attitudes or feelings regarding the
issue of concern.

Association techniques: subjects are presented with stimulus. E.g. Word

association. Word “Ambience” can have different answers Building, Cleanliness,
Sales persons

Completion Techniques: e.g Sentence or Story completion

Construction Techniques: e.g. Subjects are asked to construct responses in the

form of story, picture, dialogue, description

Expressive Techniques: e.g. uses role playing

Sociometry: mathematical study of psychological properties of population and

results obtained by application of quantitative methods

Secondary Data

Is the data that already exists which has been collected by some other person or organization.

Sources:

Internal / External

Category

Books/Periodicals, Govt. Publications, Non-Govt associations, Directories, Industry

experts, Special collections

Medium

Hardcopy, Local area online, Internet

Database format

Reference

Source

Benefits

1. Resource advantage: Save on Cost and time

2. Accessibility of Data: Accessing for individual research purpose is easier than collecting for a
singular study
3. Accuracy and stability of data: Collected by recognized bodies and on large scale has
advantage of accuracy and reliability.
4. Assessment of data: for comparing and supporting the primary research findings.

Drawbacks
 1. Applicability of data: Purpose of collection of data is very important. The purpose of the
secondary data collection and your purpose could be different and the data may not be
relevant.
2. Accuracy of the data: who, why and how is the data collected is important.

Questionnaire design exercise:

To find out customer profile for investment in Mutual Funds Vs Traditional Instruments

1.What is your Age

2.What is your Gender M/F

3.Education

4. Profession: Business, Salaried, Retired

5.Income (Annual)

6.Monthly/Annual Saving

7.Current Investment Instruments

8. Do you invest in mutual Funds Y/N

9. SIP or Lumpsum or Both

10. Risk profile

Sampling :

Good Sample: Accuracy and Precision

Precision: is a measure of how close an estimate is expected to be. (Less precision

means higher Standard error of estimates)

Why Sample?

1. Lower Cost
2. Greater accuracy of results
3. Greater speed of data collection
4. Availability of population elements

Terms involved

Sample VS. Census

Population, Sample, Sampling Frame, Sample Size, Sampling and Non-Sampling Error
 Sampling: Selection of elements from population

Population element: Individual participant or object on which measurement are taken. Unit of
study

Population: Total collection of elements about which we wish to make some inferences or we
want to study

Census: Count of all elements in population

Sample: Selected portion of population (usually small)

Sampling Frame: Listing of all population elements from which sample will be drawn

Sample Size: Count of all elements in sample

Sampling and Non-Sampling Error:

(Random) Sampling Error: is difference between the sample results and the results of a
census conducted by identical procedures

Non-Sampling Error: known as systematic errors occur due to the nature of study’s
design and correctness of execution. Include non-observation errors and measurement
errors. Non-observation errors occur when data cannot be collected from the sampling
unit or variable. Measurement errors arise from various sources like respondents,
interviewers, supervisors and even data processing systems.

e.g. To find out customer profile for investment in Mutual Funds (for IT salaried employees in Pune)

Probability Sampling –

Simple Random Sampling, Systematic Sampling, Stratified Random Sampling & Multi-stage
sampling.

Simple Random Sampling: Sampling process where each element in the target population has an
equal chance or probability. Good if population is small and homogeneous E.g. selection of a
name or number from Directory.

Systematic Sampling: Selecting every kth element from a sampling frame.

Skip interval (k) = Population size/ Sample size

e.g. if we take k=6 and start from 2nd element then 2nd, 8th, 14th, 20th,….

Stratified Random Sampling

Strata: Homogeneous subgroups (means group elements within each stratum are
homogenous). But strata to strata are heterogeneous. E.g. stratum of all engineers, all
doctors, etc.

Group into strata and then apply random sampling on each strata.

Multi-stage Cluster sampling

 Clusters are homogeneous (based on some characteristics of the units) in nature and
the elements within cluster are heterogeneous. Each cluster should be similar to the
population. E.g. geographic areas.

Non Probability Sampling – Judgment, Convenience, Quota & Snowball methods of sampling

Judgment:

Selection of unit is based on the Judgement of an experienced Researcher

Convenience:

Selection of units from population are based on easy availability and accessibility

e.g. A company surveys its employees to know acceptance of its new product in the
market.

Quota

Entire population is segmented into mutually exclusive groups or categories. The

number of respondents(Quota) that are to be drawn from each of the groups is
specified in advance.

e.g. segment entire population based on gender then 2 categories M and F. To collect
sample of 40 the researcher may allot Quota of 24 (60%) for M and 16 (40%) for F

Snowball

Sampling procedures that involve the selection of additional respondents based on

referrals of initial respondents.

Steps in Sampling Process:

Define Target Population

Specifying Sampling Frame

Specifying Sampling Unit

Selection of Sampling Methods

Determination of Sampling Size

Specifying Sampling Plan

Selecting Sampling Plan

PART I: Types of Research

EXPLORATORY RESEARCH

It is a lot like exploration or detective work fuelled by curiosity and it is advisable for researchers to use
their instincts to find clues and venture into new territories in search of information. Flexibility is
important in exploratory research and it is bound to result in new ideas, revelations and insights.

These are some of the objectives that warrant the need for exploratory research:

– To define an ambiguous problem more precisely like why sales of a specific product are declining.

– To gain a better understanding of an issue.

– to generate new ideas like what one can do to improve customer relationships.

– develop hypotheses that can explain the occurrence of specific phenomena.

– for providing insights like what political changes in the international environmental are going to affect
our business.

– to determine if some research would be practical and to set priorities for future like we must focus on
these two product categories because as per research interest in other categories has waned and they
are not profitable any more.

Some tools used to conduct exploratory research:

1. Secondary information:

Most often the best point to start research from is to study the previous research conducted in this area.
If you study what others have found out, it will help you generate ideas, hypotheses and gain insights.
For example if you are trying to conduct research to create an instrument that helps you measure
customer satisfaction from your product or services then studying others’ research will help you reach
your objectives quicker. Literature reviews most often are a great tool to conduct exploratory research.
2. Personal interviews:

Personal interviews are also a great tool of exploratory research and talking to people with expertise in
the respective areas can help you achieve your objectives more easily. Moreover, it is important to be
flexible because the sources from which you can gain the most valuable insights are always not obvious.
Sometimes you may find the right information from your managers, sometimes from your customers
and sometimes talking to your supply chain partners could help understand the issue better. However,
while personal interviews are also used in descriptive research, the level of flexibility differs. In
descriptive research you are somewhat bound by your questions and in exploratory research you have
to be flexible and rather than sticking to your original questions, you must ask questions related to what
you are hearing from people you are talking to.

3. Focus groups:

Focus group is also a highly popular technique used to conduct exploratory research. A group of 8 to 12
people works on addressing a topic introduced by the moderator and the researcher. Focus groups have
proved to be of special importance in :

– Letting marketing managers see how consumers respond to the company’s efforts.

– Generating hypothesis that can be tested through the use of descriptive and causal research.

– Introducing a new product to the respondents to know their impression.

– Suggest the current market trends.

– Deriving real results from abstract data or finding how a survey response translates into real life
reactions.

The popularity of focus groups is because of their effectiveness and efficiency as well as because
researchers or decision makers can themselves attend them and observe the response of the
participants live. However, a major disadvantage is that a group of just 8 to 12 people cannot be
believed to be representative of the entire consumer group. Moreover one cannot conduct extra focus
groups to convert findings of exploratory research into descriptive data.
4. Case Analysis:

Analysing select cases also helps achieve the objectives of exploratory research. By doing an in-depth
analysis of elect cases related to the topic one can reach his objectives. This approach is suitable when
there are complex variables at work and to understand these complexities one may need to conduct
intensive study. For example you want to know the reason or traits related to his level performance
among your sales managers. You compare the top performers and bottom performers to check out
which traits are common to the best performing salespeople.

5. Projective techniques:

Projective techniques are useful where the researchers are exploring a topic on which the respondents
do not speak directly and clearly. Sensitive topics involving people’s personal lives fall obviously in this
category. Projective techniques can be used to find out these deep hidden psychological motives which
people would otherwise not reveal. Using a variety of communication and observable methods
researchers explore these deep psychological motivations which otherwise do not reveal themselves at
the surface.

These methods include (types of projective techniques):

– Word association –

In word association, a series of words are used to associate responses and find out the relationship. The
respondents are provided with a series of words and they select the word that comes to mind first. The
response, its frequency as well as the time taken to make the response helps establish the underlying
motivations towards the topic. No response means a high level of emotional involvement blocking the
response.

– Sentence completion –

Sentence completion is like a game of filling the gaps and allows responders to complete the sentence
by inserting the right word or phrases. The responses are then analysed to establish underlying
motivations towards the topic.
– Story telling –

Respondents are provided with a scene or drawing related to the topic and asked to knit a story around
it. This allows the researcher to see there respondent’s association with the topic and his psychological
motivations. Suppose a workplace scene is provided to the respondents and the stories help understand
how these people view a workplace. The picture works as a visual aid or stimulus to bring out the inner
thoughts or deep motivations of the respondent.

– Role playing or the third person technique –

Respondents are asked to play particular roles or enter a third person’s shoes to explain why a person
might act in a certain way in a given situation. Like asking people to play the role of a retail customer
arriving at a retain store.

While these techniques can provide intriguing insights, it is best to leave the tasks to the experts. Apart
from being skilled at structuring these approaches, it is essential that one is also experienced at
interpreting these results. If properly applied, these techniques can help you generate hypotheses,
clarify results and generate ideas. Often it is good to start a multistage research project with exploratory
research. Then based upon the results of exploratory research one can frame a descriptive research
questionnaire or set a causal research experiment. However, exploratory results do not have value alone
and cannot be used till the real research has taken place. It is because the preliminary research alone is
not sufficient to support your claims and therefore exploratory research results cannot be used alone.
Descriptive research is important to reach your objectives and test the hypotheses generated by
exploratory research and still exploratory research is like a stepping stone to start the process.

DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH:

Descriptive research as the name suggests is used for description or to describe phenomenon or idea. It
is generally used in the following conditions:

1. to describe the traits of specific groups like our largest customers who account for more than 60
percent of our sales and based upon the results design future marketing efforts.

2. Covariance of two variables – like does consumption of our services vary by income range.
3. to estimate the size of consumer groups in a population that act in a specific manner. How often do
newly married like to shop from our brand?

4. For specific predictions. Forecasting the number of companies switching to new CRM software.

Compared to exploratory research, descriptive research follows a very rigid approach. Its data collection
methods are highly rigid as compared to the unstructured and flexible approach used in exploratory
research. Exploratory research often forms the basis for descriptive research and the knowledge
acquires through exploratory research is used to select respondents, setting priority issues, framing and
asking questions as well as setting the time and place for the respondents like when and where to ask
questions. While exploratory research can provide the hypotheses, you need to conduct descriptive
research to prove the hypotheses. Exploratory research will answer the basic questions related to who,
where, what when, why and how if descriptive research but then descriptive research will answer the
final questions related to the market. The main difference between exploratory and descriptive research
is that the first does not follow standardized methods but the second does.

So, descriptive research does the task of putting the picture created by exploratory research into the
frame. Two basic types of descriptive research studies for collecting data are cross sectional and
longitudinal studies.

Cross sectional studies:

Cross sectional designs are the most used and popular descriptive research design. It involves sampling
the population at a given point of time. also referred to as sample surveys, it follows a high degree of
structure in both data collection process and instrument.

Longitudinal studies:

While cross sectional studies sample the population at a point of time, longitudinal studies sample it
over a period of time. The difference is just like that between a still photo and video film. The main
objective of longitudinal studies is to observe behavioural changes occurring over period of time. Also
known as true panels, these studies provide the same information at various specific points of time. This
information can be combined with other information to know if some specific behaviour change was
triggered by a particular act like brand switching was caused due to exposure to a particular
advertisement.
CAUSAL RESEARCH:

Casual research is effective in terms of identifying covariation between variables but when it comes to
identifying causality. Causal research helps identify if there is a causal relationship between two or more
variables. It is highly structured like descriptive research and is also known for use of control procedures
used during experimental designs related to tests of causal relationships. In most of such cases the
researcher is concerned with knowing the impact the independent variable has on the dependent
variable. Following are the main things that we are concerned with when using causal research:

Manipulation:

manipulation of the independent variable like price

Measurement:

Measuring the dependent variable like profit.

Control:

Controlling the variable that affects the dependent variable

Good marketing decisions and great strategy are always based upon useful market intelligence and such
information can be obtained through research. Organisational problems can be carefully translated into
research problems to find a solution. Research design is an essential and important component of
research that helps you reach your destination and arrive at great decisions by getting actionable
information. Research design includes one or more of the above categories. It is the research objectives
that help us establish that whether one or more of the research designs must be used.
Part-II Research Design

Research Design Definition

Research design is defined as a framework of methods and techniques chosen by a researcher to

combine various components of research in a reasonably logical manner so that the research problem is
efficiently handled. It provides insights about “how” to conduct research using a particular
methodology. Every researcher has a list of research questions which need to be assessed – this can be
done with research design.

The sketch of how research should be conducted can be prepared using research design. Hence, the
market research study will be carried out on the basis of research design.

The design of a research topic is used to explain the type of research (experimental, survey,
correlational, semi-experimental, review) and also its sub-type (experimental design, research problem,
descriptive case-study). There are three main sections of research design: Data collection,
measurement, and analysis.

The type of research problem an organization is facing will determine the research design and not vice-
versa. Variables, designated tools to gather information, how will the tools be used to collect and
analyze data and other factors are decided in research design on the basis of a research technique is
decided.

An impactful research design usually creates minimum bias in data and increases trust on the collected
and analyzed research information. Research design which produces the least margin of error in
experimental research can be touted as the best. The essential elements of research design are:

Accurate purpose statement of research design

Techniques to be implemented for collecting details for research

Method applied for analyzing collected details

Type of research methodology

Probable objections for research

Settings for research study

Timeline

Measurement of analysis
Research Design Characteristics

There are four key characteristics of research design:

Neutrality: The results projected in research design should be free from bias and neutral. Understand
opinions about the final evaluated scores and conclusion from multiple individuals and consider those
who agree with the derived results.

Reliability: If a research is conducted on a regular basis, the researcher involved expects similar results
to be calculated every time. Research design should indicate how the research questions can be formed
to ensure the standard of obtained results and this can happen only when the research design is
reliable.

Validity: There are multiple measuring tools available for research design but valid measuring tools are
those which help a researcher in gauging results according to the objective of research and nothing else.
The questionnaire developed from this research design will be then valid.

Generalization: The outcome of research design should be applicable to a population and not just a
restricted sample. Generalization is one of the key characteristics of research design.

Types of Research Design

A researcher must have a clear understanding of the various types of research design to select which
type of research design to implement for a study. Research design can be broadly classified into
quantitative and qualitative research design.

Qualitative Research Design: Qualitative research is implemented in cases where a relationship between
collected data and observation is established on the basis of mathematical calculations. Theories related
to a naturally existing phenomenon can be proved or disproved using mathematical calculations.
Researchers rely on qualitative research design where they are expected to conclude “why” a particular
theory exists along with “what” respondents have to say about it.

Quantitative Research Design: Quantitative research is implemented in cases where it is important for a
researcher to have statistical conclusions to collect actionable insights. Numbers provide a better
perspective to make important business decisions. Quantitative research design is important for the
growth of any organization because any conclusion drawn on the basis of numbers and analysis will only
prove to be effective for the business.
Further, research design can be divided into five types –

1. Descriptive Research Design: In a descriptive research design, a researcher is solely interested in

describing the situation or case under his/her research study. It is a theory-based research design which
is created by gather, analyze and presents collected data. By implementing an in-depth research design
such as this, a researcher can provide insights into the why and how of research.

2. Experimental Research Design: Experimental research design is used to establish a relationship

between the cause and effect of a situation. It is a causal research design where the effect caused by the
independent variable on the dependent variable is observed. For example, the effect of an independent
variable such as price on a dependent variable such as customer satisfaction or brand loyalty is
monitored. It is a highly practical research design method as it contributes towards solving a problem at
hand. The independent variables are manipulated to monitor the change it has on the dependent
variable. It is often used in social sciences to observe human behavior by analyzing two groups – affect
of one group on the other.

3. Correlational Research Design: Correlational research is a non-experimental research design

technique which helps researchers to establish a relationship between two closely connected variables.
Two different groups are required to conduct this research design method. There is no assumption while
evaluating a relationship between two different variables and statistical analysis techniques are used to
calculate the relationship between them.

Correlation between two variables is concluded using a correlation coefficient, whose value ranges
between -1 and +1. If the correlation coefficient is towards +1, it indicates a positive relationship
between the variables and -1 indicates a negative relationship between the two variables.

4. Diagnostic Research Design: In the diagnostic research design, a researcher is inclined towards
evaluating the root cause of a specific topic. Elements that contribute towards a troublesome situation
are evaluated in this research design method.

There are three parts of diagnostic research design:

Inception of the issue

Diagnosis of the issue

Solution for the issue

5. Explanatory Research Design: In exploratory research design, the researcher’s ideas and thoughts are
key as it is primarily dependent on their personal inclination about a particular topic. Explanation about
unexplored aspects of a subject is provided along with details about what, how and why related to the
research questions.
Part III – Research Process

Scientific research involves a systematic process that focuses on being objective and gathering a
multitude of information for analysis so that the researcher can come to a conclusion. This process is
used in all research and evaluation projects, regardless of the research method (scientific method of
inquiry, evaluation research, or action research). The process focuses on testing hunches or ideas in a
park and recreation setting through a systematic process. In this process, the study is documented in
such a way that another individual can conduct the same study again. This is referred to as replicating
the study. Any research done without documenting the study so that others can review the process and
results is not an investigation using the scientific research process. The scientific research process is a
multiple-step process where the steps are interlinked with the other steps in the process. If changes are
made in one step of the process, the researcher must review all the other steps to ensure that the
changes are reflected throughout the process. Parks and recreation professionals are often involved in
conducting research or evaluation projects within the agency. These professionals need to understand
the eight steps of the research process as they apply to conducting a study. Table 2.4 lists the steps of
the research process and provides an example of each step for a sample research study.

Step 1: Identify the Problem

The first step in the process is to identify a problem or develop a research question. The research
problem may be something the agency identifies as a problem, some knowledge or information that is
needed by the agency, or the desire to identify a recreation trend nationally. In the example in table 2.4,
the problem that the agency has identified is childhood obesity, which is a local problem and concern
within the community. This serves as the focus of the study.

Step 2: Review the Literature

Now that the problem has been identified, the researcher must learn more about the topic under
investigation. To do this, the researcher must review the literature related to the research problem. This
step provides foundational knowledge about the problem area. The review of literature also educates
the researcher about what studies have been conducted in the past, how these studies were conducted,
and the conclusions in the problem area. In the obesity study, the review of literature enables the
programmer to discover horrifying statistics related to the long-term effects of childhood obesity in
terms of health issues, death rates, and projected medical costs. In addition, the programmer finds
several articles and information from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention that describe the
benefits of walking 10,000 steps a day. The information discovered during this step helps the
programmer fully understand the magnitude of the problem, recognize the future consequences of
obesity, and identify a strategy to combat obesity (i.e., walking).
Step 3: Clarify the Problem

Many times the initial problem identified in the first step of the process is too large or broad in scope. In
step 3 of the process, the researcher clarifies the problem and narrows the scope of the study. This can
only be done after the literature has been reviewed. The knowledge gained through the review of
literature guides the researcher in clarifying and narrowing the research project. In the example, the
programmer has identified childhood obesity as the problem and the purpose of the study. This topic is
very broad and could be studied based on genetics, family environment, diet, exercise, self-confidence,
leisure activities, or health issues. All of these areas cannot be investigated in a single study; therefore,
the problem and purpose of the study must be more clearly defined. The programmer has decided that
the purpose of the study is to determine if walking 10,000 steps a day for three days a week will improve
the individual's health. This purpose is more narrowly focused and researchable than the original
problem.

Step 4: Clearly Define Terms and Concepts

Terms and concepts are words or phrases used in the purpose statement of the study or the description
of the study. These items need to be specifically defined as they apply to the study. Terms or concepts
often have different definitions depending on who is reading the study. To minimize confusion about
what the terms and phrases mean, the researcher must specifically define them for the study. In the
obesity study, the concept of “individual's health” can be defined in hundreds of ways, such as physical,
mental, emotional, or spiritual health. For this study, the individual's health is defined as physical health.
The concept of physical health may also be defined and measured in many ways. In this case, the
programmer decides to more narrowly define “individual health” to refer to the areas of weight,
percentage of body fat, and cholesterol. By defining the terms or concepts more narrowly, the scope of
the study is more manageable for the programmer, making it easier to collect the necessary data for the
study. This also makes the concepts more understandable to the reader.

Step 5: Define the Population

Research projects can focus on a specific group of people, facilities, park development, employee
evaluations, programs, financial status, marketing efforts, or the integration of technology into the
operations. For example, if a researcher wants to examine a specific group of people in the community,
the study could examine a specific age group, males or females, people living in a specific geographic
area, or a specific ethnic group. Literally thousands of options are available to the researcher to
specifically identify the group to study. The research problem and the purpose of the study assist the
researcher in identifying the group to involve in the study. In research terms, the group to involve in the
study is always called the population. Defining the population assists the researcher in several ways.
First, it narrows the scope of the study from a very large population to one that is manageable. Second,
the population identifies the group that the researcher's efforts will be focused on within the study. This
helps ensure that the researcher stays on the right path during the study. Finally, by defining the
population, the researcher identifies the group that the results will apply to at the conclusion of the
study. In the example in table 2.4, the programmer has identified the population of the study as children
ages 10 to 12 years. This narrower population makes the study more manageable in terms of time and
resources.

Step 6: Develop the Instrumentation Plan

The plan for the study is referred to as the instrumentation plan. The instrumentation plan serves as the
road map for the entire study, specifying who will participate in the study; how, when, and where data
will be collected; and the content of the program. This plan is composed of numerous decisions and
considerations that are addressed in chapter 8 of this text. In the obesity study, the researcher has
decided to have the children participate in a walking program for six months. The group of participants
is called the sample, which is a smaller group selected from the population specified for the study. The
study cannot possibly include every 10- to 12-year-old child in the community, so a smaller group is used
to represent the population. The researcher develops the plan for the walking program, indicating what
data will be collected, when and how the data will be collected, who will collect the data, and how the
data will be analyzed. The instrumentation plan specifies all the steps that must be completed for the
study. This ensures that the programmer has carefully thought through all these decisions and that she
provides a step-by-step plan to be followed in the study.

Step 7: Collect Data

Once the instrumentation plan is completed, the actual study begins with the collection of data. The
collection of data is a critical step in providing the information needed to answer the research question.
Every study includes the collection of some type of data—whether it is from the literature or from
subjects—to answer the research question. Data can be collected in the form of words on a survey, with
a questionnaire, through observations, or from the literature. In the obesity study, the programmers will
be collecting data on the defined variables: weight, percentage of body fat, cholesterol levels, and the
number of days the person walked a total of 10,000 steps during the class.

The researcher collects these data at the first session and at the last session of the program. These two
sets of data are necessary to determine the effect of the walking program on weight, body fat, and
cholesterol level. Once the data are collected on the variables, the researcher is ready to move to the
final step of the process, which is the data analysis.
Step 8: Analyze the Data

All the time, effort, and resources dedicated to steps 1 through 7 of the research process culminate in
this final step. The researcher finally has data to analyze so that the research question can be answered.
In the instrumentation plan, the researcher specified how the data will be analyzed. The researcher now
analyzes the data according to the plan. The results of this analysis are then reviewed and summarized
in a manner directly related to the research questions. In the obesity study, the researcher compares
the measurements of weight, percentage of body fat, and cholesterol that were taken at the first
meeting of the subjects to the measurements of the same variables at the final program session. These
two sets of data will be analyzed to determine if there was a difference between the first measurement
and the second measurement for each individual in the program. Then, the data will be analyzed to
determine if the differences are statistically significant. If the differences are statistically significant, the
study validates the theory that was the focus of the study. The results of the study also provide valuable
information about one strategy to combat childhood obesity in the community.

As you have probably concluded, conducting studies using the eight steps of the scientific research
process requires you to dedicate time and effort to the planning process. You cannot conduct a study
using the scientific research process when time is limited or the study is done at the last minute.
Researchers who do this conduct studies that result in either false conclusions or conclusions that are
not of any value to the organization.