GUIDANCE NOTES (2/2006)ON POWER FACTOR,HARMONIC FILTERS.

(COMPENSATION OF LOW POWER FACTOR BY INDIVIDUAL,BULK&COMBINATION CORRECTIONS.

(COMPENSATION OF POWER FACTOR AND FILTERING OF HARMONICS-DEFINING HARMONIC
CONTRIBUTION AT POINT OF COMMON COUPLING-FORMULA BY S.SUBRAMANIAN FOR CHIEF
ELECTRICAL INSPECTOR.
2.POWER FACTOR, HARMONICS AT P.C.C,HARMONICS FILTERS.

2.1. GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF ACTIVE POWER, REACTIVE POWER AND APPARENT

POWER

Three phase loads such as motors and inductors draw an almost sinusoidal current from the
supply. Since inductive reactive power is necessary to produce their magnetic fields, the current
lags the supply voltage by a phase angle  (Figure below).

u
i

Phase-displacement between Current and Voltage with a resistive inductive load

Inductive loads (which are sources of Reactive Power) include:

 Transformers
 Induction Motors
 (i) Induction Generators (Wind Mill Generators)
(ii) Induction Mini Hydro Power Stations
(iii) Induction Generators coupled to Gas Engines of Gas Compressor cycles as Gas
Distillation Process
 High Intensity Discharge (HID) lighting
 Induction Heating
 Miscellaneous other inductive loads like chokes, Reactors, etc.

Inductive loads constitute a major portion of the power consumed in industrial complexes

 The inductive loads therefore consume an apparent power “S” which is always greater than
the required active power, and is given by the vector sum of the active and reactive powers.

S =  P2 + Q 2

 POWER FACTOR

The ratio of active power to the apparent power is defined as the power factor (Cos )

P
Cos  = -----
S
 “KW” is the working power (also called Active Power or Real Power. It is the power that
actually power the equipment and performs useful work.

 “KVAR” is the Reactive Power. It is the power that magnetic equipment (transformer,
motor and relay) needs to produce the MAGNETIZING FLUX.

 “KVA” is the Apparent Power. It is the “Vectorial Summation” of “KVAR” and “KW”.

 Power Factor (PF) is the ratio of working Power to Apparent Power.

KW
PF = --------
KVA

KW
PF = -------------------
KW + KVAR

Power Triangle illustrates this relationship between KW, KVA, KVAR and POWER FACTOR.

KVA
KVAR S
Q


KW P

KW
PF = -------- = Cos 
KVA

KVAR
--------- = Sin 
KVA

KVA =  KW2 + KVAR2

=  3 (KV) ( I )for three phase circuits

Where KV = is the voltage in kilovolts

I = is the live current in Amperes

In an ideal world of efficient systems, (namely best efficiency and lowest losses)

 KVAR would be very small

 KW and KVA would be almost equal
 The angle  (formed between KW and KVA) would approach zero.
 Cosine  would approach one
 Power Factor would approach one i.e., power factor to be as close to be 1.0 as possible.
Active and Reactive Powers are related by the equation

Q = P . tan 

2.2COMPENSATION OF POWER FACTORS

SOURCES OF REACTIVE POWER (inductive load) DECREASE POWER FACTOR

CONSUMERS OF REACTIVE POWER INCREASE POWER FACTOR by many ways.

In most cases, compensation for the reactive power is provided by SHUNT CAPACITORS. They
can be associated with individual loads, or groups of loads or they may be installed centrally to
correct a complete system.

Installing capacitor decreases the magnitude of reactive power KVAR and increase the
power factor and figure below shows how capacitor work.

Capacitance (KVAR)

Working Power
KW

Reactance (KVAR)

Reactive power (KVAR) caused by inductive loads always acts at a 90 degree angle to
working power KW.

Inductance and capacitance react 180 degrees to each other.

CAPACITORS store KVAR and release energy opposing the reactive energy caused by the
INDUCTOR.

The presence of both a CAPACITOR AND INDUCTOR in the same circuit results in the
continuous alternating transfer of energy between the two.

Thus, when the circuit is balanced, all the energy released by the INDUCTOR is absorbed
by the CAPACITOR.

A CAPACITOR CANCELS OUT THE EFFECT OF LOW POWER FACTOR OF AN

INDUCTIVE LOAD AND CAUSES INCREASE (IMPROVEMENT) OF POWER FACTOR

2.3.0 REQUIRED CAPACITOR POWER

To correct a given power factor Cos 1, to an improved power factor Cos 2, requires a
capacitor rating Qc of

Qc = P (tan 1 – tan 2)

Figure shows the power diagrams for an uncorrected and corrected system.

Q1

Q2 QC

P S2 S1
2 1

Q = P. Tan 
1
S = P . --------
Cos 

P - Active Power
Q - Reactive Power
S - Apparent Power
 - Phase angle
Q1 - Reactive Power of Uncorrected Power System
Q2 - Reactive Power of Corrected Power System
Qc - Reactive Power of capacitor

POWER DIAGRAM FOR AN UNCORRECTED (INDEX 1) AND A CORRECTED (INDEX 2) SYSTEM

2.3.1DESIRABLE Cos 2

For a corrected system, a lagging power factor of from 0.9 to 0.98 should be aimed at.

2.3.2OVER CORRECTION

Over correction (Qc > Q1 ) should on the whole be avoided, in order to avoid the
transmission of CAPACITIVE REACTIVE POWER, WHICH CAN RESULT IN AN
INCREASE IN THE SUPPLY SYSTEM VOLTAGE.

STIPULATION OF PF VALUE BY ELECTRICITY SUPPLY AUTHORITIES

Electricity Supply authorities in India stipulate a power factor greater than 0.9 and
stipulates a value of 0.95.

2.3.4. DETERMINATION OF CAPACITOR RATING

 In case of installations that are already in operation, the required capacitor rating can be
determined by measurement and Power factor correction can be made by adding additional
capacitors.

Note: To determine the capacitor rating for the purposes of planning a new installation, the reactive power
consumption of the individual loads must be added with an allowance for an appropriate coincidence
factor “a”.

The calculation must be based upon the values of active and reactive power that actually occur
in operation. These can depart considerably from the rated values - for example, in motor
drives. It is often sufficient to make a rough estimate of the capacitor rating. As a rule of
thumb, it can be assumed that,

QC = (0.3) (a) S

a = Coincidence factor
S = Installed apparent load power

The above equation is based on correction to Cos 2 = 0.9 and a mean load power factor Cos
1 = 0.75.

2.3.5. VOLTAGE AND FREQUENCY OF CAPACITORS

It should be ensured that, the rated voltage of the capacitors corresponds to the operating
voltage of the system at the point of installation.

If the operating voltage is lower than the RATED VOLTAGE OF THE CAPACITORS, and
the OPERATING FREQUENCY is different from the RATED FREQUENCY, the resulting
correcting reactive power is:
2
UL fL
QCL = QCN ------- ------
UCN fN

UL  UCN
fL= OPERATING FREQUENCY fN = RATED FREQUENCYAS PER RATING NAME PLATE

UL =OPERATING VOLTAGE UCN = RATED VOLTAGEAS PER RATING NAME PLATE

2.3.6 CAPACITOR RATING REQUIREMENT

If active and Reactive energy meters are installed, the capacitor rating requirement can be
derived from the monthly Electricity Bill. The required calculation is:

Wb – Ww tan 2
QC = --------------------
t

Where Wb = integrated Reactive Power (Kvarh)

Ww = Active energy (Kwh)
t = Operating time
 2 = Operating power factor

Note: IF REACTIVE POWER METERS ARE NOT AVAILABLE, THE CAPACITOR RATING CAN BE
DETERMINED IN A SIMILAR WAY WITH THE AID OF ACTIVE AND REACTIVE POWER
RECORDERS CONNECTED INTO THE SYSTEM FOR AN APPROPRIATE POWER

2.4.1 Maximum Demand Tariffs and Power Factors

Under a Maximum Demand Tariff, the MD value is recorded on an appropriate meter

which measures it either in KW or KVA. This meter usually measures the largest number of KVA
(or KW) of Maximum Demand supplied during any half hour or any ;quarter hour period, in any
month.

With Maximum Demand tariff, it is only necessary to ensure that the capacitors are in
circuit at the time the Maximum Demand is being reached, if the prime function of the capacitor
installation is to save money by reduced MD charges.

2.4.2 AVERAGE POWER FACTOR TARIFFS

Average power factor tariffs incorporate a power factor penalty clause based on the average
power factor determined from the KWh and KVAh recorded in any metering period.

With the type of tariff, it is necessary to reduce the number of KVAR hours recorded during
the metering period. To do this, the capacitor must be in circuit whenever reactive units are being
recorded.

A refinement on this type of tariff, penalizes all reactive units, be they leading or lagging.
With this type of tariff small steps of capacitors are required to ensure that there is no reactive
power recorded at any loading condition.

2.4.3 CAPACITOR SIZE RELATED TO TARIFF

A DIFFERENT CALCULATION IS NECESSARY FOR ASCERTAINING THE

CORRECT CAPACITOR RATING DEPENDING ON THE PARTICULAR TARIFF
APPLICABLE.

2.4.5 MAXIMUM DEMAND TARIFF

If the MD records over a period of several years indicate both MD KVA and MD KW, it is
easy to obtain the MD power factor from the relationship between KVA and KW.

If however, the MD records only indicate KVA it is then necessary to estimate a “Power
Factor”.

Prior to estimation of “Power factor”, the MD records should be studied to see if there is
any pattern to the DEMANDS, or if there is any MARKED VARIATION IN DEMAND from
month to month. If such a pattern or variation is found, the reason for it should be established.

If only the KVA Demand is known, the power factor has to be obtained from site
measurements.
 The KWh and KVAh meters are read at the beginning and end of a KNOWN TIME
PERIOD.

The difference between the readings at the start and end of the period enables the relevant
KW, KVA and Kvar components of the load during the test period to be calculated.

Ideally these tests should be performed at the same time as the MD occurs, although in
practice this very rarely happens.

It is necessary therefore, to determine what plant is in use at period of MD which was not
in use during the TEST PERIOD and make allowance for this in the calculations.

Example

A study of consumer’s Electricity Bill indicated an average of 288 KVA.

A TEST carried out at the plant provided the following load figures.

240 KVA
168 KW
0.7 Power Factor
171 KVAR

It is noted, however, that at the time of test, there was 20 KW of resistive load not in
circuit, together with some 31 KW of fluorescent lighting. Both items could be in use at times of
Maximum Demand. The MD power factor can be calculated as shown in Table.

Table
Calculations of MD from known operating conditions

Name of Load KVA KW Power Factor Kvar

Test load 240 168 0.7 171
Resistive load - 20 1.0 6
Lighting Load - 31 0.9 15
Calculated Maximum Demand 288 219 0.76 186

To improve the MD power factor of 0.76 to an economic level of 0.97 requires 132 Kvar if
capacitor correcting equipment. is connected to the main busbars of the consumer’s power system.

Average Power Factor Tariff

The following information is required to enable a capacitor size to be arrived at:

MD records
Kwh consumer during the month
Kvarh consumed during the month and working hours of the plant during the month.

2.4.5.2 Example:
 A consumer is charged on a tariff which imposes a penalty charge when the average
lagging power factor falls below 0.9. From a study of the Electricity accounts, and a knowledge of
the plant, the following information was obtained.

Kwh consumed during the month 48,000; Kvarh used during the month 56,000. Average
power factor (calculated from the above) 0.65; working hours 160 hours during that month.

To improve the average lagging power factor from a level of 0.65 to an economic level of
0.90 some 33,300 Kvarh must be removed from circuit by means of capacitor. Therefore,

Capacitor size required = 33300 / 160 = 206 Kvar

In practice, the capacitor size would probably be increased by 5 or 10% to ensure that the
average power factor could be kept above 0.90.

Note: THE CAPACITOR SIZE ARRIVED AT THE ABOVE EXAMPLE IS THE MINIMUM POSSIBLE SIZE.
IT DOES NOT NECESSARILY FOLLOW THAT THE INSTALLATION OF THIS CAPACITOR WOULD,
IN FACT GIVE THE REQUIRED VALUE OF AVERAGE POWER FACTOR, AS A NUMBER OF OTHER
FACTORS HAVE TO BE CONSIDERED.

If load variations occur so that capacitor gives a loading power at times, then the FULL KVAR
RATING of the capacitor is not available for the reduction of Kvarh during these periods.

It will prevent during such periods, the recording of any Kvarh units, so that the difference
between the reactive component of the uncorrected load and the capacitor Kvar is lost. This is
based on the assumption that “Kvarh” meters are fitted with devices to prevent “UNWINDING”
under loading power factor conditions.

It therefore follows that the actual capacity required must be increased over and above the
minimum value to allow for this.

During period, when the factory is not in production, Kwh and Kvarh, may still be recorded
due to small items of plant that run continuously, or to transformer magnetizing currents. It may
therefore be necessary to provide for a portion of the total capacity of capacitors to be left in circuit
during LIGHT LOAD PERIODS. It is reasonable to assume that the supply authority will object
to the whole capacity being in circuit 24 hours a day.

2.6 DETERMINATION OF LOAD CONDITIONS

The 1st step in designing any practical power factor correction scheme must be to obtain
accurate details of the load conditions with value of KW, KVA and power factor at LIGHT,
AVERAGE AND FULL LOAD, together with type and details of the loads.

This may be achieved in one of the following ways:

1. Measurement of KW and Kvar

2. Measurement of voltage, current and Kw
3. Measurement of KVA and Kvar (or)
4. Use of a power factor indicating instrument, voltmeter and
ammeter
Use of Tariff metering:

In many instances, it is possible to use the supply authority’s meter to arrive at a plant
loading condition.

On the disc of the meter will be found a small mark, usually red or black band, which can
be watched.

Count the number of revolutions of the disc for about one minute, note the number of
revolutions made, and the time in seconds, to make the revolutions, then

3600 N
X = ---------
Rt

Where X = Instantaneous reading Kwh (or Kvarh)

N = Number of revolutions of the disc in “t” seconds
t = Time in seconds for “N” revolution
R = Meter constant in revolutions per Kwh (or Kvarh)

The meter constant is stamped on the rating plate of the meter, and is in revolutions per
Kwh or Kvarh.

Where the meter constant shown as units per revolution (U), then the formula becomes

X = 3600 NU / 1000t

The meter constant in this case is in either Wh or Var per revolution.

It should be appreciated that the readings obtained by this method are instantaneous, so that
they should be taken when load conditions are normal.

2.7 METHODS OF CORRECTION

Each power factor correction scheme requires individual consideration, and, the successful
operation of a scheme depends largely on the correct positioning of the capacitors in the network.

The relevant factors are:

(i) Tariff in force

(ii) Metering point
(iii) Details of LIGHT, AVERAGE and FULL load KVA, KW and POWER FACTOR
(iv) Position of motors, welding equipment, transformers or other large plant CAUSING
BAD POWER FACTOR
(v) SUPPLY SYSTEM PROBLEMS SUCH AS HARMONICS

CAPACITORS THEMSELVES DO NOT GENERATE HARMONICS, BUT THEY CAN

EITHER REDUCE OR INCREASE THEM, DEPENDING UPON PARTICULAR
CIRCUMSTANCES.
 THE MAJOR SOURCES OF HARMONICS ARE SUCH THINGS AS THYRISTORS,
RECTIFIERS AND ARC FURNACES.

2.8 SITING OF CAPACITORS

The motor or a transformer may be individually corrected. In this case,

the capacitor and motor or

the capacitor and transformer

- are as close together as possible. If the plant as a whole or part is corrected as a

block (generally known as bulk or group correction, the capacitor is located at some convenient
point in the system, such as sub station.

On small installation individual correction can be applied to motors which are constantly
inoperative.

In the case of KVA-MD tariffs, individual correction can be applied on certain motors
known to be in operation at the time of MD.

This method reduces the current loading on the distribution system with consequent
improvement in voltage regulations, and is more economic. No additional switchgear is required
as the capacitor is connected directly to the piece of equipment it is connecting, and can therefore
be switched with that piece of equipment. When a capacitor is connected to a motor, it is
connected directly across the motor terminals, and is switched with the motor starter, resulting in
complete automatic control.

The balance of the correction required can then be connected to the MAIN BUSBARS of
the SUPPLY SYSTEM, and controlled by a fuse-switch. It should be noted, however, that some
supply authorities stipulate the maximum amount of Kvar which may be switched in this manner.

2.8.1 AUTOMATIC SWITCHING OF CAPACITORS is recognized as an ideal method of

obtaining the full electrical and financial benefits from a capacitor installation, the resulting
economics and convenience far outweighing the initial cost.

Optimum power factor is achieved under all conditions and there is no possibility of the
equipment being inadvertently left out of Commission.

A bank of capacitors with the required total capacitor Kvar controlled in equal stages by a
multistep relay and air break contactors connected to the main busbars is used in many application.

2.8.2 NUMBER OF STEPS

A power factor correction unit is characterized by its power rating and the number of steps.
In a five-step unit with a rating of e.g., 250 Kvar, the capacitor power can be switched in steps of
50 Kvar. To achieve sufficiently accurate control and at the same time to avoid too frequent
operation of the capacitors, it is appropriate practice to choose a number of steps between five and
a maximum of ten.

2.9 COMBINATION OF INDIVIDUAL AND BULK CORRECTION

Large industrial sites involving different kinds of manufacturing processes often require a
combination of bulk and individual correction to provide the most economic means of power
factor correction.

In providing the power factor correction, it should be remembered that, distribution boards
and circuits can carry a great useful load if the capacitors are installed as near as possible to the
source of low factor. For this reason, either bulk or individual correction, rather than correction at
the intake point, can almost invariably be justified.

More onerous service conditions of capacitors compared to other equipment of

equivalent KVA loadings.

(a) At the instant of switching, large transient current flows.

(b) Higher overvoltage transients can occur when capacitors are disconnected by switching
devices which allow restriking of the arc.

(c) The switchgear has to carry continuously the full rated current of the capacitor,
whenever it is in circuit i.e., there is no allowance for diversity.

(d) At light loads, when the voltage may be higher than normal, the capacitor current is
increased.

(e) If harmonics are present in the supply voltage, the capacitor current is increased.

In view of these factors, the following limitations are imposed on the capacitor
manufacturer.

(a) The capacitor must be suitable for operation under abnormal conditions to an over
voltage of 1.1 times rated voltage.

(b) The capacitor must be suitable for continuous operation with a current of 1.3 times
normal current.

In addition to these factors, the capacitor manufacturer is permitted a manufacturing

tolerance output of –0 + 10%.

In view of these conditions it is normal practice to derate switchgear and fuses with the
capacitors.

2.10 CENTRAL COMPENSATION

CENTRAL CORRECTION is particularly suitable, when

 A large number of small loads

 Different power consumptions
 Switched on for varying periods

are connected to the system.

Central compensation has the further advantages that,

 the correction equipment is easy to check, because of its centralized arrangement.

 the capacitor rating is always matched to the reactive power requirement and
 having regard to the coincidence factor, a lower capacitor rating than would be required for
individual load correction is often sufficient.

2.11.1 POWER FACTOR CORRECTION UNITS – CONSTRUCTION

POWER SECTION

Power factor correction units consists of a controller and a power section including:

 Shunt-capacitors
 Contactors for capacitor switching
 Fuses for the capacitor circuits
 Provision for discharging the capacitors when they are disconnected from the system.

The controller measures the reactive power in the system through current and voltage transformers.
If the reactive power deviates from the set value, the controller conveys command signals to the
capacitor contactors and causes them to open or close. step by step. On the other hand, the
increase in voltage at the secondary terminals of a transformer due to over correction is not critical.
For a transformer load only with capacitor current,
QC
Δ U = U Z ------
SN

SN = Rated power of transformer

QO = Reactive power consumption of transformer on no load Kvars
QTr = Reactive power consumption of transformer (Kvar)
QC = Capacitor power
UZ = Impedance voltage of transformer %
QTrN = Reactive power consumption of transformer or full load (Kvar)

SENSING DEVICES FOR AUTOMATIC POWER FACTOR CONTROL CANNOT SENSE

TRANSFORMER’S MAGNETISING CURRENT. Hence power factor correction capacitors may
be connected across the secondary terminals of the transformer, since transformer itself has to be
considered as a continuous inductive load.

Capacitor required Percentage Impedance X KVA of Transformer

 for full load = ---------------------------------------------------------
transformer 100

As no load magnetizing current of transformer is almost 50% of full load magnetizing current,
capacitors required has to break in two parts.

Transformer in % Impedance 50% of Full Load Remaining 50% of Total

KVA standard KVAR KVAR capacitor
power
TRANSFORMER SN UZ QO Total QC
IN KVA 315 Reactive Power of Transformer Tr
4.00 6 Capacitor 6 12
500 No load 4.00 Full load 10 Power 10 20
750 Q O 5.00 QTrN 20 QC 20 40
100 1000 3.5 5.00 7.5 25 7.5 25 50
160 1250 5.0 5.00 11.4 30 12.5 30 60
250 1500 7.0 6.25 17.0 50 15.0 50 100
400 2000 10.0 6.25 26.0 60 25.0 60 120
500 2500 12.0 6.25 32.0 75 30.0 75 150
630 3000 14.5 6.25 40.0 100 40.0 100 200
800 17.0 49.0 50.0
2.11.3
1000 20.0 80.0 75.0 TRANSFORMERS
1250 24.0 99.0 100.0
1600 28.0 124.0 125.0 Reactive Power
2000 33.0 153.0 150.0 Consumption

A transformer
supplying an apparent power “S” draws a reactive power QTr, which is composed of the no load
reactive power Q0 and the reactive power associated with the leakage reactance.
2
UZ S
QTr = Q0 + -------- ----- • S
100% SN

Capacitive power. Where a transformer is corrected in a single step, the capacitor rating is made
to correspond to its reactive power consumption at full load.

Resonance: A larger capacitor rating will often appear desirable, in order to compensate for part
of the reactive power in the connected loads. However, the capacitor rating must be limited as
shown in the Table to avoid resonance during light load periods at the 5 th and 7th harmonics, which
are generally those most in evidence in the supply system.

Transformer Permissible capacitive power

Impedance Voltage of light load as % of the
UZ transformer rating SN
4% 40 % of the capacitive power
6% 20.6 % of the capacitive
power
8% 18 % of the capacitive power
10% 12.5 % of the capacitive
power

2.11.4 ASYNCHRONOUS MOTORS

 If the capacitor is connected directly to the motor terminals, the capacitor rating must not
be greater than 90% of the no-load reactive power consumption of the motor. Higher values can
cause self-excitation as the motor runs down, and in consequence a substantial overvoltage at the
terminals. Standard curves give an indication of the mean values of no-load reactive power of
squirrel-cage induction motors from 0.1 KW to 1000 KW.

2.11.2 HARMONICS

Converters draw lagging reactive power from the supply system with a non sinusoidal
current. Harmonic currents distort the system voltage, give rise to losses, and can provoke
resonance phenomena.

Care is needed when shunt-capacitors are used for power-factor correction in systems with
converterted loads. The capacitors, with the inductance of the supply system, form a resonant
circuit, in which individual harmonic currents, depending on the rating of the capacitors connected,
can be considerably magnified.

2.12.2 INDUCTIVELY BUFFERED CAPACITOR

For the reasons given above, the capacitors used for power-factor correction in systems
with converters are connected through series inductors. The result is series-resonant circuit which
is so tuned that its resonant frequency is below the 5th harmonic between about 200 and 220 Hz.
This means that the power factor correction unit is inductive for all the harmonics present in the
converter current, and cannot therefore introduce any other resonances. Since a proportion of the
harmonic currents, particularly the 5th harmonic, flows in the power factor correction unit, the
supply system is relieved not only of lagging reactive power, but also of harmonics.

Inductivity buffered capacitors can be used for individual correction and for central
correction in power factor correction units according to the same criteria that apply to the
correction of linear loads.

2.12.3 TUNED FILTERS

The harmonic currents flowing in the supply system can be considerably reduced by using
tuned filters.

Filters are again series-resonant circuits, but tuned accurately to the individual harmonics
of the converter current, and therefore presenting very low impedances at these frequencies. The
harmonic currents consequently flow preponderantly in the filters and not in the main system.

Since they are capacitive at the fundamental frequency, they not only reduce the distortion
power, but also contribute to the compensation of the fundamental frequency reactive power.
Filters must always be built up upwards from the lowest harmonic order. They are frequently
applied to the 5th, 7th, 11th and 13th harmonics.

In many cases, on the other hand, it is sufficient to provide filters only for the 5 th harmonic.
The harmonic currents flowing in the system can be reduced by 70 to 90%.
System with Mixed Load

In electrical system, converters are frequently supplied together with linear loads through a
common transformer. The resonant circuits are damped by these loads.

The use of inductively buffered capacitors or tuned filters therefore only becomes
necessary above a certain converter load.

There is no fixed rate to determine the level of converter power beyond which inductance
must be connected in series with the capacitors. A rough guide to the selection of power factor
correction methods in systems with mixed loads is:

Converter load as a Selection of power-factor-

proportion of the total load correction method
Linear Load 70% + Capacitors
Harmonic Load 30%
Linear Load 20% + Capacitors with blocking
Harmonic Load above 20% inductors
and upto 100%
Linear Load 50% +
Harmonic Load above 50% Tuned filters
and upto 100%

2.14 Harmonic Analysis Program

Designing Power and Harmonic Filter Banks

Formula Symbols
C Capacitance (farads)
fS System Frequency
f Frequency (Hertz)
I Current (amps)
I1 I2 Currents of bank or stages being switched
and of bank energized
I max peak A peak value calculated without damping.
In practice 90 percent of the value
Ih RMS current (amps) at harmonic (h)
Kvar Reactive power Kvar
KVAtx Three capacitor bank rating
KVA Total power (KVA)
KV Kilovolts (kv)
KW Real power kw
Leq Total equivalent inductance per phase
between capacitors microhenry
PF Power Factor (NO Unit)
P Real power (kw) or Active power (the
average rate of delivery of energy)
Reactive Power (Kvar)
Q Reactive Power (Kvar
The portion of the apparent power that is
out of phase, or quadrature with the active
power
S Total Power (Apparent power). The
product of rms voltage and rms current
 Subscript I Initial
Subscript d Desired
Subscript 3 Three phase
Subscript 1 Single phase
Subscript LN Line to Neutral
Subscript LL Line to Line
Subscript SC Short Circuit
Th Single Frequency TIF at harmonic (h)
Vn Harmonic voltage magnitude
Vrms Root Mean Square (rms) value of voltage
VLL Rated Maximum voltage in kilovolts
Irms Root Mean Square (rms) value of current
ISC Symmetrical rms short-circuit current, in
amperes
Vpk Peak magnitude
XC Capacitive Reactance (Ohms)
XL Inductive reactance (ohms)
R Resistance Ohms
Xn Filter inductor-reactance ohms
n Harmonic at which filter is used
 Power factor angle

2.15 Formula Index

A) Capacitors connected in parallel

B) Capacitors connected in series
C) Capacitive Reactance
D) Capacitance
E) Capacitor Kilovar
F) Power Factor
G) Kilovars required to change power factors
H) Equations for Total Power Factor
I) Total Power
J) Reactive Power
K) Voltage Rise
L) Released System capacity for Power Factor Improvement
M) Loss Reduction for correcting Power Factor
N) Capacitor current
O) Total Harmonic Distortion
P) Root Mean Square RMS
Q) Displacement Power Factor (DPF)
R) Total Power Factor (TPF)
S) Resonant Frequency, h
T) I x T Product
U) Quality Factor, Q
V) Crest Factor CF
W) Inrush current calculation for single capacitor Bank switching
X) Inrush current calculation for Back-to-Back capacitor Bank Switching.

FORMULAS

A) Capacitors connected in parallel

 Ctotal = C1 + C2 + C3 Farads

B) Capacitors connected in series

1 1 1 1
------ = ---- + ---- + ---- Farads
Ctotal C1 C2 C3

C) Capacitive Reactance XC

1 (kv)2 (1000)
XC = -------- = ---------------- Ohms

2fC Kvar

D) Capacitance C

106
C = ------------ Farads
(2f) (XC)

E) CAPACITIVE Kilovars
(2fC ) (kv)2 (kv)2
Kvar = -------------- = --------------
1000 1000 (XC)
F) Power Factor Pf

KW P
Power Factor = Pf = Cos  = -------- = -----
KVA S
KVAR
Tan  = ----------
KW

P = S Cos 
Q = S Sin 

G) Kvars required to change Power Factor

Kvar = KW (Tan i - Tan d),

Where,
i = Cos-1 PFi = Initial Power Factor Angle
d = Cos-1 PFd = Final Power Factor Angle
PFi = Initial Power Factor Angle PFd = Final Power Factor Angle
H) Equations for Total Power

KVA 3 = 3 ELL I

= P32 + Q32
KVA 1 = ULN I = P12 + Q12

KW
KVA = ------ good for both 3 phase single phase calculation.
PF

I) Total Power
KVAR 3 = 3 EL I Sin 

= S32 - P32

KVAR 1 = ELN I Sin 

= S12 - P12

J) Equations for Reactive Power

KW3 = 3 ELL Cos 

= S32 - Q32
KW1 = ELN I Cos 
= S12 - Q12

K) Approximate voltage Rise for Addition of Capacitor

Basic Kvar
% Voltage Rise = -------------- x 100
KVASC
Where,
 Transformer KVA
KVASC  ---------------------------------------
Per unit Transformer Impedance

L) Released System Capacity for Power Factor Improvement

PF initial
KVA released = 1 - ------------- KVA initial
PF corrected

M) % Loss Reduction for correcting Power Factor

2
Original PF
% L.R = 100 - 100 -----------------
Corrected PF

N) Capacitor Current

KVAR 3 KVAR 1
I = --------------- = ---------------
3 ELL ELN

O) TOTAL HARMONIC DISTORTION

 (V22 + V32 + V42 + ……….Vn2)

THD = --------------------------------------------
V1

P) Root Mean Square, RMS

RMS =  (V12 + V22 + V32 + ……….Vhmax2)

Q) Displacement Power Factor

KW
DPF = Cos  = --------
KVA

R) When harmonics are present in the voltage and current, the waveforms are distorted.

The “apparent power” and “Reactive Power” terms are greatly influenced by the
Distortion.
 The apparent power “S” is a measure of the potential impact of the load on the
thermal capability of the system. The apparent power is proportional to the rms of the
distorted current (True rms value of the current). Many current probes can now directly
measure and report the TRUE rms VALUE of a distorted waveform.

Thus, S = ( Utrue rms ) (Itrue rms )

“P” defines how much energy is being consumed, while “S” defines the capacity of the
power system required to deliver.

The total power factor (True Power Factor) of system when harmonics are present
is thus calculated as follows:

Total Power Factor (TPF)

P
TPF = --------------------------
( Utrue rms ) (Itrue rms)

When distortion is present, i.e., in the presence of harmonic distortion, the component of S
that remains after P, split into two components, “Q” and “D”.

“Q” consists of the sum of the traditional reactive power values at each frequency,
i.e., at fundamental frequency and harmonic frequency.

“D” represents all Cross-products of voltage and current at different frequencies

which yield no average power.

P, Q, D and S are related as follows:

S =  P2 + Q2 + D2

Q = VK IK Sin K
K

P = V1rms I1rms Cos 1

At fundamental frequency

S = V true rms I true rms

Therefore, D =  S2 - P2 - Q2
 Note: P = V1rms I1rms Cos  1

indicates that average active power is a function only of the fundamental frequency
quantities. Because the voltage distortion in general very low on power systems (less than
5 percent), this is a good approximation regardless of how distorted the current is:

The relationship

S =  P2 + Q 2 + D 2

is demonstrated as follows:

P and Q contribute the traditional sinusoidal components to S, while “D” represents the
additional contribution to the apparent power by the harmonics.

Note: The fundamental frequency component of the reactive power, Q 1, is useful for helping engineer to
size capacitors for power factor correction.

Capacitors can only correct for Q1.

The term “displacement power factor” is used to describe the power factor using the
fundamental frequency components only.

Power quality monitoring instruments now commonly report this quantity as well as
the “true power factor” which is the same quantity defined as

P Active Power
PF = ----- = -----------------------
S Apparent Power

True Power Factor = Displacement Power Factor x Distortion Factor

(Total Power Factor)

Note: Distortion incurrent results in additional current components than fundamental current component
flowing in the system that do not yield any net energy except that they cause losses in the power
system elements they pass through. This requires the system to be built to a slightly larger capacity
to deliver the power to the load.

S) Resonant Frequency

XC
H = ----- Pd
 XL

100 x KVATc
= ------------------------
KVAr x Z% Tk

T) I x T Product

 I x T Product = (Ih I2)2

 h=1

U) Quality Factor Q

R
Q = -------------
n x Xn

V) Crest Factor, CF

VPk
CF = --------- = 2 if THD = 0
Vrms

W) Inrush current and Frequency calculation for single capacitor bank switching

I max peak (ampere)=1. 4l  ISC x I1

ISC
fhertz = ------
 I1

X) Inrush current and frequency calculation for Back to Back Capacitor Bank Switching

I max peak (amperes)

VLL (I1 x I2)

= 1747 ------------------
 Leq (I1 + I2)

(fS) (VLL) (I1 + I2)

fhertz = 95 -----------------------
 Leq (I1 x I2)

2.16 Defining Harmonic Contribution at the point of common coupling

Several indices have been suggested to evaluate the harmonic contributions of utility and
customer at the point of common coupling.

These indices are:

(1) DIRECTION OF HARMONIC POWER(Index-a)

 If active harmonic power flows from customer side to the utility side, the customer
is the “main harmonic contributor”. This is probably the most widely used index to
determine the responsibilities of harmonic products.

(2) NON CONFORMING CURRENT (Index-b)

The index is based on separating the PCC current into two components:

One is called the conforming current, which has the same wave shape as the
voltage. The balance called the non conforming current, is used to quantify the harmonic
condition level. One of the main problems of this method is that it labels some innocent
linear components such as shunt capacitors and reactors as harmonic contributors. Hence
this concept is not well accepted.

(3) Harmonic voltage or Current source (Index-c)

The power system connected to the PCC can be represented as Nortan equivalent
circuits, where In and Ic are the utility and customer harmonic current sources respectively,
Zu and Zc are the respective equivalent impedances.

IPCC
Zc Zu
Ic Iu
The harmonic current source index is the magnitude of Iu and Ic.

The voltage source index is the magnitudes of the voltage source of the Thevinin
equivalent circuit shown below.

Zc Zu
Ic
VPCC Eu
Voltage Source Equivalent Circuit
as Eu = Iu Zu and Ec = IcZc

Although these are reasonable indices, the opinion is that, they describe the
potential instead of the actual harmonic contribution of each source, since not all of the
source current will flow through Pcc.

(4) Superposition current or voltage Index (Index-d)

 As the real harmonic sources are non linear under such circumstance, the
applicability of superposition of current or voltage index is concern.

(5) Scalar Superposition Index (Indek-e)

This index is quite complicated and may encounter more difficulties for practical
implementation.

 Conclusion

Index “a” can be misleading since the phase angles of the harmonic sources affect the
conclusion.

Index “b” is difficult to apply since it is hard to judge which side is the major contributor to the
non conforming current.

Index “c” does not inherently indicate the harmonic contributions at PCC, the side having
larger value of index c does not necessarily have larger contribution to PCC harmonic
pollution.

Indices “d” and “e” are consistent qualitatively. Either of them can be used to signal which
side has more contribution to the PCC distortion.

Index “e” seems better since it can also provide quantitative results.

A main contributor to PCC voltage distortion is not necessarily the main contributor to the
PCC current distortion.

The distortion in the system (both voltage and current) is increasing with the proliferation
of non-linear loads.

The distortion power factor is not unity even if the displacement power factor is maintained
at unity, with distortions present in the system.

True power factor = displacement power factor x distortion power factor

S = √ P2 + Q2 + D2

Where,
S is the apparent power
P the real power
Q the reactive power, ad
D the distortion power

2.17 IMPORTANT

“The primary purpose of REACTIVE POWER COMPESATIO (Power Factor

improvement) is not to operate at unity factor, but to reduce the Line currents (in order to reduce
the line losses)” and improve power quality. Consistent with this understanding, it should be
ensured that, the power factor that is being measured is the TRUE POWER FACTOR and NOT
JUST DISPLACEMET POWER FACTOR.

All power factor meters should measure TRUE POWER FACTOR or TOTAL POWER
FACTOR and not DISPLACEMET POWER FACTOR.

The DISPLACEMENT POWER FACTOR should also be correctly measured.

The simple way adopted to improve power factor to add large amounts of fixed capacitors
and improve the displacement power factor nearest to unity. But in many cases, during certain
operating conditions, the CAPACITORS deliver more reactive power than what is required by the
loads, and the EXCESS VAR is exported into the system (LEADING POWER FACTOR
CONDITIONS). This is the case with most customers who add large amounts of fixed capacitors
as the loads are never constant and stable. A lag only type power factor meter would register a
leading power factor condition as a unity power factor condition. Only a -quadrant meter would
register the leading power factor correctly.

Though the simplest way of improving power factor is by connecting fixed capacitors,
improving and maintain a power factor better than 0.98 is not possible with fixed capacitors.
Some form of switching is required to dynamically track the reactive power requirement and
compensate it. Unless this is done, it will not be possible to maintain a high power factor.

In fact, under harmonic rich environments, it is recommended that, the addition of

capacitors is limited, and the displacement power factor is not increased beyond a limit, as this
could lead to resonance condition, which could degrade the true power factor. The increase in
harmonic currents would do more damage to the system, than what could have happened with
operation at a lower lagging power factor.
A larger harmonic current source will result in a larger contribution to the PCC voltage. On
the other hand a larger harmonic voltage source will result in a larger contribution to the PCC
current.

The contribution level calculated using the voltage index is not always consistent with that
from the current index. Since the voltage and current indices do not always yield a consistent
result, it may be prudent to use the two indices separately and in a complementary manner.
These are complementary indices that may be adopted for different purposes.

2.18 ECONOMIC SELECTION OF CAPACITIVE COMPENSATOR SIZES AND BEST

POWER FACTOR SELECTION IN NON SINUSOIDAL CONDITIONS

The different criteria for the design of the compensating capacitor of a power system
supplying a customer with transmission line taking into consideration the skin effect are:

1. Maximizing the power factor

2. Minimizing the transmission loss
3. Maximizing the transmission efficiency
For non sinusoidal sources, maximum transmission efficiency, minimum transmission loss, and
maximum power factor do not lead to the SAME SHUNT COMPENSATOR VALUES.

ECONOMIC ASPECTS

Assuming the specific cost of the installed capacitor to be

Kc [ Rs / micro Farad = F]

The cost of energy K [Rs / Kwh],

The annual losses W, the interest rate “i” , and the expected capacitor life “N” years, then the total
annual cost is

AC = (K) x(Wa) + (A/P) x Kc x C

[ i (i + 1)N]
Where A/P = ------------------
[(i + 1)N – 1)]
AC=Annual cost , C= Total capacitor compensator values in microfarads.

The most economical capacitor is not necessarily yielding minimum energy loss.

The most economical capacitor is not necessarily yielding minimum energy losses.

Known harmonic contents at the source, can e used respectedly for calculating all capacitor
values that would form resonant circuits at different harmonic frequencies.