JJ Thomson, in some of his famous experiments observed that when light of a certain frequency strikes

the surface of a metal electrons are ejected from the metal. This is known as photoelectric effect.

After making careful studies of photo electric effect under different conditions the following
observations are made.

1. For each metal, a certain maximum frequency of incident light is needed to eject electrons.
This is known as threshold frequency.
A light of smaller frequency ----- this cannot effect electrons no matter how long it falls on
the metal surfaces or how its intensity. The threshold frequency is different for different
metals.
2. The kinetic energy of ejected electrons is independent of the intensity of the incident light
but varies linearly with its frequency.
3. The number of ejected electrons from the metal surface depends upon the intensity of the
incident radiation. The greater the intensity, The larger id the number of ejected electrons.

The photoelectric effect cannot be experimented on the basis of the classical wave of theory of
light,according to this theory ,energy of light depends on its intensity.------

The quantum theory of radiation affords an easy explanation for the photoelectric effect.

According to this theory, light consists of bundles of energy called photons. The energy of each
photon ===bag equal to hν where ν the frequency of light.

Now suppose the frequency of the light falling on a metal surface is higher than the freshhold
frequency.

Let it be ν

Einstein, applying quantum theory showed that

hν= φ +1/2 m u 2 ………..1

Where φ is the threshold energy (or the work function) of the metal and 1/2 m u 2 is the kinetic
energy imparted to the ejected electrons ???

φ=h νo ………2
Substituting the above value of φ in equation 1
And rearranging we have

1/2mu2=h(ν- νo)

Equation 3 is the Einstein photoelectric equation.

It is we test from above discussion that photoelectric effect can be explained only on the basis of the
//// or particles theory of light , but certain phenomenon such as diffraction, interference and
polarization of light can be explained only on the basis of the classical wave theory of light. Thus light is
considered to have dual character

It behaves as particle also as a wave.

µ γ γ φ λ ν Δ/////

Since scattering is caused by electrons, it is evident that some interaction between x-rays and electrons
has taken place and this has resulted in decrease in energy of the former.

This decrease in energy or increase in wavelength of x-rays after scattering from the surface of an object
is known as the Crompton effect.

By applying the law of conservation of energy and the law of /// /// X-rays consists of photons, Each
processing energy equal to the hV, Compton showed that

Δ λ =(2h/mc) sin2 (θ/2)

Where Δ λ is the increase in the wavelength (turned as Compton shift) produced as a result of the
collection, m is the rest mass of the electron

c is the velocity of the light and θ is the angle between the incident and the scattered X-ray.

According to this equation Compton shift should be independent of the wavelength of the incident

X-ray.

Compton effect provides good illustration of the uncertainty principle.

Suppose X-rays are used to determine the position and /// of an electron.as a result of material
interaction of X-rays and the electron, the wavelength of X-rays increases, i.e , the frequency or energy
of the X-rays decreases. This energy must have been transferred to the electron and therefore the
momentum of the electron must have changed during the process.

Consequently ,the moment of the electron cant be determined with certainty.

Compton effect also provides evidence for the /////// or photon nature of radiation.

The Compton equation can also be written as

Δλ = λI –λ=h/mc(1-cos θ)

The wavelength λI od scattered X-rays is always greater than the wavelength λ of incident X-rays.

The wavelength shift id independent of the nature of the substance and the wavelength of incident X-
rays.

It depends only on the scattering angle θ

The following 3 reasons may be considered.

Case 1: θ =0֯, that is the scattered radiation is parallel to the incident radiation.

In this case, Cos θ =1 so that

Δ λ =0 i.e., there is no wavelength shift.

Case 2: θ =90֯, i.e., the scattered radiation is perpendicular to the incident radiation.

In this case, cosθ =0 so that

Δ λ =h/mc

=6.626 X 10-34Js / (9.109 X 10-31kg)( 3 X 108 m/s )

=0.02422 X10-10m
In the present case,

Δ λ Is referred to as the Compton wavelength.

Case 3: θ =180֯ I.e., the radiation is scattered in a direction opposite to the incident radiation.

In this case, Cos θ =-1 so that

Δ λ=2h/mc =0.0484 X 10-10m

This is twice the value of Compton wavelength.

De-Broglie Concept

Wave- particle duality of electron:

Einstein had suggested in 1905, that light has a dual character; as wave and also as 'particle'.

The French physicist Louis De-Broglie (1892-1987) proposed that matter also has a dual character; as a
wave and as a particle.

The name wavicle was suggested for such a particle.

De-Broglie was awarded the Physics Nobel Prize in 1929.

In the Bohr's theory, electron is treated as a particle. But De-Broglie's theory suggested that matter and
therefore electron also has a dual character, both as a material particle and as a wave.

He derived an expression for calculating the wavelength Δλ of a particle of mass m moving with velocity
u according to which λ=h/mu ……………1

De- Broglie equation

The De-Broglie equation can be easily derived by using the Einstien's mass-energy relationship

E=mc2

Equating this energy with the energy of a photon associated with frequency γ , We have h γ=mc2

Since2 γ=c / λ …………..2

hence.... h c/ λ =mc2

So that λ = h/mc…………….3
Replacing c by the velocity of electron u, we have

λ =h/mu=h/ p

Where p is the linear momentum of particle