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The START framework can improve instruction, researchers have found that there is
still very little comprehension instruction occurring
students’ reading-comprehension
in the classroom on a daily basis (Pressley, 2006;
achievement and instruction through Pressley, Wharton-McDonald, Mistretta-Hampston, &
the modeling and scaffolding Echevarria, 1998).
of eight comprehension strategies Teachers often struggle with teaching reading
comprehension strategies due to the complexity of
during teacher read-aloud. designing purposeful comprehension strategy in-
struction, and many reading comprehension pro-
T
grams are overwhelming in terms of time to learn and
eachers often lament that their students can
requirements for implementation (Hilden & Pressley,
read but they do not understand. The most
2007). For the past 20 years researchers have re-
important thing about reading is comprehen-
ported that comprehension strategies instruction is
sion. It is the reason that we read. However, many
so challenging for teachers that they are not able to
teachers express concern about their ability to effec-
learn how to teach the strategies effectively and that
tively teach all of their students to become strategic
models of comprehension strategy instruction need
metacognitive readers. Schools today are spending
to be made more understandable for teachers to
enormous amounts of time and money preparing
students for high-stakes tests even though such a nar- implement them effectively (Almasi, 2003; Hilden &
row focus on test preparation does not translate into Pressley, 2007; Klingner, Vaughn, & Schumm, 1998;
real learning (Klein, Hamilton, McCaffrey, & Stecher, Pressley & El-Dinary, 1997). Researchers have named
2000; Linn, 2000). According to Guthrie (2002), one the improvement of comprehension instruction an
of the most well-established findings in reading re- “urgent priority” (Gambrell, Block, & Pressley, 2002).
search is that comprehension develops through a va- To address this urgent need, I designed a new,
riety of purposeful, motivated reading activities. By inclusive framework, START (Students and Teachers
fostering students to become active, engaged read- Actively Reading Text) to improve classroom reading
ers, teachers enable them to gain competence and a instruction. This innovative instructional framework
sense of self-efficacy (Guthrie, 2002). improves comprehension through modeling and
Although comprehension improves through ex- scaffolding of eight crucial comprehension strategies
tensive reading, researchers have concluded that during teacher read-aloud and by actively engaging
comprehension could improve more if all readers students in strategic reading during independent
were taught to use the comprehension strategies reading. It was also designed to be easily implement-
that good readers use (Block, Gambrell, & Pressley, ed so that teachers can teach comprehension strate-
2002). Nearly 30 years ago, Durkin (1978/1979) re- gies with a gradual release of responsibility so that
ported that students received very little instruction students will be able to use the strategies in a self-
in comprehension. All these years later, despite regulated fashion (as described by Hilden & Pressley,
all that we have learned about comprehension 2007).
The Reading Teacher, 62(1), pp. 20–31 © 2008 International Reading Association
20 DOI:10.1598/RT.62.1.3 ISSN: 0034-0561 print / 1936-2714 online
Pressley highlighted that since the 1970s (Pressley, Pressley (2006) concluded that effective com-
2002c), researchers have often neglected the aver- prehension instruction includes teaching a small
age and advanced readers by focusing on how to repertoire of strategies, modeling and explaining,
improve the reading achievement of struggling read- and facilitating scaffolded practice. These compre-
ers. Certainly, everyone would agree that improving hension strategies include making predictions and
reading achievement for struggling readers is of the connections to ideas in text based on prior knowl-
utmost importance. However, we must remember edge, constructing mental images that represent
that we are responsible for improving the reading ideas in text, asking questions and seeking answers,
achievement of all of our students. It is an incredible and constructing summaries of what has been read
challenge for teachers to attempt to meet the needs (Pressley & Afflerbach, 1995). Recently, researchers
have emphasized that educators must develop a mo-
of all the students in a classroom. START focuses on
tivational context for reading, provide interesting and
improving the reading comprehension and metacog-
appropriate text, and teach research-based reading
nition of all students in the classroom including aver-
comprehension strategies to increase comprehen-
age, advanced, and struggling readers.
sion (Gambrell et al., 2002).
In the current study, I attempted to narrow the gap
between research and practice in the field of reading
comprehension instruction in a manner that is acces- Metacognition
sible to all teachers. My aim in this intervention study Kuhn and Dean (2004) defined metacognition as
was to design, implement, and evaluate an innovative “awareness and management of one’s own thought,
instructional framework to enhance reading compre- or ‘thinking about thinking’” (p. 270). This awareness
hension instruction, achievement, and self-regulated is developmental and takes the form of a continuum.
use of strategies. According to Kuhn and Dean, metacognitive skills
do not typically develop to the level that we would
prefer. We can teach a student to perform a particu-
Reading Comprehension lar strategy in a particular context. However, we must
strive to move the student to the metacognitive level
Strategies of operations so that he or she is able transfer this
Researchers have concluded that comprehension strategy to other settings once we are no longer pro-
strategies should be taught to students as they are viding support. As students practice reading compre-
immersed in reading rather than separate from hension strategies through active, strategic reading,
reading (Block et al., 2002; Keene & Zimmermann, the use of the strategies will gradually become self-
1997; Pearson, Roehler, Dole, & Duffy, 1992; Pressley, regulated and students will reach a level of meta-
2002a). Good readers are active and use a variety cognition where they will not only be able to use the
of strategies as they read (Keene & Zimmermann, strategies but will also know when and where to ap-
1997). Direct instruction in comprehension strategies ply them (Hilden & Pressley, 2007).
includes teacher modeling and explaining when and
how to use the strategies, repeated opportunities for
Scaffolding
guided practice, and extended independent reading
The idea of scaffolding instruction as a teaching
(Guthrie, 2002).
strategy originates from Vygotsky’s (1978) sociocul-
Comprehension strategy instruction has been tural theory and his concept of the zone of proximal
identified as effective at increasing children’s com- development (ZPD). The ZPD refers to the range be-
prehension (National Institute of Child Health and tween what a child is able to do independently and
Human Development, 2000), although most of the what the child is able to do with the assistance of
evidence relies on research conducted on only a sin- a more knowledgeable other. In scaffolding instruc-
gle comprehension strategy in each study (Guthrie tion, a teacher provides scaffolds or supports to fa-
et al., 2004). The RAND Reading Study Group (2002) cilitate students’ ability to build on prior knowledge
concluded that very little research has been conduct- and internalize new information. An important as-
ed on the use of multiple strategy instruction in the pect of scaffolding instruction is that the scaffolds
classroom and called for more studies of this nature. are temporary. As the learner’s abilities increase,
Before
Predicting/Inferring In this chapter I think...
reading
During
Making connections This reminds me of...
reading
Questioning I wonder...
ART of Comprehension recording sheet is available Beginning with the 10th independent reading ses-
on the Association’s website at www.reading.org. sion, after each of the eight comprehension strategies
Teachers in the START classrooms modeled had been modeled, students in the START classrooms
the use of the ART recording sheets. During the completed their own ART of Comprehension self-
read-aloud, teachers used sticky notes to jot down monitoring recording sheets during independent
each prediction, visualization, connection, ques- reading. The purpose of these recording sheets is for
tion, main idea, summary, prediction check, and students to stop and note the use of each metacognitive
judgment and placed the sticky note in the book comprehension strategy while reading. This ensures
as they were reading. Before the next read-aloud that students are actively engaged with the text and
session, the teacher modeled removing the sticky increasing their metacognitive use of comprehension
notes from the previous reading and placing them strategies. The ultimate goal is for students to increase
into the appropriate boxes on the recording sheets. their independent metacognitive strategy use so that
The process would be repeated with each new the recording sheets become unnecessary. Figure 3 is
reading. an example of a completed student recording sheet.
Table 2
Mean Gates–MacGinitie Reading Test Percentile Ranks and Grade-Level Equivalent Scores
Table 4
Mean Gates–MacGinitie Reading Test Percentile Rank and Grade-Level Equivalent Scores
for On-Level Students
Table 4 shows students who were on grade level Some of the most significant findings from the
at the pretest administration. Students were defined study were the results from the students who were
as on grade level if they scored between a 3.0 and above grade level after the administration of the
3.9 on the pretest in December. Students on grade pretest. Those students who scored above 4.0 in
level in the START classrooms gained an average of December were defined as above grade level. As
nine months in reading comprehension compared shown in Table 5, the above-grade-level students in
with seven months in the ST classrooms and three the START classrooms made an average gain of one
months in the control classroom. In percentile ranks, year and four months in reading comprehension
this represents an average 6 percentile rank gain in compared with no gain in the ST classroom and a
the START classrooms compared with a loss of 1 loss of one year in the control classroom. In percen-
percentile rank in the ST classroom and a loss of 6 tile ranks, this represents an average 2 percentile
percentile ranks in the control classroom. Thus, the rank gain in the START classrooms compared with a
analysis of the data indicated that students who par- loss of 8 percentile ranks in the ST classroom and a
ticipated in the START classrooms were significantly loss of 23 percentile ranks in the control classroom.
more likely to have higher reading comprehension A number of students in the control classroom
gains than students not participating in the entire performed much worse on the posttest than the pre-
intervention. test. It is unclear why this happened. However, the
researcher and the teachers were especially excited These patterns of response suggest that students had
about the gains in the above-level students in the more positive feelings about reading and viewed
START classrooms. This reinforces previous claims themselves as better readers after participating in the
that above-level students are often overlooked in the START innovation.
classroom and with the right kind of instruction they Students were also asked on the questionnaire
are capable of making large gains in reading compre- what they do while they are reading. The most com-
hension achievement. mon response to this question before the implementa-
This pattern of findings led to the conclusion that tion of START was “nothing.” Other typical responses
students who participated in the START framework to this question prior to the implementation of START
of instruction and independent reading with the ART included “I read,” “Sit in a chair,” or “Look at the
of Comprehension recording sheets were significant- page.” After participating in the START innovation,
ly more likely to have higher reading comprehension student responses were longer and more specific.
gains than students in the strategies only group or stu- Typical responses to the question of what students
dents in the control group. Students who participated do while they are reading after the implementation of
in the START instructional framework, including av- the START framework included “Think about what’s
erage, advanced, and struggling readers, all made going on,” “What I do is imagine the details they tell
significantly higher reading achievement gains than you and picture it in your head,” “I visualize the story
students in other classrooms. in my head and think of what else could happen,”
On the student questionnaire (Figure 1), students and “Question why they did that.”
rated their feelings about reading on a scale of 5 to These patterns of response suggest that students
1 with 5 representing a love of reading and 1 repre- in the START classrooms developed a more strategic,
senting dislike of the activity. Students in the START metacognitive awareness of strategies to use while
classrooms rated their feelings about reading an av- reading. Rather than simply “sitting” and “looking at
erage 3.42 prior to the implementation of the START the page,” students were visualizing, predicting, and
instructional framework. After the implementation of questioning while reading. Rather than simply read-
the START framework, students in the START class- ing the words on the page, students were actively en-
rooms rated their feelings about reading an average gaged with the text.
4.52. Students were also asked to rate themselves In addition to the data, teachers reported anec-
as a reader using a similar scale, with 5 represent- dotal evidence about the success of the program.
ing an excellent reader and 1 representing a not Teachers in the ST and START groups reported that
very good reader. Students in the START classrooms students were more engaged during teacher read-
rated themselves an average 3.79 prior to the inter- aloud. Teachers in the START group reported that
vention and 4.2 after the implementation of START. students were more excited about and more engaged
Discussion
It is a great challenge to meet the wide range of needs References
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