(Epic poem, anonymous, Old English, c.

8th Century CE, 3,182 lines)

Introduction –

Who is Beowulf?

“Beowulf” is a heroic epic poem written by an unknown author in Old English, some time between the 8th and
the 10th Century CE. It is one of the most important works of Anglo-Saxon literature, and has been the subject
of much scholarly study, theory, speculation and discourse. It tells the story of the hero Beowulf, and his battles
against the monster Grendel (and Grendel’s mother), and against an unnamed dragon.

The poem begins with a history of the Danish kings, starting with Shild (whose funeral is described in the
Prologue) and leading up to the reign of the current king Hrothgar, Shild’s great-grandson. Hrothgar is well
loved by his people and successful in war. He builds a lavish hall, called Herot (or Heorot), to house his vast
army, and when the hall is finished the Danish soldiers gather under its roof to celebrate.

However, provoked by the singing and carousing of Hrothgar’s followers, Grendel, a monster in human
shape who lives at the bottom of a nearby swamp, appears at the hall late one night and kills thirty of the
warriors in their sleep. For the next twelve years the fear of Grendel‘s potential fury casts a shadow over the
lives of the Danes. Hrothgar and his advisers can think of nothing to appease the monster’s anger

Beowulf, prince of the Geats, hears about Hrothgar’s troubles, and gathers fourteen of his bravest warriors,
and sets sail from his home in southern Sweden. The Geats are greeted by the members of Hrothgar’s court,
and Beowulfboasts to the king of his previous successes as a warrior, particularly his success in fighting sea
monsters. Hrothgar welcomes the arrival of the Geats, hoping that Beowulf will live up to his reputation. During
the banquet that follows Beowulf‘s arrival, Unferth, a Danish soldier, voices his doubts about Beowulf‘s past
accomplishments, and Beowulf, in turn, accuses Unferth of killing his brothers. Before retiring for the night,
Hrothgar promises Beowulf great treasures if he meets with success against the monster.

That night, Grendel appears at Herot, and Beowulf, true to his word, wrestles the monster bare-handed. He tears
off the monster’s arm at the shoulder, but Grendel escapes, only to die soon afterward at the bottom of the
snake-infested swamp where he and his mother live. The Danish warriors, who had fled the hall in fear, return
singing songs in praise of Beowulf‘s triumph and performing heroic stories in Beowulf‘s honour. Hrothgar
rewards Beowulf with a great store of treasures and, after another banquet, the warriors of both the Geats and
the Danes retire for the night.

Unknown to the warriors, however, Grendel‘s mother is plotting revenge for her son’s death. She arrives at the
hall when all the warriors are sleeping and carries off Esher, Hrothgar’s chief adviser. Beowulf, rising to the
occasion, offers to dive to the bottom of the lake, find the monster’s dwelling place, and destroy her. He and his
men follow the monster’s tracks to the cliff overlooking the lake where Grendel‘s mother lives, where they see
Esher’s bloody head floating on the surface of the lake. Beowulf prepares for battle and asks Hrothgar to look
after his warriors and to send his treasures to his uncle, King Higlac, if he does not return safely.

During the ensuing battle, Grendel‘s mother carries Beowulf down to her underwater home,
but Beowulf finally kills the monster with a magical sword that he finds on the wall of her home. He also
finds Grendel‘s dead body, cuts off the head, and returns to dry land. The Geat and Danish warriors, waiting
expectantly, celebrate as Beowulf has now purged Denmark of the race of evil monsters.

They return to Hrothgar’s court, where the Danish king is duly thankful, but warns Beowulf against the dangers
of pride and the fleeting nature of fame and power. The Danes and Geats prepare a great feast in celebration of
the death of the monsters and the next morning the Geats hurry to their boat, anxious to begin the trip
home. Beowulf bids farewell to Hrothgar and tells the old king that if the Danes ever again need help he will
gladly come to their assistance. Hrothgar presents Beowulf with more treasures and they embrace, emotionally,
like father and son.

Beowulf and the Geats sail home and, after recounting the story of his battles with Grendel and Grendel‘s
mother, Beowulf tells the Geat king Higlac about the feud between Denmark and their enemies, the Hathobards.
He describes the proposed peace settlement, in which Hrothgar will give his daughter Freaw to Ingeld, king of
the Hathobards, but predicts that the peace will not last long. Higlac rewards Beowulf for his bravery with
parcels of land, swords and houses.

In the second part of the poem, set many years later, Higlac is dead, and Beowulf has been king of the Geats
for some fifty years. One day, a thief steals a jewelled cup from a sleeping dragon, and the dragon avenges his
loss by flying through the night burning down houses, including Beowulf‘s own hall and throne. Beowulf goes
to the cave where the dragon lives, vowing to destroy it single-handed. He is an old man now, however, and his
strength is not as great as it was when he fought against Grendel. During the battle, Beowulf breaks his sword
against the dragon’s side and the dragon, enraged, engulfs Beowulf in flames, wounding him in the neck.

All of Beowulf‘s followers flee except Wiglaf, who rushes through the flames to assist the aging
warrior. Wiglaf stabs the dragon with his sword, and Beowulf, in a final act of courage, cuts the dragon in
half with his knife.

However, the damage is done, and Beowulf realizes that he is dying,

and that he has fought his last battle. He asks Wiglaf to take him to the dragon’s storehouse of treasures, jewels
and gold, which brings him some comfort and make him feel that the effort has perhaps been worthwhile. He
instructs Wiglaf to build a tomb to be known as “Beowulf‘s tower” on the edge of the sea there.

After Beowulf dies, Wiglaf admonishes the troops who deserted their leader while he was fighting against the
dragon, telling them that they have been untrue to the standards of bravery, courage and loyalty that Beowulfhas
taught. Wiglaf sends a messenger to a nearby encampment of Geat soldiers with instructions to report the
outcome of the battle. The messenger predicts that the enemies of the Geats will feel free to attack them now
that their great king is dead.
Wiglaf supervises the building of Beowulf’s funeral pyre. In keeping with Beowulf‘s instructions, the dragon’s
treasure is buried alongside his ashes in the tomb, and the poem ends as it began, with the funeral of a great
warrior.

Analysis

“Beowulf” is the oldest known epic poem written in English, although its date is not known with any
certainty (the best estimate being 8th Century CE, and definitely before the early 11th century CE). The
author is likewise unknown, and represents a question that has mystified readers for centuries. It is generally
thought that the poem was performed orally by memory by the poet or by a “scop” (a travelling entertainer), and
was passed down in this way passed down to readers and listeners, or that it was finally written down at the
request of a king who wanted to hear it again.

Because of the unified structure of the poem, with its interweaving of historical information into the flow of
the main narrative, the poem was most likely composed by one person, although there are two distinct parts to
the poem and some scholars believe that the sections which take place in Denmark and the sections which take
place back in Beowulf’s homeland were written by different authors.

It is written in a dialect known as Old English (also referred to as Anglo-Saxon), a dialect that had become
the language of its time by about the early part of the 6th Century CE, in the wake of the occupation of the
Romans and the increasing influence of Christianity. Old English is a heavily accented language, so different
from modern English as to appear almost unrecognizable, and its poetry is known for its emphasis on
alliteration and rhythm. Each line of “Beowulf” is divided into two distinct half-lines (each containing at least
four syllables), separated by a pause and related by the repetition of sounds. Almost no lines in Old English
poetry end in rhymes in the conventional sense, but the alliterative quality of the verse gives the poetry its music
and rhythm.

The poet also makes use of a stylistic device called “kenning”, a method of naming a person or thing by using
a phrase that signified a quality of that person or thing (e.g. a warrior might be described as “the helmet-bearing
one”). Another characteristic of the poet’s style is his use of litotes, a form of understatement, often with
negative overtones, which is intended to create a sense of irony.

Most often the characters just deliver speeches to one another, and there are no real conversations as such.
However, the story is kept moving quickly by leaping from one event to another. There is some use of historical
digressions, similar to the use of flashbacks in modern movies and novels, and this interweaving of events of the
present and the past is a major structural device. The poet also sometimes shifts the point of view in the midst of
an action in order to offer multiple perspectives (for example, to show the reactions of the warriors who are
looking on as an audience in almost every battle).
 “Beowulf” is part of the tradition of epic poetry that began with the
poems of Homer and Virgil, and it deals with the affairs and deeds of brave men, but, like its classical models,
it makes no attempt to portray a whole life chronologically from beginning to end. It also functions as a kind of
history, blending past, present, and future in a unique, all-encompassing way. It is not just a simple tale about a
man who kills monsters and dragons, but rather a large-scale vision of human history.

As in the earlier classical epic poems of Greece and Rome, the characters are generally presented in realistic
fashion, but also from time to time as the poet considers they ought to be. Occasionally, the poet breaks his
objective tone to offer a moral judgment on one of his characters, although for the most part he lets the actions
of the characters speak for themselves. As in the classical tradition of epic poetry, the poem is concerned with
human values and moral choices: the characters are capable of performing acts of great courage, but conversely
they are also capable of suffering intensely for their deeds.

The poet attempts to some extent to reconcile the “human” and the “heroic” sides of Beowulf’s
personality. Although he is described as greater and stronger than anyone anywhere in the world, and clearly
commands immediate respect and attention, he is also portrayed as courteous, patient and diplomatic in his
manner, and lacks the brusqueness and coldness of a superior and hubristic hero. He boasts to Hrothgar of his
bravery, but does so mainly as a practical means of getting what he wants.

Although Beowulf may act selflessly, governed by a code of ethics and an intuitive understanding of other
people, a part of him nevertheless has no real idea of why he acts the way he does, and this is perhaps the tragic
flaw in his character. Certainly, fame, glory and wealth are also among his motivations, as well as practical
considerations such as a desire to pay his father’s debt. He seems to have no great desire to become king of the
Geats and, when first offered the throne, he refuses, preferring to play the role of warrior-son. Likewise, he
never appears quite certain whether his success as a warrior is due to his own strength or to God’s help,
indicating some spiritual conflicts which raise him above the level of a mere stock hero figure.

The Danish king Hrothgar is perhaps the most human character in the poem, and the person with whom it may
be easiest for us to identify. He appears wise, but also lacking the courage expected of a great warrior-king, and
age has clearly robbed him of the power to act decisively. After Beowulf has killed Grendel‘s mother, Hrothgar
takes Beowulfto one side in a very concerned and fatherly manner and advises him to guard against wickedness
and the evils of pride, and to use his powers for the betterment of other people. When Beowulf is departing from
Denmark, Hrothgar shows that he is not afraid to show his emotions as he embraces and kisses the young
warrior and bursts into tears. The old king’s modest show of vanity in building the huge hall, Herot, as a
permanent monument to his achievments is perhaps his only real flaw, and it could be argued that this display of
pride or vanity is what attracted Grendel’s attention in the first place and set the whole tragedy in motion.

The character of Wiglaf in the second part of the poem, although a relatively minor character, is nevertheless
important to the overall structure of the poem. He represents the young warrior who helps the aging
King Beowulf in his battle against the dragon in the second part of the poem, in much the same way as the
younger Beowulf helped King Hrothgar in the first part. He is a perfect example of the idea of “comitatus”, the
loyalty of the warrior to his leader, and, while all his fellow warriors flee the dragon in fear, Wiglaf alone comes
to the aid of his king. Like the young Beowulf, he is also a model of self-control, determined to act in a way that
he believes to be right.

The monster Grendel is an extreme example of evil and corruption, possessing no

human feelings except hatred and bitterness toward mankind. However, unlike human beings, who can contain
elements of good and evil, there seem to be no way that Grendel can ever be converted to goodness. As much as
he stands for a symbol of evil, Grendel also represents disorder and chaos, a projection of all that was most
frightening to the Anglo-Saxon mind.

The main theme of the poem is the conflict between good and evil, most obviously exemplified by the
physical conflict between Beowulf and Grendel. However, good and evil are also presented in the poem not as
mutually exclusive opposites, but as dual qualities present in everyone. The poem also makes clear our need for
a code of ethics, which allows members of society to relate to one another with understanding and trust.

Another theme is that of youth and age. In the first part, we see Beowulf as the young, daring prince, in
contrast with Hrothgar, the wise but aging king. In the second part, Beowulf, the aging but still heroic warrior,
is contrasted with his young follower, Wiglaf.

In some ways, “Beowulf” represents a link between two traditions, the old pagan traditions (exemplified by
the virtues of courage in war and the acceptance of feuds between men and countries as a fact of life) and
the new traditions of the Christian religion. The poet, probably himself a Christian, makes it clear that idol
worshipping is a definite threat to Christianity, although he chooses to make no comment on Beowulf’s pagan
burial rites. The character of Beowulfhimself is not particularly concerned with Christian virtues like meekness
and poverty and, although he clearly wants to help people, in a Christian sort of way, his motivation for doing
so is complicated. Hrothgar is perhaps the character who least fits into the old pagan tradition, and some readers
see him as modelled after an “Old Testament” biblical king.

Beowulf: Background

The first folio of the heroic epic poem Beowulf, written primarily in the West Saxon dialect of Old English. Part
of the Cotton MS Vitellius A XV manuscript currently located within the British Library.

Beowulf is an Old English epic poem consisting of 3182 alliterative long lines. It is possibly the oldest
surviving long poem in Old English and is commonly cited as one of the most important works of Old English
literature. It was written in England some time between the 8th and the early 11th century. The author was an
anonymous Anglo-Saxon poet, referred to by scholars as the “Beowulf poet.”

The poem is set in Scandinavia. Beowulf, a hero of the Geats, comes to the aid of Hroðgar, the king of the
Danes, whose mead hall in Heorot has been under attack by a monster known as Grendel. After Beowulf slays
him, Grendel’s mother attacks the hall and is then also defeated. Victorious, Beowulf goes home to Geatland
(Götaland in modern Sweden) and later becomes king of the Geats. After a period of fifty years has passed,
Beowulf defeats a dragon, but is fatally wounded in the battle. After his death, his attendants bury him in a
tumulus, a burial mound, in Geatland.

The full poem survives in the manuscript known as the Nowell Codex, located in the British Library. It has no
title in the original manuscript, but has become known by the name of the story’s protagonist. In 1731, the
manuscript was badly damaged by a fire that swept through Ashburnham House in London that had a collection
of medieval manuscripts assembled by Sir Robert Bruce Cotton.

The Author of Beowulf

Beowulf is one of the most magnificent works of English literature. Few other stories capture the heroism and
grandeur exhibited by Beowulf in fights with the three vicious monsters he encounters: the demon Grendel,
Grendel's mother, and the dragon. Likewise, few stories capture the sorrow of the epic's tragic conclusion. Clearly,
the author of Beowulf was one of England's first great authors. But who was he?

If you glance at a copy of Beowulf, you will likely see a name on the cover. However, the name you see does not
belong to the author of Beowulf; rather, it belongs to the translator (a few of whom include Seamus Heaney, Francis
B. Gummere, and J.R.R. Tolkien). The reason for this is that historians are not sure who wrote the
original Beowulf manuscript. Thus, sadly, the author of one of the greatest works of English literature remains
anonymous. However, historians do know about the author of Beowulf, even if they do not know who the author
was.

Sadly, the name of the individual who first wrote Beowulf remains a mystery. However, we know the
following:

 He lived in England, but the events of Beowulf take place in Scandinavia..

 He was a member of the Anglo-Saxon tribe.
 He probably lived during the 8th century AD, after England had converted to Christianity.
 He wrote the poem in Old English.

Setting
Beowulf is set in Scandinavia, sometime around the year 500 A.D, in the territories of two tribal
groups, the Geats and the Scyldings, who really existed and really lived in those areas during the
period of the poem. Many of the poem’s figures, including Hrothgar, Hygelac and Wiglaf, may have
been real people, and all the poem’s marginal events—such as the death of Hygelac and the feud
between Geats and Swedes— may have really happened. However, the landscape of the poem is
fictional and symbolic. There’s no evidence in the poem that its poet ever saw Scandinavia. The world
of the poem is organized from the center outwards. At the center of each kingdom is a mead-hall, a
place of warmth, laughter, friendship, storytelling and celebration. Beyond the mead-hall, the world is
cold and dark, getting darker the further you go from the hall. Terrible evils lurk in the outer
darknesses. Beowulf is obsessed with these spaces, the borders between civilization and wilderness.
Grendel is a “mearc-stapa” (l.103), a “border-stepper,” and all three of the poem’s monsters lurk in the
edge-wildernesses. Beowulf, too, is associated with wild border spaces: we first meet him on a
beach, and he’s also on the shore when we leave him, in his burial mound.
Character List
Principal Characters

Beowulf - The protagonist of the epic, Beowulf is a Geatish hero who fights the monster Grendel, Grendel’s

mother, and a fire-breathing dragon. Beowulf’s boasts and encounters reveal him to be the strongest, ablest

warrior around. In his youth, he personifies all of the best values of the heroic culture. In his old age, he proves

a wise and effective ruler.

King Hrothgar - The king of the Danes. Hrothgar enjoys military success and prosperity until Grendel terrorizes

his realm. A wise and aged ruler, Hrothgar represents a different kind of leadership from that exhibited by the
youthful warrior Beowulf. He is a father figure to Beowulf and a model for the kind of king that Beowulf

becomes.

Grendel - A demon descended from Cain, Grendel preys on Hrothgar’s warriors in the king’s mead-hall,

Heorot. Because his ruthless and miserable existence is part of the retribution exacted by God for Cain’s

murder of Abel, Grendel fits solidly within the ethos of vengeance that governs the world of the poem.

Read an IN-DEPTH ANALYSIS OF GRENDEL.

Grendel’s Mother - An unnamed swamp-hag, Grendel’s mother seems to possess fewer human qualities than

Grendel, although her terrorization of Heorot is explained by her desire for vengeance—a human motivation.

The Dragon - An ancient, powerful serpent, the dragon guards a horde of treasure in a hidden mound.

Beowulf’s fight with the dragon constitutes the third and final part of the epic.

Other Danes

Shield Sheafson - The legendary Danish king from whom Hrothgar is descended, Shield Sheafson is the

mythical founder who inaugurates a long line of Danish rulers and embodies the Danish tribe’s highest values

of heroism and leadership. The poem opens with a brief account of his rise from orphan to warrior-king,

concluding, “That was one good king” (11).

Beow - The second king listed in the genealogy of Danish rulers with which the poem begins. Beow is the son

of Shield Sheafson and father of Halfdane. The narrator presents Beow as a gift from God to a people in need

of a leader. He exemplifies the maxim, “Behavior that’s admired / is the path to power among people

everywhere” (24–25).

Halfdane - The father of Hrothgar, Heorogar, Halga, and an unnamed daughter who married a king of the

Swedes, Halfdane succeeded Beow as ruler of the Danes.

Wealhtheow - Hrothgar’s wife, the gracious queen of the Danes.

Unferth - A Danish warrior who is jealous of Beowulf, Unferth is unable or unwilling to fight Grendel, thus

proving himself inferior to Beowulf.

Read an IN-DEPTH ANALYSIS OF UNFERTH.

Hrethric - Hrothgar’s elder son, Hrethric stands to inherit the Danish throne, but Hrethric’s older cousin Hrothulf

will prevent him from doing so. Beowulf offers to support the youngster’s prospect of becoming king by hosting

him in Geatland and giving him guidance.

Hrothmund - The second son of Hrothgar.

Hrothulf - Hrothgar’s nephew, Hrothulf betrays and usurps his cousin, Hrethic, the rightful heir to the Danish

throne. Hrothulf’s treachery contrasts with Beowulf’s loyalty to Hygelac in helping his son to the throne.

Aeschere - Hrothgar’s trusted adviser.

Other Geats

Hygelac - Beowulf’s uncle, king of the Geats, and husband of Hygd. Hygelac heartily welcomes Beowulf back

from Denmark.

Hygd - Hygelac’s wife, the young, beautiful, and intelligent queen of the Geats. Hygd is contrasted with Queen

Modthryth.

Wiglaf - A young kinsman and retainer of Beowulf who helps him in the fight against the dragon while all of the

other warriors run away. Wiglaf adheres to the heroic code better than Beowulf’s other retainers, thereby

proving himself a suitable successor to Beowulf.

Read an IN-DEPTH ANALYSIS OF WIGLAF.

Ecgtheow - Beowulf’s father, Hygelac’s brother-in-law, and Hrothgar’s friend. Ecgtheow is dead by the time the

story begins, but he lives on through the noble reputation that he made for himself during his life and in his

dutiful son’s remembrances.

King Hrethel - The Geatish king who took Beowulf in as a ward after the death of Ecgtheow, Beowulf’s father.

Breca - Beowulf’s childhood friend, whom he defeated in a swimming match. Unferth alludes to the story of

their contest, and Beowulf then relates it in detail.

Other Figures Mentioned

Sigemund - A figure from Norse mythology, famous for slaying a dragon. Sigemund’s story is told in praise of

Beowulf and foreshadows Beowulf’s encounter with the dragon.

King Heremod - An evil king of legend. The scop, or bard, at Heorot discusses King Heremod as a figure who

contrasts greatly with Beowulf.

Queen Modthryth - A wicked queen of legend who punishes anyone who looks at her the wrong way.

Modthryth’s story is told in order to contrast her cruelty with Hygd’s gentle and reasonable behavior.
Characters:
Beowulf, Grendel, Grendel's mother, Hrothgar, and Dragon.

Beowulf is the hero in the epic. He fights Grendel, Grendel's mother,

and a fire breathing dragon. He shows just how much he lives up to the
Anglo-Saxon beliefs. He is a very strong, intelligent and brave hero.

Grendel is the first evil monster in the story. Beowulf and Grendel
fight to the finish. He wanted to have the glory but could not, because
he was like the Devil. He tries to kill, but gets killed in the end.
Grendel's mother is the second evil monster that Beowulf fights. She tries to
get revenge after Beowulf killed her son.

King Hrothgar is the king of the Danes. He adores the success his military had and the wealth.
The dragon is who Grendel fights in his final battle. Beowulf
is in his seventies when they fight.

Critical Essays Major Themes in Beowulf

Loyalty

A theme in a literary work is a recurring, unifying subject or idea, a motif that allows us to understand
more deeply the character and their world. In Beowulf, the major themes reflect the values and the
motivations of the characters.

One of the central themes of Beowulf,embodied by its title character, is loyalty. At every step of his
career, loyalty is Beowulf's guiding virtue.

Beowulf comes to the assistance of the Danes (Scyldings) for complicated reasons. Certainly he is
interested in increasing his reputation and gaining honor and payment for his own king back in
Geatland. However, we soon learn that a major motivation is a family debt that Beowulf owes to
Hrothgar. The young Geat is devoted to the old king because Hrothgar came to the assistance of
Beowulf's father, Ecgtheow, years before. Now deceased, Ecgtheow had killed a leader of another
tribe in a blood feud. When the tribe sought vengeance, Hrothgar, then a young king, sheltered
Beowulf's father and settled the feud by paying tribute (wergild) in the form of "fine old treasures"
(472) to Ecgtheow's enemies. Hrothgar even remembers Beowulf as a child. The tie between the
families goes back many years, and Beowulf is proud to be able to lend his loyal services to Hrothgar.

When the hero returns to Geatland, he continues his loyalty to his uncle and king, Hygelac, risking his
life even when the tactics of the ruler are not the best. After Hygelac is killed in an ill-advised raid on
Frisia, Beowulf makes a heroic escape (2359 ff.) back to Geatland. Beowulf could become king then
but is more loyal than ambitious. Queen Hygd offers Beowulf the throne after her husband dies,
thinking that her young son (Heardred) is unable to protect the kingdom; Beowulf refuses and serves
the young king faithfully. After Heardred is killed, Beowulf does become king and rules with honor and
fidelity to his office and his people for 50 years. In his final test, the burden of loyalty will rest on other,
younger shoulders.
Preparing for his last battle, with the fiery dragon, Beowulf puts his trust in 11 of his finest men,
retainers who have vowed to fight to the death for him. Although the now elderly king insists on taking
on the dragon alone, he brings along the 11 in case he needs them. When it is apparent that Beowulf
is losing the battle to the dragon, however, all but one of his men run and hide in the woods. Only
Wiglaf, an inexperienced thane who has great respect for his king, remains loyal. Wiglaf calls to the
others in vain. Realizing that they will be no help and that his king is about to be killed, he stands
beside the old man to fight to the death — theirs or the dragon's. For Beowulf, sadly, it is the end.
Although he and Wiglaf kill the dragon, the king dies. As he dies, Beowulf passes the kingdom on to
the brave and loyal Wiglaf.

Reputation

Another motivating factor for Beowulf — and a central theme in the epic — is reputation. From the
beginning, Beowulf is rightly concerned about how the rest of the world will see him. He introduces
himself to the Scyldings by citing achievements that gained honor for him and his king. When a
drunken Unferth verbally assaults Beowulf at the first banquet, at issue is the hero's reputation.
Unferth's slur is the worst kind of insult for Beowulf because his reputation is his most valuable
possession. Reputation is also the single quality that endures after death, his one key to immortality.
That's why Beowulf later leaves the gold in the cave beneath the mere, after defeating the mother,
preferring to return with Grendel's head and the magic sword's hilt rather than treasure. He has and
continues to amass treasures; his intent now is in building his fame.

Unferth's slur accuses Beowulf of foolishly engaging in a seven-day swimming contest on the open
sea, as a youth, and losing. If Beowulf can't win a match like that, Unferth asserts, he surely can't
defeat Grendel. Beowulf defends his reputation with such grace and persuasion that he wins the
confidence of King Hrothgar and the rest of the Danes. He points out that he swam with Breca
for five nights, not wanting to abandon the weaker boy. Rough seas then drove them apart, and
Beowulf had to kill nine sea monsters before going ashore in the morning. His reputation intact,
Beowulf prepares to meet Grendel and further enhance his fame.

As he discusses Beowulf's later years, the poet lists the virtues (2177 ff.) leading to the great man's
fine reputation. Beowulf is courageous and famous for his performance in battle but equally well
known for his good deeds. Although aggressive in war, Beowulf has "no savage mind" (2180) and
never kills his comrades when drinking, an important quality in the heroic world of the mead-hall.
Beowulf respects the gifts of strength and leadership that he possesses.

As he prepares to meet the dragon, near the end of the poem, now King Beowulf again considers his
reputation. He insists on facing the dragon alone despite the fact that his death will leave his people
in jeopardy. Hrothgar's Sermon warned Beowulf of the dangers of pride, and some critics have
accused the great warrior of excessive pride (hubris) in the defense of his reputation. A more
considerate judgment might be that Beowulf is an old man with little time left and deserves the right to
die as a warrior. The final words of the poem, stating that Beowulf was "most eager for fame' (3182),
might be best understood by a modern audience by remembering that, in Beowulf's world, fame is
synonymous with reputation.

Generosity and Hospitality

The Scyldings' King Hrothgar and Queen Wealhtheow embody the themes of generosity and
hospitality. The code of the comitatus is at the heart of the Beowulf epic. In this system, the king or
feudal lord provides land, weapons, and a share of treasure to his warriors (called thanes or
retainers) in return for their support of the leader in battle. The leader's generosity is one of his
highest qualities. There are more than 30 different terms for "king" in the poem, and many of them
have to do with this role as provider. He is the "ring-giver' (35) or the "treasure-giver" (607); his seat of
power is the "gift-throne" (168).

When booty is seized from an enemy in battle, everything goes to the king. He then allots treasure to
each warrior according to the man's achievements as a soldier. When Beowulf defeats Grendel and
Grendel's mother, he expects and receives great riches as his reward, including a golden banner,
helmet, and mail-shirt, as well as a jeweled sword, magnificent horses with golden trappings that
hang to the ground, a gem-studded saddle, and a golden collar. Such generosity is emblematic of
Hrothgar's character. In turn, Beowulf will present these treasures to his own king, Hygelac, who will
then honor Beowulf with appropriate gifts. Propriety/generosity is, thus, a crucial part of the political,
military, social, and economic structure of the culture.

Wealhtheow shares in the gift giving and is the perfect hostess. When she serves mead in Heorot, it
is an act of propriety and diplomacy, attending first to her king and then to various guests, paying
special attention to Beowulf. An improper queen would be one like Modthrytho (1931 ff.) who was so
inhospitable as to have her own warriors executed for the offense of merely looking into her eyes.

Hospitality is such an established part of the culture that the poet feels free to refer to it with casual
humor. When Beowulf reports to Hrothgar on his victory over Grendel (957 ff.), he ironically speaks in
terms of hospitality. He tried, he says, to "welcome my enemy" (969) with a firm handshake but was
disappointed when he received only a "visitor's token" (971), Grendel's giant claw, "that dear
[meaning 'precious'] gift" (973), a kind of macabre gratuity for services rendered. Beowulf had,
ironically speaking, tried to be the perfect host; but he wanted the entire ogre body as his tip. Grendel
left only his claw as a cheap compensation.

Envy

Despite Unferth's jealous rant at the first banquet, the most serious embodiment of envy in the poem
is Grendel. The ogre who has menaced Hrothgar's people for 12 years is envious of the Danes
because he can never share in mankind's hope or joy. The monster's motivation is one of the few
undeniably Christian influences in the epic. Grendel is a descendant of Cain, the biblical son of Adam
and Eve who killed his brother Abel out of jealousy (Genesis 4). The legend is that the monsters of
the earth are Cain's descendants and eternally damned. Grendel resents men because God blesses
them but will never bless him. The bright lights and sounds of joy emanating from Hrothgar's
magnificent mead-hall, Heorot, especially annoy the ogre.

The scop's "Song of Creation" angers Grendel because it reminds him of the light and hope of God's
creation and the loss he suffers because of Cain's sin. Grendel stomps up from the mere to devour
Danes and rule nightly over Heorot as a form of revenge stemming from this envy.

Revenge

Revenge serves as a motivating factor for several characters throughout the poem, initially stirring
Grendel and his mother. Grendel seeks revenge upon mankind for the heritage that he has been
dealt. He delights in raiding Heorot because it is the symbol of everything that he detests about men:
their success, joy, glory, and favor in the eyes of God. Grendel's mother's revenge is more specific.
She attacks Heorot because someone there killed her son. Although she is smaller and less powerful
than Grendel, she is motivated by a mother's fury. When Beowulf goes after her in the mere, she has
the added advantage of fighting him in her own territory. As she drags him into her cave beneath the
lake, her revenge peaks because this is the very man who killed her son. Only Beowulf's amazing
abilities as a warrior and the intervention of God or magic can defeat her.
Revenge also motivates the many feuds that the poet refers to and is a way of life — and death — for
the Germanic tribes. Old enmities die hard and often disrupt attempts at peace, as the poet
recognizes. Upon his return to Geatland, Beowulf (2020 ff.) speculates about a feud between
Hrothgar's Scyldings and the Heathobards, a tribe in southern Denmark with whom Hrothgar hopes to
make peace through the marriage of his daughter. Beowulf is skeptical, envisioning a renewal of
hostilities. In fact, the Heathobards do later burn Heorot in events not covered by the poem but
probably familiar to its audience. Another example of revenge overcoming peace occurs in the
Finnsburh section (1068-1159).

Beowulf's final battle is the result of vengeance. A dangerous fire-dragon seeks revenge because a
fugitive slave has stolen a valuable cup from the monster's treasure-hoard. His raids across the
countryside include the burning of Beowulf's home. Beowulf then seeks his own revenge by going
after the dragon.