Solar Collectors and Applications MarcellinusSindhu

SOLAR
SOLAR COLLECTORS
COLLECTORS
AND
AND APPLICATIONS
APPLICATIONS
Soteris A. Kalogirou
Higher Technical Institute
Nicosia-Cyprus
TEI Patra: 3-18 July 2006 Intensive program: ICT tools in PV-systems Engineering
SOLAR
SOLAR COLLECTORS
COLLECTORS
Types of collectors
• Stationary
• Sun tracking
Thermal analysis of collectors
Performance
Applications
• Solar water heating
• Solar space heating and cooling
• Refrigeration
• Industrial process heat
• Desalination
• Solar thermal power systems
Types
Types of
of solar
solar collectors
collectors
Indicative
Absorber Concentration
Motion Collector type temperature
type ratio
range (°C)
Flat plate collector (FPC) Flat 1 30-80
Stationary Evacuated tube collector (ETC) Flat 1 50-200
1-5 60-240
Compound parabolic collector (CPC) Tubular
5-15 60-300
Single-axis Linear Fresnel reflector (LFR) Tubular 10-40 60-250
tracking Parabolic trough collector (PTC) Tubular 15-45 60-300
Cylindrical trough collector (CTC) Tubular 10-50 60-300
Two-axes Parabolic dish reflector (PDR) Point 100-1000 100-500
tracking Heliostat field collector (HFC) Point 100-1500 150-2000
Note: Concentration ratio is defined as the aperture area divided by the receiver/absorber area of the collector.
Modes
Modes of
of Tracking
Tracking
Comparison
Comparison ofof energy
energy absorbed
absorbed
for
for various
various modes
modes ofof tracking
tracking
Solar energy (kWh/m2) Percent to full tracking
Tracking mode
E SS WS E SS WS
Full tracking 8.43 10.60 5.70 100.0 100.0 100.0
E-W Polar 8.43 9.73 5.23 100.0 91.7 91.7
N-S Horizontal 6.22 7.85 4.91 73.8 74.0 86.2
E-W Horizontal 7.51 10.36 4.47 89.1 97.7 60.9
Note: E - Equinoxes, SS - Summer Solstice, WS - Winter Solstice
Stationary
Stationary collectors
collectors
No concentration
Flat-plate
Flat-plate collector
collector
Flat-plate
Flat-plate Collectors
Collectors
Types
Types of
of flat-plate
flat-plate collectors
collectors
Water
Water systems
systems
Glazing Glazing
Riser C Riser
A Absorbing plate
Absorbing plate
Insulation
Insulation
Glazing Glazing
B Riser Riser
Absorbing plate D Absorbing plate
Insulation
Insulation
Types
Types of
of flat-plate
flat-plate collectors
collectors
Air
Air systems
systems
Glazing
Air passage
E
Glazing
Corrugated sheet
G
Insulation
Glazing
F Air flow
Metal matrix
Insulation
Insulation
Schematic
Schematic diagram
diagram of
of an
an
evacuated
evacuated tube
tube collector
collector
Evacuated
Evacuated tube
tube collectors
collectors
Stationary
Stationary collectors
collectors
Concentrating
Flat
Flat plate
plate collector
collector with
with flat
flat
reflectors
reflectors
Sun rays
Flat plate collector
Flat reflector
Schematic
Schematic diagram
diagram of
of aa CPC
CPC
collector
collector
θc
Sun
Sun tracking
tracking collectors
collectors
Concentrating
Schematic
Schematic of
of aa parabolic
parabolic
trough
trough collector
collector
Sun rays
Receiver detail Parabola Receiver

Glass
cover
Tracking
mechanism
Receiver
tube
Parabolic
Parabolic trough
trough collectors
collectors
Fresnel
Fresnel type
type parabolic
parabolic trough
trough
collector
collector
Sun rays
Linear
Linear Fresnel
Fresnel Reflector
Reflector (LFR)
(LFR)
Receiver
Sun rays
Tower
Mirrors
Schematic
Schematic diagram
diagram showing
showing
interleaving
interleaving of
of mirrors
mirrors in
in aa CLFR
CLFR with
with
reduced
reduced shading
shading between
between mirrors
mirrors
Receiver Receiver
Sun rays
Tower Tower
Mirrors
Schematic
Schematic of
of aa parabolic
parabolic dish
dish
collector
collector
Sun rays
Receiver
Parabola
Two-axes
tracking
mechanism
Schematic
Schematic of
of central
central receiver
receiver
system
system
Thermal
Thermal analysis
analysis of
of collectors
collectors
Useful
Useful energy
energy collected
collected from
from aa
collector
collector
General formula:
[ ]
qu = Ac Gtτα − U L (Tp − Ta ) = mc p [To − Ti ]
by substituting inlet fluid temperature (Ti) for

the average plate temperature (Tp):
qquu == Acc FFRR[[GGt t(τα
(τα) −) U
−U Li (T
L (T ] a )]
a )T
−iT−
• Where FR is the heat removal factor
Collector
Collector efficiency
efficiency
Finally, the collector efficiency can be
obtained by dividing qu by (Gt Ac).
Therefore:
 U L (Ti − Ta ) 
n = FR τα − 
 Gt 
Overall
Overall heat
heat loss
loss coefficient
coefficient
The overall heat loss coefficient is a
complicated function of the collector
construction and its operating conditions and
it is given by the following expression:
UL=Ut+Ub+Ue (for flat plate collector)
i.e., it is the heat transfer resistance from the
absorber plate to the ambient air.
Concentration
Concentration
The concentration ratio (C) is defined as the ratio of
the aperture area to the receiver/absorber area, i.e.:
Aa
C=
Ar
For flat-plate collectors with no reflectors, C=1. For

concentrators C is always greater than 1. For a single
axis tracking collector the maximum possible
concentration is given by:
where θm is the half
1
C max = acceptance angle
sin(θ m ) limited by the size of
the sun’s disk, small
and for two-axes tracking collector: scale errors and
1 irregularities of the
C max = reflector surface and
sin 2 (θ m )
tracking errors.
Maximum
Maximum concentration
concentration
For a perfect collector and tracking
system Cmax depends only on the sun’s
disk which has a width of 0.53° (32΄).
Therefore:
For single axis tracking:
Cmax = 1/sin(16΄) = 216
For full tracking:
Cmax = 1/sin2(16΄) = 46,747
Concentrating
Concentrating collectors
collectors
The useful energy delivered from a
concentrator is:
q u = G b n o Aa − ArU L (T r − T a )
Where no is the optical efficiency given by:
no = ρταγ [(1 − A f tan(θ ) )cos(θ )]

And Af is the geometric factor given by:
2  Wa2 
A f = Wa h p + fWa 1 + 
 f 
2
3 48
Concentrating
collectors
efficiency
efficiency
Similarly as for the flat-plate collector
the heat removal factor can be used:
qu = FR [Gb no Aa − ArU L (Ti − Ta )]
And the collector efficiency can be
obtained by dividing qu by (GbAa):
  Ti − Ta 
n = FR no − U L   Note C in the
 Gb C  denominator

PERFORMANCE
PERFORMANCE OF
OF SOLAR
SOLAR
COLLECTORS
COLLECTORS
The thermal performance of the solar
collector is determined by:
• Obtaining values of instantaneous efficiency for
different combinations of incident radiation,
ambient temperature, and inlet fluid temperature.
• Obtaining the transient thermal response
characteristics of the collector (time constant).
• Determining the incidence angle modifier.
1.
1. Collector
Collector Thermal
Thermal Efficiency
Efficiency
In reality the heat loss coefficient UL in
previous equations is not constant but is a
function of collector inlet and ambient
temperatures. Therefore:
FRU L = c1 + c 2 (Ti − Ta )
Applying above equation we have:
For flat-plate collectors:
[
q u = Aa FR ταGt − c1 (Ti − Ta ) − c 2 (Ti − Ta ) 2 ]
and for concentrating collectors:
[
qu = FR Gb no Aa − Ar c1 (Ti − Ta ) − Ar c 2 (Ti − Ta ) 2 ]
Flat
Flat plate
plate collector
collector efficiency
efficiency
Therefore for flat-plate collectors the
efficiency can be written as:
(Ti − Ta ) (Ti − Ta ) 2
n = FRτα − c1 − c2
Gt Gt
and if we denote co=FRτα and
x=(Ti-Ta)/Gt then:
2
n = c o − c1 x − c 2 Gt x
Concentrating
Concentrating collector
collector
efficiency
efficiency
For concentrating collectors the
efficiency can be written as:
2
c1 (Ti − Ta ) c 2 (Ti − Ta )
n = FR no − −
CGb CGb
and if we denote ko=FRno, k1=c1/C,
k2=c2/C and y=(Ti-Ta)/Gb then:
2
n = k o − k1 y − k 2 G b y
Efficiency
Efficiency plots
plots
Usually the second-order terms are neglected in
which case c2=0 and k2=0 (or third term in above
equations is neglected).
For flat plate collectors: Equations plot as a straight
line on a graph of efficiency versus the heat loss
parameter (Ti - Ta)/Gt
• The intercept (intersection of the line with the vertical
efficiency axis) equals to FRτα.
• The slope of the line equals to -FRUL
For concentrating collectors: Equations plot as a
straight line on a graph of efficiency versus the heat
loss parameter (Ti - Ta)/Gb
• The intercept equals FRno.
• The slope of the line equals to -FRUL/C.
Comparison
Comparison of of the
the efficiency
efficiency ofof
various
various collectors
collectors atat two
two irradiation
irradiation
levels, 500 and 1000 W/m 22
levels, 500 and 1000 W/m
0.9
0.8
FPC-1000
0.7 AFP-1000
0.6 CPC-1000
Efficiency
ETC-1000
0.5
PTC-1000
0.4
FPC-500
0.3 AFP-500
0.2 CPC-500
ETC-500
0.1
PTC-500
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Temperature dfference [Ti -Ta ] (Deg. C)
Incidence
Incidence Angle
Angle Modifier
Modifier
Flat-plate
Flat-plate collectors
collectors
The above performance equations assume that the sun
is perpendicular to the plane of the collector, which rarely
occurs.
For the glass cover plates of a flat-plate collector,
specular reflection of radiation occurs thereby reducing
the (τα) product.
The incident angle modifier is defined as the ratio of τα
at some incident angle θ to τα at normal radiation (τα)n:
2
 1   1 
kατ = 1 − bo  − 1 − b1  − 1
 cos(θ )   cos(θ ) 
For single glass cover, a single-order equation can be
used with bo equal to -0.1 and b1=0
Efficiency
Efficiency equation
equation by
by
considering
considering incidence
incidence angle
angle
modifier
modifier
With the incidence angle modifier the
collector efficiency equation can be
modified as:
(Ti − Ta ) (Ti − Ta ) 2
n = FR (τα ) n kατ − c1 − c2
Gt Gt
Incidence
Incidence Angle
Angle Modifier
Modifier
Concentrating
collectors
For off-normal incidence angles, the optical efficiency
term (no) is often difficult to be described analytically
because it depends on the actual concentrator
geometry, concentrator optics, receiver geometry and
receiver optics which may differ significantly.
Fortunately, the combined effect of these parameters
at different incident angles can be accounted for with
the incident angle modifier. It describes how the
optical efficiency of the collector changes as the
incident angle changes. Thus performance equation
becomes:
c1 (Ti − Ta ) c 2 (Ti − Ta ) 2
n = FR K ατ no − −
CGb CGb
Actual
Actual incidence
incidence angle
angle modifier
modifier
1
0.9
0.8
Incidence angle modifier
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27 30 33 36 39 42 45 48 51 54 57 60 63 66 69 72
Angle (Deg.)
By using a curve fitting method (second

order polynomial fit), the curve that best
fits the points can be obtained:
K ατ = 1 − 0.00384(θ ) − 0.000143(θ ) 2
Concentrating
Concentrating Collector
Collector
Acceptance
Acceptance Angle
Angle
Another test required for the concentrating collectors is the
determination of the collector acceptance angle, which
characterises the effect of errors in the tracking mechanism
angular orientation.
This can be found with the tracking mechanism disengaged and
measuring the efficiency at various out of focus angles as the
sun is travelling over the collector plane.
1
0.9
0.8
0.7
Efficiency factor
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
Angle of incidence (Deg.)
Collector
Collector Time
Time Constant
Constant
A last aspect of collector testing is the
determination of the heat capacity of a
collector in terms of a time constant.
Whenever transient conditions exist,
performance equations given before do not
govern the thermal performance of the
collector since part of the absorbed solar
energy is used for heating up the collector
and its components.
Collector
Collector time
time constant
constant
The time constant of a collector is the time required for the fluid leaving
the collector to reach 63% of its ultimate steady value after a step
change in incident radiation. The collector time constant is a measure of
the time required for the following relationship to apply:
Tot − Ti 1
= = 0.368
Toi − Ti e
• Tot = Collector outlet water temperature after time t (°C)
• Toi = Collector outlet initial water temperature (°C)
• Ti = Collector inlet water temperature (°C)
The procedure for performing this test is to operate the collector with the
fluid inlet temperature maintained at the ambient temperature.
The incident solar energy is then abruptly reduced to zero by either
shielding a flat-plate collector, or defocusing a concentrating one.
The temperatures of the transfer fluid are continuously monitored as a
function of time until above equation is satisfied.
SOLAR
SOLAR COLLECTOR
COLLECTOR
APPLICATIONS
APPLICATIONS
Collector
Collector efficiencies
efficiencies of
of
various
various liquid
liquid collectors
collectors
100
90 POOL HEATERS
80
Collector efficiency (%)
DOUBLE-GLAZED
70 FLAT PLATE
SINGLE-GLAZED
60 FLAT PLATE
50 EVACUATED TUBE
40
30 Radiant space heating
Air conditioning
20 Domestic hot water
10 Pool heating Convective space heating
0
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.1
∆T/G (°C m2/W)
Solar
Solar energy
energy applications
applications and
and type
type of
of
collectors
collectors used
used
Application System Collector
Solar water heating
Thermosyphon systems Passive FPC
Integrated collector storage Passive CPC
Direct circulation Active FPC, CPC ETC
Indirect water heating systems Active FPC, CPC ETC
Air systems Active FPC
Space heating and cooling
Space heating and service hot water Active FPC, CPC ETC
Air systems Active FPC
Water systems Active FPC, CPC ETC
Heat pump systems Active FPC, CPC ETC
Absorption systems Active FPC, CPC ETC
Adsorption (desiccant) cooling Active FPC, CPC ETC
Mechanical systems Active PDR
Solar refrigeration
Adsorption units Active FPC, CPC ETC
Absorption units Active FPC, CPC ETC
Solar
Solar energy
energy applications
applications and
and type
type of
of
collectors
collectors used
used
Application System Collector
Industrial process heat
Industrial air and water systems Active FPC, CPC ETC
Steam generation systems Active PTC, LFR
Solar desalination
Solar stills Passive -
Multi-stage flash (MSF) Active FPC, CPC ETC
Multiple effect boiling (MEB) Active FPC, CPC ETC
Vapour compression (VC) Active FPC, CPC ETC
Solar thermal power systems
Parabolic trough collector systems Active PTC
Parabolic tower systems Active HFC
Parabolic dish systems Active PDR
Solar furnaces Active HFC, PDR
Solar chemistry systems Active CPC, PTC, LFR
Solar
Solar Water
Water Heating
Heating Systems
Systems
Thermosyphon systems
Integrated collector storage systems
Direct circulation systems
Indirect water heating systems
Air systems
Thermosyphon
Thermosyphon systems
systems
(passive)
(passive)
Thermosyphon systems heat potable water or heat transfer fluid
and use natural convection to transport it from the collector to
storage.
The water in the collector expands becoming less dense as the
sun heats it and rises through the collector into the top of the
storage tank.
There it is replaced by the cooler water that has sunk to the
bottom of the tank, from which it flows down the collector.
The circulation continuous as long as there is sunshine.
Since the driving force is only a small density difference larger
than normal pipe sizes must be used to minimise pipe friction.
Connecting lines must be well insulated to prevent heat losses
and sloped to prevent formation of air pockets which would stop
circulation.
Schematic
Schematic diagram
diagram of
of aa
thermosyphon
thermosyphon solar
solar water
water heater
heater
Storage tank Hot water
outlet
Auxiliary
Cold
water inlet
Typical
Typical thermosyphon
thermosyphon solar
solar
water
water heater
heater
Laboratory
Laboratory model
model
Application
Application on
on inclined
inclined roof-1
roof-1
Application
Application on
on inclined
inclined roof-2
roof-2
Application
Application on
on inclined
inclined roof-3
roof-3
Multi-residential
Multi-residential application
application
Pressurized
Pressurized system
system on
on inclined
inclined roof
roof
Integrated
Integrated collector
collector storage
storage
systems
systems (passive)
(passive)
Integrated collector storage (ICS) systems use hot
water storage as part of the collector, i.e., the surface
of the storage tank is used also as an absorber.
The main disadvantage of the ICS systems is the
high thermal losses from the storage tank to the
surroundings since most of the surface area of the
storage tank cannot be thermally insulated as it is
intentionally exposed for the absorption of solar
radiation.
Thermal losses are greatest during the night and
overcast days with low ambient temperature. Due to
these losses the water temperature drops
substantially during the night especially during the
winter.
Fully
Fully developed
developed cusp
cusp
The
The final
final ICS
ICS collector
collector
Direct
Direct circulation
circulation systems
systems
(active)
(active)
In direct circulation systems a pump is used
to circulate potable water from storage to the
collectors when there is enough available
solar energy to increase its temperature and
then return the heated water to the storage
tank until it is needed.
As a pump circulates the water, the collectors
can be mounted either above or below the
storage tank.
Direct
Direct circulation
circulation system
system
Drain-down
Drain-down system
system
When a freezing condition or a power failure occurs, the system drains

automatically by isolating the collector array and exterior piping from the make-
up water supply and draining it using the two normally open (NO) valves
Direct
Direct or
or forced
forced circulation
circulation type
type
domestic
domestic SWHSWH
In this system only the solar panels are visible
on the roof.
The hot water storage tank is located indoors
in a plantroom.
• The system is completed with piping, pump and a
differential thermostat.
This type of system is more appealing mainly
due to architectural and aesthetic reasons but
also more expensive.
Force
Force circulation
circulation system-1
system-1
Force
Force circulation
circulation system-2
system-2
Swimming
Swimming pool
pool heating
heating
Indirect
Indirect water
water heating
heating systems
systems
(active)
(active)
Indirect water heating systems circulate a heat
transfer fluid through the closed collector loop to a
heat exchanger, where its heat is transferred to the
potable water.
The most commonly used heat transfer fluids are
water/ethylene glycol solutions, although other heat
transfer fluids such as silicone oils and refrigerants
can also be used.
The heat exchanger can be located inside the
storage tank, around the storage tank (tank mantle)
or can be external.
It should be noted that the collector loop is closed
and therefore an expansion tank and a pressure relief
valve are required.
Indirect
Indirect water
water heating
heating system
system
Drain-back
Drain-back system
system
Circulation continues as long as usable energy is available. When the

circulation pump stops the collector fluid drains by gravity to a drain-back tank.
Large
Large solar
solar water
water heating
heating
system
system
Air
Air systems
systems
Air systems are indirect water heating systems that
circulate air via ductwork through the collectors to an
air-to-liquid heat exchanger. In the heat exchanger,
heat is transferred to the potable water, which is also
circulated through the heat exchanger and returned
to the storage tank.
The main advantage of the system is that air does
not need to be protected from freezing or boiling, is
non-corrosive, and is free.
The disadvantages are that air handling equipment
(ducts and fans) need more space than piping and
pumps, air leaks are difficult to detect, and parasitic
power consumption is generally higher than that of
liquid systems.
Air
Air system
system
Solar
Solar Space
Space Heating
Heating and
and
Cooling
Cooling
Space Heating and Service Hot Water
Air systems
Water systems
Solar
Solar Space
Space Heating
Heating and
and Cooling
Cooling
The components and subsystems discussed so far
may be combined to create a wide variety of building
solar heating and cooling systems.
Active solar space systems use collectors to heat a
fluid, storage units to store solar energy until needed,
and distribution equipment to provide the solar
energy to the heated spaces in a controlled manner.
The load can be space cooling, heating, or a
combination of these two with hot water supply.
In combination with conventional heating equipment
solar heating provides the same levels of comfort,
temperature stability, and reliability as conventional
systems.
Space
Space Heating
Heating and
and Service
Service Hot
Hot Water
Water
It is useful to consider solar systems as having five

basic modes of operation, depending on the
conditions that exist in the system at a particular time:
• If solar energy is available and heat is not needed in the
building, energy gain from the collector is added to storage.
• If solar energy is available and heat is needed in the
building, energy gain from the collector is used to supply the
building need.
• If solar energy is not available, heat is needed in the
building, and the storage unit has stored energy in it, the
stored energy is used to supply the building need.
• If solar energy is not available, heat is needed in the
building, and the storage unit has been depleted, auxiliary
energy is used to supply the building need.
• The storage unit is fully heated, there are no loads to met,
and the collector is absorbing heat-relief heat.
Air
Air systems
systems
A schematic of a basic solar heating system using air
as the heat transfer fluid, with pebble bed storage
unit and auxiliary heating source is shown in next
slide.
The various modes of operations are achieved by
appropriate positioning of the dampers. In most air
systems it is not practical to combine the modes of
adding energy to and removing energy from storage
at the same time.
Auxiliary energy can be combined with energy
supplied from collector or storage to top-up the air
temperature in order to cover the building load.
It is possible to bypass the collector and storage unit
when auxiliary alone is being used to provide heat.
Schematic
Schematic of
of basic
basic hot
hot air
air
system
system
Detail
Detail schematic
schematic of
of aa solar
solar air
air
heating
heating system
system
Water
Water systems
systems
When used for both space and hot water
production this system allows independent
control of the solar collector-storage and
storage-auxiliary-load loops as solar-heated
water can be added to storage at the same
time that hot water is removed from storage
to meet building loads.
Usually, a bypass is provided around the
storage tank to avoid heating the storage
tank, which can be of considerable size, with
auxiliary energy.
Detail
Detail schematic
schematic of
of aa solar
solar
water
water heating
heating system
system
Solar
Solar Refrigeration
Refrigeration
Solar cooling can be considered for two related
processes:
• to provide refrigeration for food and medicine preservation
and
• to provide comfort cooling.
Absorption systems are similar to vapour-
compression air conditioning systems but differ in the
pressurisation stage.
The most usual combinations of fluids include lithium
bromide-water (LiBr-H2O) where water vapour is the
refrigerant and ammonia-water (NH3-H2O) systems
where ammonia is the refrigerant.
Absorption
Absorption systems
systems
The pressurisation is achieved by dissolving
the refrigerant in the absorbent, in the
absorber section.
Subsequently, the solution is pumped to a
high pressure with an ordinary liquid pump.
The addition of heat in the generator is used
to separate the low-boiling refrigerant from
the solution.
• In this way the refrigerant vapour is compressed
without the need of large amounts of mechanical
energy that the vapour-compression air
conditioning systems demand.
Basic
Basic principle
principle of
of the
the absorption
absorption
air
air conditioning
conditioning system
system
QC QG
Cooling Source heat

water
Condenser Generator
Heat exchanger
High pressure
Low pressure
Chilled Cooling
water water
Evaporator Absorber
QE QA
Industrial
Industrial Process
Process Heat
Heat
Industrial
Industrial Process
Process Heat
Heat
The central system for heat supply in most
factories uses hot water or steam at a
medium temperature of about 150°C.
Hot water or low pressure steam at medium
temperatures can be used either for
preheating of water (or other fluids) used for
processes (washing, dyeing, etc.) or for
steam generation or by direct coupling of the
solar system to an individual process.
In the case of water preheating, higher
efficiencies are obtained due to the low input
temperature to the solar system, thus low-
technology collectors can work effectively.
Possibilities
Possibilities of
of combining
combining the
the solar
solar
system
system with
with the
the existing
existing heat
heat supply
supply
Central steam supply
Solar collector
used for steam
generation
Conventional
boiler and
Process Process Process
steam generator
Solar collector used
for make-up water Solar collector
preheating applied to a
particular process
Pump
Return water
Make-up water
PTCs
PTCs for
for water
water heating
heating
Solar
Solar steam
steam generation
generation
systems
systems
Parabolic trough collectors are frequently employed
for solar steam generation because relatively high
temperatures can be obtained without any serious
degradation in the collector efficiency.
Low temperature steam can be used in industrial
applications, sterilisation, and for powering
desalination evaporators.
Three methods have been employed to generate
steam using parabolic trough collectors:
• The steam-flash concept.
• The direct or in-situ concept.
• The unfired-boiler concept.
The
The steam-flash
steam-flash steam
steam
generation
generation concept
concept
In steam-flash concept, a
pressurised water is heated
in the collector and then
flashed to steam in a
separate vessel.
Back
The
The direct
direct steam
steam generation
generation
concept
concept
In direct or in-
situ concept, a
two phase flow is
allowed in the
collector receiver
so that steam is
generated directly.
Back
The
The unfired-boiler
unfired-boiler steam
steam
generation
generation concept
concept
In unfired-boiler
concept, a heat-transfer
fluid is circulated through
the collector and steam is
generated via heat-
exchange in an unfired
boiler.
Solar
Solar Desalination
Desalination Systems
Systems
Solar
Solar Desalination
Desalination Systems
Systems
Water is one of the most abundant
resources on earth, covering three-fourths of
the planet's surface.
About 97% of the earth's water is salt water
in the oceans; 3% of all fresh water is in
ground water, lakes and rivers, which supply
most of human and animal needs.
The only nearly inexhaustible sources of
water are the oceans Their main
drawback, however, is their high salinity.
It would be attractive to tackle the water-
shortage problem with desalination of this
water.
Desalination
Desalination processes
processes
Desalination can be achieved by using a number of techniques.
These may be classified into the following categories:
- phase-change or thermal processes; and
- membrane or single-phase processes.
PHASE-CHANGE PROCESSES MEMBRANE PROCESSES
1. Multi-stage flash (MSF) 1. Reverse osmosis (RO)

2. Multiple effect boiling (MEB) - RO without energy recovery
3. Vapour compression (VC) - RO with energy recovery (ER-RO)
4. Freezing 2. Electrodialysis (ED)
5. Humidification/Dehumidification
6. Solar stills
- conventional stills
- special stills
- wick-type stills
- multiple-wick-type stills
Solar
Solar Stills
Stills
Multiple
Multiple Effect
Effect Boiling
Boiling Evaporator
Evaporator
Multiple Effect Stack
(MES) type evaporator
This is the most appropriate type for

solar energy applications.
Advantages:
Stable operation between virtually
zero and 100% output even when
sudden changes are made (most
important).
Its ability to follow a varying steam
supply without upset.
Actual
Actual MEB
MEB schematic
schematic
A
A photo
photo of
of an
an actual
actual MEB
MEB
plant
plant
Actual
Actual MES
MES plant
plant
Solar
Solar Power
Power systems
systems
Solar
Solar Thermal
Thermal Power
Power
Three types of systems belong to this
category:
• Parabolic trough collector system
• Central receiver system
• Dish collector system
The process of conversion of solar to
mechanical and electrical energy by thermal
means is fundamentally similar to the
traditional thermal processes.
The solar systems differ from the ones
considered so far as these operate at much
higher temperatures.
Schematic
Schematic of
of aa solar-thermal
solar-thermal
conversion
conversion system
system
Typical
Typical Schematic
Schematic of
of SEGS
SEGS plants
plants
Parabolic
Parabolic Trough
Trough System
System
Parabolic
Parabolic trough
trough collectors
collectors
Parabola
Parabola detail
detail
Receiver
Receiver detail
detail
Central
Central receiver
receiver system
system
Tower
Tower detail
detail
Heliostat
Heliostat detail
detail
Central
Central receiver-1
receiver-1
Central
Central receiver-2
receiver-2
Central
Central receiver-3
receiver-3
Central
Central receiver-4
receiver-4
Central
Central receiver-5
receiver-5
Central
Central receiver-6
receiver-6
Central
Central receiver-7
receiver-7
Central
Central receiver-8
receiver-8
Solar
Solar energy
energy should
should be
be given
given aa
chance
chance ifif we
we want
want to
to protect
protect the
the
environment.
environment.
We
We own
own itit to
to our
our children,
children, our
our
grandchildren
grandchildren and and the
the
generations
generations to to come.
come.
Thank you for your attention,
any questions please:.

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SOLAR

N-S Horizontal 6.22 7.85 4.91 73.8 74.0 86.2

E-W Horizontal 7.51 10.36 4.47 89.1 97.7 60.9

Note: E - Equinoxes, SS - Summer Solstice, WS - Winter Solstice

Flat plate collector

Receiver detail Parabola Receiver

by substituting inlet fluid temperature (Ti) for

For flat-plate collectors with no reflectors, C=1. For

no = ρταγ [(1 − A f tan(θ ) )cos(θ )]

By using a curve fitting method (second

When a freezing condition or a power failure occurs, the system drains

Circulation continues as long as usable energy is available. When the

It is useful to consider solar systems as having five

Cooling Source heat

1. Multi-stage flash (MSF) 1. Reverse osmosis (RO)

This is the most appropriate type for

any questions please:.

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