ANCIENT TEXTILES ?

Production, Craft and Society

Proceedings of the First International Conference on Ancient Textiles^

heId at Lund, Sweden, and Copenhagen, Denmark,
onMarch 19-23,2003

edited by
Carole Gllis and Marié-Louise B. Nosch

The Danish National Research Foundation's

CENTRE forTEXTILE RESEARCH

Oxbow Books

2007-
 18 The Use of Wool for the Production
of Strings, Ropes, Braided Mats,
and Similar Fabrics
by Hartmut Waet^oldt
*—' Vs

In Mesopotamia, modern Iraq, aronnd 2000 BC, there were large textile milis where thousands of
female weavers and children produced large quantities of textiles, botbfor local use and for export.
In this paper anotherprofessional branch, the so-calkd tug7-duB workers, mil be discussed, They used
mainjy wool andgoat hair to produce stiings, ropes, hamers, síraps and many other kinds of braided
mateñals. These served,for Ínstame, as seáisfor chairs or as webbingsfor bedfrajftes, while otbers mre
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theframes of the beds and chairs, *

These craftsmen also produced large braided mats of goat-hairfor river boats. Sime the sz^e of these
producís was exactjy proportional to the sz%e and load capacity of boats, they might have been sails, In
ryw &"&$&? -xV
f>f y I/U/f¿

More than thirty years ago, in my PhD specializedhandbooks concerning the methods
dissertation, I discussed all aspects of textile of the textile industry. My research is based on
milis and the work of the female weavers in cuneiform texts and archaeological finds.
Mesopotamia.1 Around the year 2000 BC, In the specialist literature, the ñame of
there were many large weaving milis in many the profession tug2-dug is translated in very
cities. Thousands of textile producís of various different ways, such as, 'fuller', 'upholsterer',
qualities and styles were made for domestic 'cord-maker', 'preparer of felts', 'harness-
consumption and for export. These milis wefe maker' and even Veaver'. Piotr Steinkeller, in an
staffed by 1,000-5,000 (adult) female weavers arricie about this profession, thinks that these
and up to 1,000 children in the largest of the men were weavers, cord makers, and felters
textile milis. They were usuaHy supervised all in one person.2 I think this is impossible,
by men. In this paper I will concéntrate on and I hope to show in this paper that these
a specific occupational specialty concerning craftspeople made strings, ropes, different types
Mesopotamian workers of wool and goat of plaited straps, mats and similar producís. In
hair: the rope-makers, and men who produced this paper I will concéntrate on three segments
plaited straps and webbings. In Sumerian they of the producción of the tug^-du^ first, yarns,
are called tug9-dug. These craftspeople and strings and ropes; second, a fabric called sa3-
their producís have been given only cursory1 tuku. for beds; and third, an expression íhaí
treatment in previous scholarship, including probably designaíes sails of boaís.
 T/ye Use of Wool for the Production of Strings, Ropes, BraidedMafs, and Similar Fabñcs 1

Ropes and Strings Fig. 18.1: Terracotta

model of a bed from Ui
According to the ancient texts, Strings, cords (Mesopoiamia),
and ropes are normally made out of goat hair
and more seldom, of sheep wool. Also used
are different reeds and other plant materials.
Methods of rope manufacture consisted of
spinning or twisting sepárate fibers into a
yarn, twisting the yarn'into strands, and finally
twisting the strands into a rope. Ropes of reeds
(between 8 and 51 m long) were produced
by basket weavers,3 The ropes of goat-hair
were of similar length, the longest (recorded)
rope being 90 m. In order to produce thicker
ropes (es2-mah) 30 m long, up to 8 kg of
goat hair were needed.4 The quantity of goat
hair required was dependent on the length
and thickness of the rope. It took up to 9
days for a tug,-dug worker to produce them.3
Sometimes different colors of wool were used
to make multicolored bands, cords or Strings.6
The tug2~dug also produced threads and yarns look at the many terracotta models of beds that
from goat hair. were fbund during archaeological excavations,
It is important to keep in mind that all the ,meaning of sa3-tuku5 is ob~vious. The bed
objects were produced for specific purposes. models show neither cushions ñor mattresses,
In the past, they did not make long Strings or even when a woman or a couple is lying on
ropes and then cut them into pieces as we do them (cf. Figs, 18.12-18.13). The figures are
today. For example, the lash of a whip, ropes always lying dkectly on a kind of fabric, which
for towing boats, or ropes to yoke oxen to is attached in different ways onto the bedframe.
plows were manufactured specificaHy for these One can find these types of beds even today
purposes. Specialists also made thinner ropes in the Near East, in Irán or India.
for things üke dog leashes or reins. We have According to the texts, sa3-tuku5's were
accounts of how much thread was needed for made out of wool and goat hair. For finer
these specialized producís. A leatherwaterskin, producís, the wool was combed and designated
for example., used between 21 and 42 g of third quality. Between 2.5 and 4.3 kg of wool
thread. For the tihrone of a goddess, more than
one kg of thxead was required in addition to 2
sheepskins and 250 g of glue. For the bed of
the highest god of the pantheon, 3.37 kg of
thread were needed, along with 23 sheepskins
and 4 goatskins.'

Beds, Stools and Chairs

We find quite often in the texts a textile
called sa,-tuku5 used in connection with beds.
This term is translated often as 'cushion'
or 'mattress' and once as 'plaited mattress'
(in Germán: 'seilgeflochtene Mafrat^e'}, This
last translation conflicts with P. Steinkeller's
definition of sa,-tuku.
J D
c as a sheet of felt
sendng as bed padding, which, even though it
Fig, 18.2: Bed model
probably was not stuffed, can for all practical
from Tepe Ganra
purposes be translated as "mattress".'8 If we (Mesopoiamia).
 114
Ba«i¡2,S. 105. Abb. 2
Fig. 18'J (above):
Reconstniction of a bed in
an Oíd Sabylonian grave
jrom Bagu^ (Sjria).
Fig. 18.4 (above righi):
Men iveaving cora across
a beáframejrom a relief
in tomb 112 at Thebes
Fig. 18.5 (ñght): Bed
pole wth jvebbingfrom
Tarkban (Egypt).
Hartmut Waet^pldt
were necessary to make them; the average
weight is 3.2 kg.9 When leather consisting of
one or two sheep hides was used, less wool was
necessarv for each sa,-tuku..10 This means that
•• J> D
the leather was not used to cover the plaited
fabric, but was cut into thin straps which were
probably used to attach the plaited fabric
onto the bedframe or onto the crossbeam.11
Sometimes the webbings of the beds are
treated with 500 or. 600 g of a mineral earth
called in Sumerian Vhite earth' (im-babbar),
which may be gypsum.12 According to a Neo-
Babylonian text the webbing of a bed is made
out of red dyed wool.13
An unpublished text provides the measure-
ments of fabrics called túgsa3-ga-du314 which are
used in the same way as the sa3-tukus's. The
measurements are relatively small, 1.6 m or 1.75
m long and 66 or 75 cm wide.15 The smallness
of the beds in Mesopotamia is best illustrated
by a Sumerian proverb: The strongest one
cannot stretch out in bed.'16 But in Syria,
Palestine and Egypt, the beds have comparable
measurements, and some are even smaller.
Normally the bedframes in Egypt are between
1.5 and 1.8 m long and between 65 and 85 cm
wide.17 According to the text mentioned above,
one plaited strap was needed for each sa3-tuku5.
The length of these straps varied between 27
and 9 m and the width between 2.5 cm and 5
cm.18 In order to understand what these straps
were used for, a glance at the bed models is
helpful, One can see that on some of the beds
the webbed cloth is fixed to the frame of the
bed with cords, ropes19 or leather straps (Figs.
18.1—18.2). This is the more expensive variety,
but it had many advantages. The webbed mat
could be produced and stored separately, and if
the frame of a bed broke into pieces, the latter
could be taken off and re-used for another bed.
This is clearly proved by the ancient texis.20
We can observe the cheaper variety from
the reconstruction of a bed found during
excavations at Baguz, One can see this also on
the terracotta bed models mentioned earlier
(Figs. 18.3,18.6b, d, e, £ 18.13). The strings are
wrapped around the frame and woven to form a
matting.21 These types of beds were found also
in Egypt. On a relief of an Egyptian grave at
Thebes, two craftsmen are plaiting string onto
a bedframe to form webbing (Fig. 18. 4).2Z
In Mesopotamia and in Egypt we also find
the same plaiting pattern (Figs. 18.5, 18.6a).
In both cases, the strings are wrapped around
the pole before being plaited in groups of
four in one-over/one-under band weave.
In Mesopotamia nearly every bed looked
different, although on one bed model and
one stool model we find a very similar pattern.
The bed models show many different patterns:
for example, herringbone pattern or zigzag,23
while others have patterns Hke twill-binding
and diagonal weave (Figs. 18.1-18.2, 18.6b-h,
18.10).24 The legs of beds or chairs are also
very similar in Mesopotamia and in Egypt (Fig.
The Use of Wooljor the Production of Strings, Ropes, Brafod Mats, and Similar Fabrics 115
Fig. 18,6: Different
patterns on bed models
from Kis, Nippur, Suso.,
Tell ed-Der, Tell Rzmah

Fig. 18.7 (left): Bedjrame

from Tarkhan (Egypt)
wth webbing slots and
bull-legs.

Fig. 18.8 (right): Wooden

stool n>ith webbing slots
from Egypt.
 116 Hartmut Waeí^pldt

Fig. 18.9 (¿eft): Terracotta

model of a bed from Ur
(Neo-Sumerian or Oíd
Babyionian).

Fig. 18.10 (middle):

Terracotta model of a
bed mth tivo rosettesfrom
Uruk (Oíd Babyionian).

Fig. 18.11 (right):

Terracotta model of a
bed from Nippur (Neo-

Fig. 18.12(left):
Terracotta model of a
bed from Neribtum mth
reclining nudefemule
(Earlj Oíd Babyionian).

Fig. 18.13 (middle):

Terracotta model of

(provenience unknown, Oíd

Babyionian?)

Fig. 18.14 (right):

Terracotta model of a stool
from Girsu (Neo-Sumerian
or Oíd Babyionian).

Fig, 18.15 (/eft): Terra-

cotta model of a stool from
Susa (Oíd Elamite).

Fig. 18.16 (mía

Terracotta model of a
chair from Uruk (Oíd
Babyionian).

Fig. 18.17 (right):

Terracotta model of a chair
from Ur-Diqdiqqe (Oíd
Babyionian?).
 The Use of Wool for the Productton of Strings, Rapes, BraidedMats, and Similar Fabñcs
18.7). The texts from Mesopotamia mention
often that legs of beds or chaks are formed
like bull's legs, for example, the throne of King
Urnamma (2111-2094 BC) has 'bulT legs.25
On some beds, the ropes and straps are not
wrapped around the poles of the bedframe, but
fixed in another way, which is also known from
Egypt In some bedframes there are slots or
holes in the poles (Fig. 18.7, cf. the stool Fig.
18. 8).26 The ropes or straps are pulled through
those holes. On the bed models, the slots are
not visible, for they are too small, but since
there are no ropes or straps wrapped around
the bedframe, I see no other possibility than
that these are pulled through the holes or slots
(Figs. 18.2,18.6g, h, 18. 9-18.11).27 Sometimes
we find a crossbeam at the lower part of the
bed where the plaited cloth was fixed (Figs.
18.12-18.13). I think that this crossbeam was
used to stretch the webbing,28
The seats of the terracotta stool and chair
models show very similar patterns to the plaited
bed surfaces (Figs. 18.14-18.17).29 However, in
the texts of thatperiod, the word sa,-tuku5 does
not appear iii connection with chairs, This may
be simply an accident of discovery, for in texts
of a later period we do find similar terms. In
those texts, in addition to wool, flax and hides
117
were used to produce the seats for stools and
chairs.30 On most depictions of stools and
chairs they are seen from the side. Therefore,
we learn nothirig about the different types of
seats. From Egypt we have several examples
of stools with plaited seats (Figs. 18.18-18,19),
and in Mesopotamia the stools and chairs had
such w<|bbings, as well (Figs. 18.14-18.17).31
In cuneiform texts from around 2000 BC,
we find the expression tug2-dug-a for webbed
cloth. It was used for shoes, sandals and the
seats of stools and chairs. Normally this
fabric, when used for ordinary chaks, weighed
between 800 and 1000 g of wool, but for
women's chair only 370 g were needed.32 That
is to say, this fabric must have been very heavy
and thick, for the seat of a chair is normally
only about 45 pr 50 cm square. Therefore, I
think the tug2-dug-a fabric is densely plaited.
This interpretation agrees with the use of the
tug2-dug-a fabric in shoes or sandals probably
as a solé or insole.33
Sails(?)
In the unpublished text cited earlier, there is a
description of a large textile called KIRI2 (Fig.
18.24, Nos. 8-12). It was used for boats and
always made of goat hair. In our dictionaries
the Akkadian equivalent of this .word is
Fig. 18,18: Stool from
translated as 'rope',34 but this is certainly wrong, Tbebes (Egypt) mth
since this text offers, for the first time, the
measurements of these producís. The largest plaster).
one is 9 m long and 5,5 m wide, made for a
boat of 11.7 tOns (No. 8). It weighs nearly 40
kg. The smallest one, for a boat of 3.9 tons,
is 5 m long and 3 m wide and has a weight of
10.1 kg (No. 12), The relatáonship between
length and width is always 1:1.6 to 1:1.7. The
measurements of the two smallest KIRI2's
(Fig. 18.24, Nos. 11-12) are identical, but thek
weights differ considerably. For the larger boat
of 5.8 tons itas 14..4 kg (No. 11) and for the
Fig. 18.19: Stool from
Egypi mth double braid
 118
Fig. 18.20 (top left):
Reconstntction of a cargo
vessel (6ih Dynasty, Egypi).
Fig. 18.21 (bottom left):
Painting of a ship imder
sailfrom the tomb of
Amemmhet in Beni Hasan
(12th Dynasty, Egypt).
Fig. 18.22 (top rigbt):
Model of a sailing boaifrom
Eñdii (first half of the 4tb
millenmum BC).
Fig. 18.23 (bottom rigbt):
Recanstmcfion of a Neo-
Eabylonian doy modelfrom
Untk.
Hartmut Waet^pldt
smaller boat of 3.9 tons, only 10.1 kg. This
means that a square meter weighs either 960
g or 673 g, or, in other words, the KIRI2 for
the smaller boat is much thinner than the one
for the larger boat. These weights are normal
for wool sails in Scandinavia, as Susan Móller-
Wiering and others have shown.35 We have no
depictions of cargo boats or other boats with
sails in Mesopotamia from the time around
2000 BC and even in the 2nd millenniíjm BC,
there is none. Therefore it is difficult te? fix the
meaning of this word KIRI2.
Egyptian paintings and reliéis from the
Middle Kingdom onward depict the boats with
rectangular-shaped sails (Figs. 18.20—18.21);
earlier ships have trapezoidal sails. From the
Ist millennium BC, several illustrations of
large sailing vessels from the Mediterranean
are known. They all show war galleys. Their
sails are never seen but brailed up. Since the
yard is shown horizontally and always fixed
to the mast in its middle, we can assume that
these sails were rectangular.36 The same we
may suppose for Mesopotamia. We have so
far several clay models of small sailing boats,
but no illustration of a boat under sail (Figs.
18.22-18.23). I am convinced that these
KIRI2's are sails but cannot prove it with
certainty. The manufacture of one KIEJ2 took
a man between 40 and 171 days.37 In the texts
we do not find any indication whether these
KIRI2's were woven or webbed. But since it is
a product of the tug9-dug's, in my opinión they
were webbed.
 The Use of Woolfor the Production of Strings, Ropes, Braided Mats, and Similar Fabrics 119

Ropes for Boats

object material max. load of length weight of number of

the boat object days to
produce
1 1 tope goat hair ca. 11.7 tons •' 21 m 8.08 kg 8.8
(cf. no. 8)
2 1 rope goat hair ca. 5.85 tfcins [21 ? m] 2.5?kg 2
(cf. no. !l)

Webbed Mats for Beds (= a) and Straps for Attaching the Webbing to the Bedframe (= b)

object material length \vidth •weight of white,earth' number of days

object to produce
3a 1 webbed mat combed wool 3rd 1.66m 0.75 m 2.525 kg 0.505 kg 67? days
quality
b 1 long plaited combed wool 3rd 27 m 4.99 cm 1.515kg . 295 kg 40 days
band quality
4a 1 webbed mat combed wool 3rd 1.75m 0.75? m 2.02 kg 0.639 kg 56 2/3 days
quality
b 1 long plaited combed wool 3rd 9m 4.16 cm ; 1.262kg 0.252 kg 32 1/3 days
band quality
5a 1 webbed mat wool of 5th quality 1.75m 0.75 m 2.02 kg 0.639 kg not preserved
b 1 long plaited wool of 5th quality lOm 4.16 cm 1.01 kg 0.202 kg 11 1/6 days
band
6a 1 webbed mat wool of 5th quality 1.66m 0.66 m ' 1.767kg 0.353 kg 23 % days
b 1 long plaited wool of 5th quality 9.166 m 4.1 6 cm not preserved 0.202 kg 11 days
band
7a 1 webbed mat wool from dead 1.50m 0.66 m 1.767kg 0.353 kg 22? days
animáis
b 1 long plaited wool from dead 9m 2.5? cm not preserved not preserved not preserved
band animáis

Sails?
l 1 ÍM
object material' max. load of width/ height/ square xelation- weight of weight number of
the boats length width meters ship width object perro.2 days to
to height" produce

8 1KIRI, goat hair ca. 11.7 tons 9m 5.5 m 29.5 m2 1.63 : 1 39.71 kg 1.288kg 171
9 1KIRI, goat hair ca. 7.8 tons 6m 3.5 m 21 m2 1.71 : 1 25.25 kg 1.202kg 95
10 1KIRI2 goat hair not preserved not pre- not pre- not pre- not pre-
served served — — served served
—
11 1KIRI, goat hak ca. 5.85 tons 5m 3m 15 m2 1.66:1 14.4 kg 0.960 kg 50
12 1KIRI, goat hair ca. 3.9 tons 5m 3m 15 m2 í 1.66 : 1 10.1 kg 0.673 kg 40

¡ Also goat hair for the sail7 (K1RI2) in Fish 1958, 86 r. II16 (classified as 'oíd').
" Moller-Wiering 2002, 81, larger sail c. 6.6 x 12.8 m = relation 1:1.95; smaller sail 4.7 x 8.2 m = relation 1:1.74; but Andersen
1995, 264,c 6.6 x 7 m = relation 1:1.06.
"' Andersen 1995,259-261; Moller-Wiering 2002,26, the weight of woolen sails of c. 20 m2 is c. 500 g/m2; that of larger sails of 50-
130 rn2 = 950-1000 g/m2.

Fig. 18.24: Tablefor rapes, webbed mats and straps, and sails.
120 ; Hartmut Waetzoldt

Notes
The illustrations Nos. 18.1, 18.2, 18,6, 18.9, 18.10, 18.1, 18.12, 18.13, 18.14, 18.16 and
18.17 were drawn by Dr. Nadja Wrede, Heidelberg. I am extremely grateful to her for this sláUful work on
which she devoted a great deal of time and effort.
1 Waetzoldt 1972.
2 Archi 1987, 117 'preparer of felts'; Civil 1994, 73:20 'felt and strap maker'; Falkenstein 1957, 167
'Polsterer'; Lafont 1990,152 'tisserand'; Sallaberger 1996,4 Walker'; Selz 1989,90 Tilzhersteller, Seiler';
Sommerfeld 1999,150 'Walker'; Steinkeller 1980, 93; Van de Mieroop 1987, 35f. 'felter'; Vanstiphout
1984, 245 n. 23 'harness-maker', Stol 2003, 641 mentions the following translations: 'tapissier' and
'cordier-corroyeur (?)'.
3 De Genouillac 1922, 6036 VIII 14£, 38, XV 36ff, 6049 115; Waetzoldt 1992,133.
4 Fish 1958,90 BM 105417:3 90 m; Myhrman 1910 Nos. 49,50,52,53,63,65 30 and 33 m; de Genouillac
1912, 6414:13 2.4 kg; Nikolsky 1915, 506:1-2 7.83 kg; Waetzoldt 1972 No. 50 4.4 kg; Van de Mieroop
1987, 36: 24 m long with a weight of 15 kg.
5 SeeFig. 18.24, Nos. 1-2.
6 Dogleashes: Alster 1997, 129; Koslova 2000, No. 41 r. III 5, 269 r. I 22, 288 r. I 8,17; reins: Koslova
2000, No. 25:1 252 g; de Genouillac 1912, 6414:6f. 328 g.
7 Threads for waterskins: Crawford 1954,327:11£, 395:39£, 415:16£, 424:1 Of., 425:14£, 435:8£; throne
of the goddess: 378:4-6 and bed of a god: 254:1-4 + 255:1-6 + 303:1-11.
8 Edzard 1968, No. 64:1 'Kissen'; Van de Mieroop 1987, 151 'mattress'; Sallaberger 1999, 246
'seilgefíochtene Bettmatratzen'; Steinkeller 1980, 80.
9 Steinkeller 1980, 81£ a-f, m (weight only 1.6 kg); Yildiz & Gomi 1993, 2214; Sigrist 2000, 177. The
wool which was plucked from sheep with good wool, for example the fat-tailed sheep, was classified
into five qualities.
10 Crawford 1954, 348:4-8, 351:1-6,417:4-5; Foster & Van de Mieroop 1983, 57, 8:4-6; Grégoire 1996,
1932-274:6-16.
11 See below, with note 28.
12 Grégoire 1996, 1932—274:6+10 and an unpublished text. In Egypt there are beds where the webbing
and the frame are painted white (Baker 1966,105£, Fig. 139 = Kfflen 1980, 32 and Pl. 39).
13 Jursa 2003, 233£
14 It is uncertain whether this reading of the cuneiform signs in this text is correct, since the signs GA.DU3
sometimes do not look so much different at times from the sign TAG = tukus.
15 However, in Syria, Palestine and Egypt today, beds have such measurements, some even smaller. See
Fig. 18.24, Nos. 3a-7a.
16 Alster 1997 SP 17 sec. B2.
17 Parr 1996, 43-47; Kfflen 1980, 24-33, Nos. 1-4, 6, 7,10-14.
18 See Fig. 18.24, Nos. 3b-7b.
19 ChoHdis 1992, Tf. 23-34, Nos. 52, 91, 93, 118,121,122; Wrede 2003, Abb. 107a.
20 In many texts these sa3-tukus's are produced or registered separately from bedframes: Sigrist 2000,
1582:1-2, 2156:7-9 (four of the sa3-tuku/s are called 'oíd5); Steinkeller 1980, 81 £ a-d, e (two oíd
bedframes), f, m. In other cases itis indicated that a certain bedframe was equipped with a sa3~tuku5 see
Steinkeller 1980, 81 g-I, or without it, see Lafont & Yildiz 1989,694 rev. 1 cthe inside (of the bedframe)
is empty'. The sa -tuku could be repaired, see Nikolsky 1915, 389 rev. 3: 168.3 g of wool sa3-tuku
kal-ge-de3 and Owen forthcoming, NES 49-15-021:1£: 100.9 g of wool sa3-tuku5 kal-kala-ge2-de3.
21 ChoHdis 1992, Tf. 23-41. Nos. 36, 43, 45, 47, 50, 90, 106 (stool!?), 129, 145-148, 152-155; Wrede
2003, Abb. 31b.
22 Kfflen 1980, Pls. 24-25, 31, 38; Fig. 13.
23 Cholidis 1992, Tf. 30: 95; cf. Tf. 41:155; Wrede 2003, Abb. 34e; Kfflen 1980, Pl. 24-25.
24 Cholidis 1992,T£ 21-33.
25 Baker 1966, Figs. 1-4, 9, 18-20; Killen 1980,^ Figs. 5, 6, 10, 12, 14, 19, 27, 28; pl. 26, 30, 34, 35, 37;
Mesopotamia: Baker 1966, Fig. 256 (Early Dfnastic III), Fig. 271 (Urnammu); Steinkeller 1980, 81 g,
i. ,
26 Kfflen 1980, Fig. 6 and compare Fig. 1,4£; pl. 27-31, 33-35; stools and chairs: Pl. 47, 50.
27 Cholidis 1992, Tf. 23-37, Nos. 28, 38, 51, 60,115,118-121,136; Wrede 2003, Abb. 107b, c.
28 Bed models: Cholidis 1992, Tf. 30-41, Nos. 94,112,124-126,152,154,155. Perhags this crossbeam is
called GrSZA.AN.KAin the texts: Grégoire 1996,1932-274:6-10 (bed for a priestesl); Crawford 1954,
348:1+7, 351:1-4, 417:4-6; Foster & van de Mieroop 1983, 57, 8:4-6.
 The Use of Woolfor the Production of Stiings, Ropes, Braided Mats, and Similar Fabrics 121

29 Cholidis 1992, Tf. 13:27, Tf. 20:57, Tf. 30:106 (stool, not a bed). For stools, see Wrede 2003, 71 ff.
Compare the square stool \vith plaited seat from Kissonerga-Mosphilia, Cyprus (Theodossiadou 1996,
73f. + Fig. la).
30 Reiner 1992,267 se'iiub.
31 Baker 1966, Figs. 175,176,182,184,187-189,194,201,203,214-216; Kfflen 1980, Pk 50, 54, 65-67,
72, 76, 86, 88.
32 SteinkeUer 1980, 87 b; Owen forthcoming NES 48-06-003:1-4.
33 SteinkeUer 1980, 88£ e; Owen forthcoming NES 48-04-003:1, NES 49-15-007:4, NES 49-15-015:1,
NES 49-15-349:2 made out of white or multbcolored ^i>ol.
34 Oppenliekn 1971, p. 408 kmta C; von Soden 1965, S. 484 'ein Seil?,
35 See note iii in Fig. 18.24.
36 Egypt: Landstrom 1970, Figs. 97-99,104,108-110,117,120,122-123,129,131-133,138,143,146,
165, 182, 201 and see the discussion on pp. 36, 42£, 46, 49. Mediterranean (Large sailing vessels): de
Graeve 1981, pp. 180-184 and Figs. 82, 83, 87,106,107. Mesopotamia (clay models of small sailing
boats): de Graeve, pp. 176-180 and Figs. 17, 103, 104, c£ Figs. 20-21;tibuteeNeo-babylonian boat
models from Uruk show a hole for a mast, see Wrede 2003, 78f. Abb. 39 a—c and her reconstruction
on p. 80 Abb. 40 (see here Fig. 18.23).
37 See Fig. 18.24, Nos. 8-9,11-12 last column.
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