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Chapter 2
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES

This chapter presents the related literature and studies after the thorough and in-

depth search done by the researchers. This will also present the synthesis of the art,

theoretical and conceptual framework to fully understand the research to be done and

lastly the definition of terms for better comprehension of the study.

Review of Related Literature

Conceptual Reading

Nowadays, the students is not that good when it comes on the reading comprehension

or specifically on reading. This study focuses on the effectiveness of reading program

under the group of grade 10 at Dacanlao Gregorio Agoncillo National High School. There

were also studies conducted that were related to this topic. We as researchers choose

this topic to be the major concern of our study because our purpose is to identify if the

reading program really improves the reading comprehension of the mentioned students

in Dacanlao Gregorio Agoncillo National High School.

Related Studies
 This research paper reported the results from research conducted regarding
technologically-based reading comprehension programs for students who have
intellectual disabilities. It provided evidence-based research and theoretical bases for
learning (i.e. Zone of Generatively, Constructivism, Self-Efficacy) on the issue of these
students not being adequately prepared to academically compete with their non-disabled
peers in the classroom in a technologically-based world which requires proficient reading
skills. This paper addressed low reading comprehension skills development at the
foundational elementary level for basic reading comprehension skills. This paper
examined the students’ academic performance and integrated commentary from
educational leaders and other stakeholders. Data were collected via surveys from
stakeholders to inform the work of education focus groups, curriculum developers and
technologically-based reading comprehension program designers. It offered a design for
action using an Improvement Science Model to address the issue which will culminate in

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a discussion for a student-centred technologically-based reading comprehension

curriculum that integrates reading comprehension skills development and technological
skills. The investigation concluded with recommendations for implementing the plan to
improve reading comprehension instruction for students with intellectual disabilities
through improvement inquiry in the field of Educational Leadership. Regarding instruction
for students with intellectual disabilities, technologically-based reading programs need
many improvements. Educators reported that they are not allowed to put students on
reading levels that are grade level appropriate to motivate older elementary school
readers. As time permits, this study will become the basis for an expansive future study
to ascertain data beyond the current limitations.
 The implications are that students with intellectual disabilities are bored with
reading material that may be deemed as immature in nature. Researchers IstenicStarcic,
(2010); and IstenicStarcic, Cotic and Zajc (2013) promoted the use of computer-based
instruction as a great means of providing differentiated instruction for learners with
intellectual disabilities and simultaneously establishing a more creative learning
environment to support teachers in inclusive classrooms. Yet, differentiated instruction is
not occurring in all-inclusive classrooms for students with intellectual disabilities to receive
differentiated instruction that takes into consideration their need to have appropriate
motivating reading instructional technologically-based programs. Teachers described
how technologically- based reading programs do not validly assess reading
comprehension skills. The implications are that the reading comprehension skills of
students with intellectual disabilities are not being accurately measured because the test
scores do not truly reflect their current reading comprehension skills levels. This research
paper reported the results from research conducted regarding technologically-based

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Reading comprehension programs for students who have intellectual disabilities. It

provided evidence-based research and theoretical bases for learning (i.e. Zone of
Generativity, Constructivism, and Self-Efficacy) on the issue of these students not being
adequately prepared to academically compete with their non-disabled peers in the
classroom in a technologically-based world which requires proficient reading skills. This
paper addressed low reading comprehension skills development at the foundational
elementary level for basic reading comprehension skills. This paper examined the
students’ academic performance and integrated commentary from educational leaders
and other stakeholders. Data were collected via surveys from stakeholders to inform the
work of education focus groups, curriculum developers and technologically-based
reading comprehension program designers. It offered a design for action using an
Improvement Science Model to address the issue which will culminate in a discussion for
a student-centered technologically-based reading comprehension curriculum that
integrates reading comprehension skills development and technological skills.

The investigation concluded with recommendations for implementing the plan to

improve reading comprehension instruction for students with intellectual disabilities
through improvement inquiry in the field of Educational Leadership. Regarding instruction
for students with intellectual disabilities, technologically-based reading programs need
many improvements. Educators reported that they are not allowed to put students on
reading levels that are grade level appropriate to motivate older elementary school
readers. The implications are that students with intellectual disabilities are bored with
reading material that may be deemed as immature in nature. Researchers IstenicStarcic,
(2010); and IstenicStarcic, Cotic and Zajc (2013) promoted the use of computer-based
instruction as a great means of providing differentiated instruction for learners with

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Intellectual disabilities and simultaneously establishing a more creative learning

environment to support teachers in inclusive classrooms. Yet, differentiated instruction is
not occurring in all-inclusive classrooms for students with intellectual disabilities to receive
differentiated instruction that takes into consideration their need to have appropriate
motivating reading instructional technologically-based programs. Teachers described
how technologically- based reading programs do not validly assess reading
comprehension skills. The implications are that the reading comprehension skills of
students with intellectual disabilities are not being accurately measured because the test
scores do not truly reflect their current reading comprehension skills levels.
 The development of adequate reading skills at an early age can have an enormous
influence on the academic achievement of students throughout the course of their
educational careers (National Reading Panel, 2000; Slavin, Lake, Chambers, Cheung,
&Davis, 2009). Students may fall behind in school and encounter poor employment and
social outcomes later in life if they are unable to develop their reading skills early in their
years of schooling (Good, Simmons, & Kame'enui, 2001; Slavin et al., 2009; Whitehurst
& Lonigan, 2001). For this reason, it is commonly believed that reading challenges should
be addressed early to decrease the likelihood that developmental delays will impact
students over the long-term. Previous research has found that reading skill development
is related to both the quantity of reading (volume of books) and the quality of reading
instruction provided to students (Cunningham & Stanovich, 2001; Kassow, 2006; Topping
& Sanders, 2000). Elley (1996) also found that providing reading instruction and access
to more books can improve student reading skills in developing countries. Without an
adequate focus on improving the ability of students to read with higher levels of

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Comprehension, increased time reading may only be able to moderately improve the
reading skills of students.

They carefully set-up sample selection protocol ensured that the treatment group
and control group were comparable. The sampling protocol consisted of two steps. To
choose sample schools, they visited first the county where the reading program
treatments were implemented. From the county education bureau, we obtained a list of
schools that had at least one of the reading programs that they were evaluating. In total,
there were 73 schools in 15 townships in their treatment school sampling frame. Next,
assuming neighboring counties have similar economic, cultural, and geographical
characteristics, they obtained lists of schools from two neighboring counties where no
school had implemented any reading program treatments. The list of the schools in these
two counties became the sampling frame for the control schools in our study.

The third and final block of the survey collected information on the characteristics of
teachers and schools in their sample. In this part of the survey, we asked Chinese
teachers about their attitudes toward reading (whether Chinese teachers believe that
reading has a positive effect on the math performance of students, whether Chinese
teachers believe that reading has a negative effect on the math performance of students).
In addition, the survey also collected information on teacher and school characteristics
that are included as control variables in our analysis. They asked Chinese teachers about
their gender and education (specifically, whether they graduated from college). We also
gathered data on the size of their school from the school principal (specifically, area in
square meters).

An effective reading program develops reading competence in all students and is

based on proven practices. Three components are critical to the design, implementation,

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And sustainability of powerful reading instruction: professional development that equips

educators with a solid knowledge base; effective instructional tools that are aligned to the
knowledge base; and school systems that support and nurture implementation.

Presentation of Theory—Participants do need to learn the theoretical underpinnings of

the teaching approach, which is the traditional workshop and consists of readings, lecture,
discussion, and interaction. Because reading instruction is complex and because
research-based reading practices have not been the norm in many schools, 20–30 hours
may be required to provide teachers and school leaders with the necessary knowledge
(Joyce and Showers 1982, 1995). A recent study investigated the impact of various
approaches to beginning reading on Title 1 student achievement.

This study concluded that programs utilizing an explicit phonics approach result in
higher achievement, especially for students who may be at risk of reading failure
(Foorman, Francis, Fletcher, Schatschneider, and Mehta 1998). Similarly, there is a
strong body of evidence for the use of decodable books in early first grade as children
develop insight into the code of written English. Student achievement information is
crucial. The best assessments will be aligned to the reading program, tracking student
progress, and monitoring teacher pacing and program use. In an effective reading
program, assessment is used to inform instruction for both large groups and individuals.

Assessment information will provide the evidence not only the students are learning,
but also that teachers are teaching skillfully. Assessment information should provide the
guidance necessary for grouping students for special intervention and added support.
The leadership can use four levels of students to provide organized instructional
intervention and focused support.

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One of the most important problems in education of the students in America’s

middle and high school was the reading performance. Secondary reading is very slow
despite a substantial focus on reading at all levels in a massive federal, state, and local
investments. According to the OECD Program for International Student Assessment
(PISA), 15 years old American mean of performance did not change between year 20y00
from year 2009, and the proportion of struggling readers did not change also (OECD,
2010). According to the survey of adult competencies that was conducted by OECD
(2013), the American young adult (16-24-year old) average reading level is below the
international average for developed countries.
 The high school students who cannot read well are likely to drop out or to graduate
without the skills to obtain anything more than menial work (Joftus & Maddox-Dolan,
2013). Students who graduated with poor reading skills are likely to experience serious
difficulties in entering college. For all elementary school, reading success would be
assured. Yet even if improved practices in elementary schools could reduce the numbers
of below-level secondary readers, the number are so large that it would be a very long, if
ever, before improved reading programs in elementary schools would entirely solve the
secondary reading problems.

The strategies to continue to build the reading skills of their students will always
be needed in secondary schools. The more successful programs tended to place a strong
emphasis on relationships, not just teaching strategies. The relationships were
particularly between the teachers and the students. The student-student relationships
were emphasized in cooperative learning. In addition to relationships, these approaches
give students opportunities to be active and social and combine learning with fun.

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This may be particularly important for adolescents who have not been very successful
in school. They generally allowed for personalization is another common feature across
the more successful programs. This is most obvious in the tutoring programs, which can
substantially personalize teaching to meet students’ learning, motivational, and social
needs. Personalization is also facilitated by cooperative learning, where students can
adapt tasks to explain and concepts to each other. Technology-assisted instruction,
where the teachers, students, and computers, can readily determine what individual
students need and facilities personalization.
 The purpose of the article was to identify the frequency of reading comprehension
instruction in middle and high school. An additional purpose of the study was to explore teachers’
perceptions and beliefs about the need for reading comprehension of the students. The findings
of this study reveal that teachers did not feel qualified or responsible of providing instruction on
reading comprehension.

There is clear evidence that reading comprehension highly beneficial for students of all
levels. The reading levels of middle and high school students improve when teachers explain and
uses comprehension strategy or multiple strategies, as well as provide guided and independent
practice with feedback until students begin to use the strategy independently. As a result of such
convincing evidence, perhaps the most widely cited recommendation for improving reading
comprehension.

The primary reason for conducting this study was to determine the frequency of reading
comprehension of the students in middle and secondary content area classrooms and the
perceptions of the teachers in reading comprehension was influenced their decision.

Furthermore, the teachers’ knowledge to teach strategies was narrow. The students learn
how to apply the reading comprehension through different strategies, guided practice, and gradual
release of instructional responsibilities. The teachers in this study provide reading comprehension

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Instruction, they directed the students to use different strategies. It is possible that
the teachers in this study provide explicit instruction to enhance the reading skills and
comprehension of the students’ strategies earlier in the school. It is also possible for the
students to know how to rely on some of these strategies and some students were already
using these strategies.

In the study, they say that they cannot overlook the possibilities that the secondary
teachers will come to the field because of their love for a particular domain of knowledge.
The teachers’ training programs would be wise to encourage future teachers to see the
possibility content area and schools of education.

This study review the value of cost-effectiveness analysis for evaluation and
making with respect to educational programs and discuss its application to early reading
interventions. They describe the conditions for the cost-effectiveness analysis and they
illustrate the challenges of applying the method, providing examples of program that they
estimated cost, but find the effectiveness of data lacking in comparability they provide a
demonstration of how cost-effectiveness analysis can be applied to early reading
programs: the Wilson Reading System and Corrective Reading. They combined those
data with cost data and they collect it by using the ingredients method to calculate the
cost-effectiveness ratios for the alphabetic domain. They use existing effectiveness data
from an experimental evaluation in which the programs were implemented under the
simi8lar conditions for both programs yielded data that are being comparable.

In the last thirty years, reading researchers have made considerable progress in
identifying the elements of effective early reading instructions. The National Reading
Panel report is synthesizing evidence from a large body of research. This research based

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Practices have informed the development of early reading program and includes
curricular for class wide instruction as well as intervention for struggling readers. This
research focus primarily on the alphabetic domain, it is necessary for proficient

Reading and in part because it is the only domain for which comparable data were
available from WWC for multiple programs. It acknowledge that success in the alphabetic
domain is far from sufficient for proficient reading and comprehension outcomes, if the
effectiveness data were available it would be more valuable to the decision makers.

Based on the details that they obtained regarding the Torgesen et al.
implementation, they estimated the cost per students for the Wilson Reading System and
for corrective Reading. As expected for the educational programs, the largest percentage
of cost attributable to personnel it is over 9% to each program. Specific ingredients data
are the further details for program implementation.

The poor quality of public schools in developing countries is a major factor.

However, they limited the understanding of the education production function hinders
attempts to ameliorate their conditions. They know that providing resources without other
inputs rarely improves student performance. They also know that resources can affect
improvements when paired with a larger array of inputs (Glewwe and Kremer, 2006).
They do not know which inputs are necessary. For reading in particular, studies have
demonstrated the effectiveness of large comprehensive changes. Banerjee et al. (2007),
which studies an Indian remedial education program, is a good example. The intervention
causes students’ reading skills to improve, but because the intervention changes the
educational environment along multiple dimensions—additional teachers, new
pedagogical methods, new curriculum, changes to organization of the classroom, and
additional resources—they can't identify which components cause the improvements.
Using a randomized controlled trial set in Tarlac province of the Philippines, they
analyse the causal impact of the Sa Aklat Sisikat (SAS) reading program for fourth
graders. The program provides age-appropriate reading material, trains teachers to
incorporate reading into their curriculum, and supports these changes through a 31-day
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Reading marathon, during which SAS supports teachers as they encourage

students to read.
Because most public schools lack age-appropriate reading material. The books
are selected for literary value as well as student appeal. They also include in both of the
country’s official languages, English and Filipino, so that teachers can match the
language of instruction.6 Prior to receiving the materials, teachers from each school
attend a two-day training session in which they learn to implement the read-a-thon and
receive ideas for reading lessons that incorporate reading in an engaging way. For 31
days after the training, they implement the read-a-thon. During this period, the students
and
Teachers’ use the donated storybooks in hour extended daily reading sessions
that include activities such as dramatic storytelling, literary games, and individual silent
reading. Students are encouraged to read as many of the 60 storybooks as possible,
and each keeps track of the number of books read using an SAS supplied wall chart.

Finally, researchers often prioritized reading, hoping that better reading skills will
equip children to learn other subjects and encourage them to read outside of school.
They assess that the first hypothesis by testing children in math and social studies, but
they find no effect for either subject. However, the researcher do find that in-school
reading encourages children to read outside of school. For example, treatment children
read 1.24 and 0.89 more books in the last month at the first and second follow-up
surveys. The remainder of the paper is organized as follows.

The purpose of this mixed methodology study was to identify the frequency of reading
comprehension instruction in middle and high school social studies and science
classrooms. And additional purpose was to explore teachers’ perceptions of and beliefs
about the need for reading comprehension instruction. In 2,400 minutes of direct
classroom observation, a total of 82 minutes (3%) of reading comprehension instruction
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Was observed. The qualitative findings reveal that teachers did not feel qualified
or responsible for providing explicit instruction on reading comprehension. Teachers
pointed to the pressure to cover content in preparation for state standardized tests as
barriers to providing reading instruction.
 There is clear evidence that reading comprehension instruction is highly
beneficial for students of all levels. The teachers explain and model a single
comprehension strategy or multiple strategies, as well as provide guided and
independent practice with feedback until students begin to use the strategy
independently, the reading levels of middle and high school students improve (e.g.
Biancarosa & Snow, 2006; Collins, 199l; Deshler, Ellis, & Lenz, 1996; National Reading
Panel, 2000; Rosenshine & Meister, 1996; Schorzman & Cheek, 2004; Stevens, 2003;
Wood, Winne, & Carney, 1995). As a result of such convincing evidence, perhaps the
most widely cited recommendation for improving reading comprehension is increasing
specific instruction in comprehension strategies (National Reading Panel, 2000).

The purpose of this study was to examine the extent to which secondary
teachers included explicit comprehension strategies in routine classroom instruction.
Additionally, in collecting qualitative data, the researcher hoped to give voice to
teachers’ attitudes, perceptions, and beliefs about reading comprehension instruction in
content area classrooms. In examining the instructional practices of four middle school
content area teachers and four high school content area teachers, the following
questions were addressed.

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600 total minutes observed in high school social studies classrooms, no explicit
instruction on reading comprehension strategies occurred. In that same time, reading
comprehension instruction accounted for only three minutes (0%) of instruction. Similar
to the middle school science classrooms, high school science teachers relied only upon
teaching Text Structure and Question Answering. During instruction on climate zones,
high school science students worked in small groups to research the temperature,
climate controls, latitude and longitude, and average precipitation of a predetermined
city.

Furthermore, teachers’ knowledge of how to teach such strategies was equally

narrow. Students learn how to apply reading comprehension strategies through explicit
descriptions of strategies, teacher explanation of how, when, and why to apply particular
strategies, teacher modeling, guided practice, and gradual release of instructional
responsibility until independent use of the strategy is established (Dole, 2000).

This article systematically reviews research on the achievement outcomes of four

types of approaches to improving the reading of middle and high school students: (1)
reading curricula, (2) mixed-method models (methods that combine large and small-
group instruction with computer activities), (3) computer-assisted instruction, and (4)
instructional-process programs (methods that focus on providing teachers with
extensive professional development to implement specific instructional methods).
Criteria for inclusion in the study were use of randomized or matched control groups, a
study duration of at least 12 weeks, and valid achievement measures that were
independent of the experimental treatments. The review concludes that programs
designed to change daily teaching practices have substantially greater research support
than those focused on curriculum or technology alone. Positive achievement effects

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Were found for instructional-process programs, especially for those involving

cooperative learning, and for mixed-method programs. The effective approaches
provided extensive professional development and significantly affected teaching
practices. In contrast, no studies of reading curricula met the inclusion criteria, and the
effects of supplementary.

Students who enter high school with poor literacy skills face long odds against
graduating and going on to postsecondary education or satisfying careers. Joftus and
Maddox-Dolan (2003) reported that in the United States, roughly 6 million secondary
students read far below grade level and that approximately 3,000 students drop out of
U.S. high schools every day. The secondary years provide a last chance for many
students to build sufficient reading skills to succeed in their demanding courses
(Biancarosa & Snow, 2006; Joftus, 2002). Even among students who do graduate from
high school, inadequate reading skills are a key impediment to success in
postsecondary education. Students who struggle with reading of ten lack the
prerequisites to take academically challenging coursework that could lead to more wide
reading and thus exposure to advanced vocabulary and content ideas (Au, 2000). The
2006 report by ACT, Inc., Reading between the Lines: What the ACT Reveals about
College Readiness in Reading, describes even more troubling.

It is important to several limitations of the current review. First, the review

focuses on quantitative measures of reading. There is much to be learned from
qualitative and correlational research, which can provide new insights about and

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Deepen our understanding of the effects of secondary reading programs.

Second, the review focuses on replicable programs used in school settings over periods
of at least 12 weeks. This emphasis is consistent with the review's purpose in providing
educators
 With useful information about the strength of evidence supporting various
practical programs; however, the review does not attend to shorter, more theoretically
driven studies that may also provide useful information, especially to researchers. And
last, the review focuses on traditional measures of reading performance, primarily
standardized tests.

Success in beginning reading is key prerequisite for success in reading in the late
years. Longitudinal studies (e.g., Joel, 1988) have shown that children with poor reading
skills at the end of first grade are unlikely to catch up later on, and are likely to have
difficulties in reading throughout their schooling. It is in the early elementary grades where
the gap in performance between children of different races first appears. On the fourth
grade National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP, 2007), 43% of White
children achieved at the “proficient” level on the National Assessment of Educational
Progress, but only 14% of African American, 17% of Hispanic, and 8% of American Indian
children scored at this level. Effective beginning reading programs are important for
children of all backgrounds, but for disadvantaged and minority children and for children
with learning disabilities, who are particularly depend on school to achieve success,
effective beginning reading programs are especially important.

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In recent years, there has been a shift in policy and practice toward more of a focus
on phonics and phonemic awareness in beginning reading instruction. Based in large part
on the findings of the National Reading Panel (2000) and earlier research syntheses, the
Bush Administration’s Reading First program strongly favoured phonics and phonemic
awareness, and a national study of Reading First by Gamse et al. (2008) and Moss et al.
(2008) found that teachers in Reading First schools were in fact doing more phonics
teaching than were those in similar non-Reading First schools. Yet outcomes were
disappointing, with small effects seen on first grade decoding measures and no impact
on comprehension measures in grades 1-3.

While a review of research on beginning reading programs shares methodological

issues common to all systematic reviews, there are also some key issues unique to this
subject and grade level. In the early stages of reading, researchers often use measures
such as phonemic awareness that are not “reading” in any sense, though they are
precursors. However, measures of reading comprehension and reading vocabulary tend
to have floor effects at the kindergarten and first grade level. The present review included
measures such as letter-word identification and word attack, but did not accept measures
such as auditory phonemic awareness. Measures of oral vocabulary, spelling, and
language arts were excluded at all grade levels.

This review of the experimental research on secondary reading program focuses

on seventy-three studies that use random assignment to evaluate outcomes of 55
programs on the accepted measures of reading. Specific program using small-group
tutoring and using one to one, cooperative learning, and social-emotional approaches
showed positive outcomes, as deed a small number of emphasising technology of
different strategies.

The findings has suggest and benefit more from engaging from additional time
which is the secondary research. The reading program and performance of students in
America’s high school and middle school is one of the most important problems in
education. The lack of progress in twelfth grade in reading was combined with recent
increases in high school from graduation rates.

The review of rigorous research program designed to enhance the reading of

students in the middle and high school found that most studies meeting inclusion criteria
had relatively small effects on the students reading. Another common feature across the
more successful program was that they generally allowed for personalisation.
Personalisation is also facilitated by cooperative learning where teammates can adopt
ask and explain concepts to each other.

A quasi-experimental design investigated the effectiveness of the three reading

intervention types in increasing reading comprehension. Both explicit and implicit, using
a sample of 78 students, approximately 17% of the population of third through fifth grades
at a single-school, rural, K-12, Central Texas school district with an enrolment of
approximately 450.

The results of this study reinforce the need to intervene on an individualized level
of the student, with relevant and meaningful content, and deliverable in a manner befitting
learning style and preference. A framework for effective reading intervention program
types is presented and supported by the results of this study. This study was unique
because it investigated two types of reading comprehension, implicit and explicit,
separately to determine the most statistically significant reading intervention type for
intermediate students, grades third through fifth.

Reading scores for intermediate school students, grades three through five,
demonstrate a 7% growth nationally and in Texas while scores for intermediate school
students are on a decline, decreasing 2% nationally and 3% in Texas, according to the
Nations Report Card (NAEP, 2015). State reading scores show only 45% of all
intermediate school students tested in Texas met postsecondary readiness standard in
reading, only 60% of intermediate school students in Texas met expected annual
progress and only 16% exceeded annual progress expectations (Texas Education
Agency, 2016a). The educational pendulum swings towards good practice and includes
learner-centered instruction (Preus, 2007) but does not include best practice and
motivation for struggling readers beyond third grade (Rice, 2013; Vadasy, Sanders, &
Abbott, 2008).

The target of this study was the population neglected, the struggling readers.
NAEP (2015) reported 36% of 4th and 34% of 8th grade students are proficient readers.
The National Center for Learning Disabilities (NCLD, 2015) reported 1.22 million students
repeated a grade and 76% had not yet been identified with a learning disability.
 The intent of the study was to analyse research-based intervention programs to
discover the most effective reading intervention type for struggling readers in intermediate
school. Improved systematic and targeted intervention, based on the reading needs of
students, creates a personalized learning plan for improvement. Focusing on successful
strategies and the most successful learning environment for each student promotes self-
efficacy for the student, provides best practice support for educators and improves hope
for positive literacy outcomes for the community of stakeholders.