Makalah Bahasa Inggris

Minggu, 14 Desember 2014

Morphology _ mengenal morphemes

 A. Definition of Morphology and Morphemes

A word Morphology is from Greece “morphe “that has

meaning “forms”. It means the morphology is a science of
language that focuses on language and how that language
special word formed.Morphology is the study of the basic building blocks of meaning
in language. Morphology is the study of how words are put together or “shaped” by using

morphemes, which include prefixes, roots, and suffixes.

Knowing the different morphemes in a word allows one to not only figure out its definition, but

also determine whether it’s a noun, verb, or adjective. The words morphology and morpheme both

come from the Greek root word morph meaning “shape;” morphology is therefore the study of the

“shape” words take, whereas morphemes are those building blocks which “shape” the word.

These building blocks, calledmorphemes, are the smallest units of form that bear meaning or

have a grammatical function.A morpheme can be defined as a minimal unit having more or less

constantmeaning and more of less constant form. For example, linguists say that the word buyers is

made up of three morphemes{buy} +{er} +{s}. The evidence for this is that each can occur in other

combinationsof morphemes without changing its meaning. We can find {buy} in buying, buys, and

{er} in seller, fisher, as well as buyer. And {s} can be found in boys, girls, anddogs. The more

combinations a morpheme is found in, the more productive it is said tobe.

B. Kinds of Morphemes

1. Free Morphemes
 Free morphemes are those that can stand alone as words. They may be lexical morphemes
({serve}, {press}), or grammatical morphemes ({at}, {and}).

A morpheme is free if it is able to appear as a word by itself. It isbound if it can only appear
as part of a larger, multi-morphemic word. Every morpheme is either free or bound. Free
morphemes are also referred as roots.

2. Bound Morphemes

Bound morphemes can occur only in combination—they are parts of a word. They may be
lexical morphemes (such as {clued} as ininclude, exclude, preclude) or they may be
grammatical (such as {PLU} = plural as in boys, girls, andcats).

Bound morphemes are also referred to as affixes, among which there are prefixes, infixes,
and suffixes.

Lexical and Grammatical Morphemes

Lexical morphemes are those that having meaning by themselves (moreaccurately, they
have sense). Grammatical morphemes specify a relationshipbetween other morphemes. But the
distinction is not all that well defined.Nouns, verbs, adjectives ({boy}, {buy}, {big}) are typical
lexical morphemes.Prepositions, articles, conjunctions ({of}, {the}, {but}) are grammatical
morphemes.

C. Roots and Affixes

1) Root Words (also called stems)

A root is the irreducible core of a Word, with absolutely nothing else attached to it. It is
the part that is always present, possibly with some modification, in the various manifestations
of a lexical. Many words contain a root standing on its own. Roots which are capable of
standing independently are calledfree morphemes.

Root Stem
  When a root morpheme is combined with
Non-affix lexical content morphemes that cannot
be analyzed into smaller parts (ex.) cran (as in affix morphemes, it forms a stem.

cranberry), act, beauty, system, etc.  Other affixes can be added to a stem to

 Free Root Morpheme: run bottle, phone, form a more complex stem.

etc.

 Bound Root Morpheme: receive, remit,

uncouth, nonchalant, etc.

Complex words consist of a root and one or more affixes. A root is a content
morpheme that cannot be analyzed into smaller parts. Seen another way, the root is
what's left when all prefixes and suffixes have been removed. Some examples are
paint in painter, read in reread, and ling in linguistic. A root may or may not be a
standalone word (ling isn't). Root words can be combined with prefixes and suffixes to
create new words. In this basic course, the words "root" and "stem" are used
interchangeably because, while not identical, they are linguistically similar in meaning.

2) Affixes (prefixes, suffixes, infixes, and circumfixes)

Affixes are bound morphemes (meaning they cannot stand alone like words can)
that we add to free morphemes to create new words. This is the four kinds of affixes with
examples from languages of the world.

Prefixes Suffixes Infixes Circumfixes

Bound morphemes which Bound morphemes which Bound morphemes Bound morphemes
occur only before other occur following other which are that are attached to
morphemes. morphemes. inserted into other a root or stem
Examples: Examples: morphemes. morpheme both
un- (uncover, undo) -er (singer, performer) initially and finally.
dis-(displeased, disconnect), -ist (typist, pianist)
pre- (predetermine, -ly (manly, friendly)
prejudge)
a. Prefixes
Morphemes are the minimal units of meaning in all languages, and many languages
have prefixes and suffixes. But languages may differ in how they deploy their
morphemes. A morpheme that is a prefix in one language may be a suffix in another
language.

Prefix is a letter or group of letters attached to the beginning of word that party
indicates its meaning. For example, the word prefix itself begins with a prefix-pre, with
generally means before. Understanding of the common prefixes can help deduce the
meaning of new words that we encounter. However, some of prefixes (such as in-) have
more than one meaning. Agusmortoyo et al (2012: 3-4)

Prefix Meaning Example

a, an Without Amoral

Ante Before Antecedent

Anti Against Anticlimax

Auto Self Autopilot

Circum around Circumvent

Co with Copilot

Com with Companion, contact

Con

Contra Against Contradict

De Off, away from Devalue

Dis Not Disappear

 b. Sufixes

Suffix is a letter or a group of letters attached to the end of a word to form a new word or to alter

the grammatical function of the original word. For example, the verb read can be made into the

noun reader by adding the suffix –er; read can be made into the adjective by adding the suffix –

able. Agusmortoyo et al (2012: 3-4)

Suffix Meaning Example

-acy State or quality Privacy

-al Act or process of Refusal

-ance, ence State or quality of Maintenance,

eminence

-dom Place or state of being Freedom, kingdom

-er, -or One who Trainer, protector

-ism Doctrine, belief Communism

-ist One who Chemist

Ity,-ty Quality of Veracity

-ment Condition of Argument

-ness State of being Heaviness

-ship Position held Fellowship

-sion, -tion State of being Concession, transition

c. Infixes
Some languages also have infixes, morphemes that are inserted into other morphemes. An infix
is an affix inserted into the root itself. Infixes are very common in Semitic language like Arabic and
Hebrew. But infixing is somewhere rare in English. Slat and Taylor (1978) suggest that the only
infix that occurs in English morphology is /-n-/ which is inserted before the last consonant of the
root in a few words of Latin origin, on what appears to be an arbitrary basis.

In fact, in fixation of sorts still happens in contemporary English.

Example:

- Kalamazu (places name) → Kalama-goddam-zoo

Instantiate (verb) → in-fuckin-stantiate

- Kangaroo → kanga-bloody-roo

Impossible → in-fuckin-possible

Guarantee → guaran-friggin-tee

(Recall that the arrow → means “becomes” or is “re-written as”.)

As you can see, in present-day English in fixation, not of an affix morpheme but of an entire word
(which may have more than one morpheme, blood-y, fuck-ing) is actively used to form words.
Curiously, this infixation is virtually restricted to inserting expletives into words in expressive
language that one would probably not use in polite company.

BontocIgorot, spoken in the Philippines, uses infixes, as illustrated by the following:

Noun/Adjective Verb

Fikas "strong" Fumikas "to be strong"

Kilad "red" Kumilad "to be red"

Ngitad "dark" Ngumitad "to be dark"

We have infixes in English, too, but they tend to be infixed full-word obscenities into
another word, usually into adjectives or adverbs. The most common infix in America is the
word firkin' and all the euphemisms for it, such as friggin', freakin', flippin', and bloody (and
its euphemism, bloomin', British), as in un + fuckin' + believable and fan + funckin' +
tastic, I'm not o + fuckin' + kay(in the song, "I'm not Okay" by the group My Chemical
Romance.)
d. Circumfuses
Some languages have circumfuses, morphemes that are attached to a base
morpheme both initially and finally. In Chickasaw, a Muskogean language spoken in
Oklahoma, the negative is formed with both a prefix ik- and the suffix -o. The final vowel
of the affirmative is dropped before the negative suffix is added. Examples of this
circumfixing are:

Affirmative Negative

Chokma "his is good" ik + chokm + o "he isn't good"

Lakna "it is yellow" ik + lakn + o "it isn't yellow"

D. The Derivational and Inflection

There are two types of morpheme: free morpheme, and bound morpheme. Free
morpheme is then further divided into two: lexical and functional morpheme. Bound
morpheme is also further divided into two categories: derivational and inflectional
morpheme.

Derivational morpheme changes the root's class of words or its meaning, or both. The
word 'unhappy' derives from the root happy added with a prefix un. Both 'happy' and
'unhappy' are adjectives. The meaning, however, is totally different. "I am unhappy" is
totally different from "i am happy". in this case, the prefix un is called derivational
morpheme.

Inflectional morpheme, on the other hand, does not change either the root's class of
words or the meaning. the word 'books', for example, derives from the root book added
with a suffix –s. both 'book' and 'books' are noun. the meaning is still the same. the suffix
–s only indicates the plural form. in this case, the suffix –s is inflectional.

We can make a further distinction within the set of morphemes that are both bound and
grammatical. Bound grammatical morphemes (those that don’t havea sense by themselves and,
additionally, always occur in combinations) arecommonly known as affixes. They can be further
divided into inflectionalaffixes andderivational affixes.Here is some of the evidence for the
distinction between inflectional andderivational affixes (the book has more):
 Inflectional Affixes Derivational Affixes

All are suffixes May be either suffixes or prefixes

Have a wide range of application. E.g. May have a wide or narrow range

most English nouns can be made

plural, with {PLU}

All native to English (since Old English Many were adopted from Latin, Greek,

was spoken around 500-1000 AD) or other languages. (Though others,

especially the suffixes, are native,

including {ful}, {like}, {ly}, and {AG})

1. Inflectional Affixes

Inflectional morphemes, on the other hand, do notchange meanings or parts of speech, but instead
simply make minor grammatical changes necessary for agreement with other words.

Example: cats =cat + s

cooler =cool + er.

English has only eight inflectional affixes:

2. {PLU} = plural Noun –s boys

3. {POSS} = possessive Noun -’s boy’s

4. {COMP} = comparative Adjective -er older

5. {SUP} = superlative Adjective -est oldest

6. {PRES} = present Verb -s walks

7. {PAST} past Verb -ed walked

8. {PAST PART} = past participle Verb -en driven

9. {PRES PART} = present participle Verb -ing driving

 Notice that, as noted above, even irregular forms can be representedmorphologically is using these
morphemes. E.g. the irregular plural sheep iswritten as {sheep} + {PLU}, even though the typically
form of {PLU} is not usedhere.

Similarly, better = {good} + {COMP};drove = {drive} + {PAST}.

2. Derivational Affixes

Derivational morphemes create new words. Theyderive new words from other words.
Derivational change part of speech or the meaning of a word.

Example :

unhappy un + happy;

happiness happy + ness

preview pre + view.

There is an indefinite number of derivational morphemes.For example, the following are

some derivational suffixes:

{ize} attaches to a noun and turns it into a verb: rubberize

{ize} also attaches to an adjective and turns it into a verb: normalize

{ful} attaches to a noun and turns it into an adjective: playful, helpful

{ly} attaches to an adjective and turns it into an adverb: grandly, proudly

A different {ly} attaches to a noun and changes it into an adjective: manly, friendly

English also has derivational prefixes, such as:{un}, {dis}, {a}, {anti}, all of which indicate some
kind of negation: unhappy, dislike, atypical, anti-aircraft.