Lickorish Et Al. - 2002 - Arcuate Thrust Systems in Sandbox Experiments A Comparison To The External Arcs of The Western Alps PDF

Lichorish et al.
2002
Arcuate thrust systems in sandbox experiments: a

comparison to the external arcs of the Western Alps
1,2 1,3* 1,4
W.H. Lickorish , M. Ford J. Bürgisser and P. R. Cobbold5
This work was carried out at
1 Geologisches Institut, ETH Zentrum, CH-8092, Zürich, Switzerland

5 Géosciences-Rennes (UMR6118 du CNRS), 35042 Rennes Cedex, France
The first three authors are now at
2 School of Earth Sciences, University of Leeds, Leeds LS29JT, UK

3 Centre de Recherche Petrographique et Géochimique-ENSG, BP40, 54501 Vandoeuvre-lès-
Nancy Cedex, France
4 Dr. Heinrich Jäckli AG, Kronengasse 39, CH-5400 Baden, Switzerland
*communicating author : mford@crpg.cnrs-nancy.fr
This paper is published in the Geological Society of America Bulletin (2002) and
is reproduced here with the permission of the Geological Society of America.
This version of the paper is NOT identical in every detail with that published in
the GSAB (FORD)
ABSTRACT
In the external western Alps two regional structural arcs were generated during Tertiary NW-
directed collision between the Apulian indenter and the European passive margin. These arcs,
distinguished by their geographic position and their age, are examined using a new compilation
of structural data and comparing these to sandbox analog experiments. The principal western
alpine (PWA) arc (late Eocene-early Miocene) comprises two orthogonal, synchronous thrust
systems. Major shortening (105 km) was toward the NW-WNW with minor shortening (11 km)
toward the SW. Shortening in each branch decreased toward the core of the arc. (2) During the
late Miocene and Pliocene the Jura arc accommodated 35 km of NW shortening while 10.5 km
of SW-SSW shortening was accommodated on the Digne thrust system.
Sandbox experiments investigate the role of the motion vector of a rigid rectangular
indenter (orthogonal, diagonal, curved or rotational paths) and the mechanical stratigraphy of
the foreland in the evolution of upper crustal arcuate systems (e.g. presence of a basal easy-slip
(silicone) horizon). Comparison of experimental results with the external alpine arc suggest that
the alpine indenter followed a slightly diagonal path with respect to the European margin from
the Eocene to the early Miocene and curved anticlockwise by 10-15° in the mid-Miocene.
Mechanical stratigraphy experiments support the hypothesis that thick Triassic evaporites
played a primary role in the evolution of the Jura arc. The influence of mechanical stratigraphy
was most prominent during weak deformation at the external boundaries of the Alpine orogen
(Jura fold belt, Digne Thrust).
Keywords: arcuate structures, kinematics, collision, sand analog experiments, western Alps,
mechanical stratigraphy
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Lichorish et al. 2002
Figure 1 - Geological map of the external western Alps and foreland, showing the main
tectonic elements around the arc (for faults, only the traces are shown). Abbreviations are: AR,
Aiguilles Rouges massif; C, Champsaur; Char., Chartreuse; Dév., Dévoluy; EU, Embrunais-
Ubaye Nappes; FPF, Frontal Pennine Fault; H, Helvetic nappes; M, Morcle Nappe; MB, Mont
Blanc Massif; SSC, Southern Subalpine Chains; VB, Valensole Basin. The Northern Subalpine
Chains (NSC) cover the regions of Bornes, Bauges, Chartreuse and Vercors.
INTRODUCTION
Since the time of Argand (1916), the nature and origin of arcuate fold and thrust belts have
been widely debated, nowhere more so than in the western Alps. Authors have proposed
classification schemes of arcuate structural trends based on the processes that formed them
(Carey, 1955; Marshak, 1988; Ferrill and Groshong, 1993; Hindle and Burkhard, 1999;
Macado and Marshak, 1999; Wezel, 1986); yet, as pointed out by Hindle and Burkhard (1999),
few, if any, examples exist where the arc-forming processes are well documented and
understood. The external western Alps (Fig. 1) are probably the best documented arcuate fold
and thrust belt in the world. This primary arc (that is, one that evolved as an arcuate system
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since inception) was formed during collision between the European passive margin and the
Apulian microplate (as part of, or independent of, the African plate). Such arcuate structural
systems present geologists and geophysicists with fundamental kinematic and mechanical
questions. Firstly, what were the primary parameters that controlled the development of the
arcuate structures and, secondly, how did deformational processes and displacement of material
accommodate arc development? In more practical terms, how can we use available data
(structural trend line maps, strain data, paleomagnetic data, balanced cross-sections, kinematic
data) to define the total displacement field and hence understand arc-forming process(es)? In
this paper a new compilation of kinematic and geometric data from around the external Alps is
presented. Material displacement (Means, 1976) and shear sense are derived from linear
kinematic field data. In the Alps, as in other orogens, coherent kinematic data have been used
to deduce relative plate motions (e.g. Shackleton and Ries, 1984; Baird and Dewey, 1986; Platt
et al. 1989a). We present an overview of the diverse models published for the external western
Alps, which vary principally in their plate motion (Truesdell and Toupin, 1960) and the nature
of the indenting plate or blocks. We demonstrate that, the evolution of this structural arc cannot
be constrained solely by the analysis of trend-line maps (Macedo and Marshak, 1999) or from
kinematic data (Platt et al., 1989a). Instead, it is crucial to define not only the direction and
relative timing, but also the amount,of tectonic shortening (material displacement) around an
arc.
In the second part of this paper we describe the results of sandbox experiments
designed to simulate the principal plate motion vectors proposed for the western Alps. In the
last 20 years analog modeling has been widely used to investigate the progressive evolution of
thin-skinned arcuate fold and thrust belts and accretionary prisms (e.g. Davis et al. 1983!;
Tapponier et al., 1982; Malavieille, 1984; Davy and Cobbold, 1988; Marshak, 1988; Marshak
et al., 1992; Lu and Malavieille, 1994; Philippe, 1994; Gutscher et al., 1996; Zweigel, 1998;
Macedo and Marshak, 1999!; Zweigel, 1998). These models can provide insight into the
relationship between relative plate motion, the shape of the indenter and the complex
displacement paths (Means, 1976) of material in the resulting arc. The experiments described in
this paper investigate variations in the translation path (Means, 1976) of a rectangular indenter
and in the mechanical stratigraphy of the foreland. The displacement paths of material points
on the top of the sand are compared directly with the compiled kinematic and geometric data
around the external western alpine arc.
THE PRINCIPAL WESTERN ALPINE ARC

The western Alps were generated during Tertiary collision between the Apulian indenter (also
known as the Adriatic plate, Apulia, or Adria) and the European passive margin above a south-
dipping subduction system (Coward and Dietrich, 1989; Platt et al., 1989a; Schmid and
Kissling 2000). Within the external western Alps, two regional arcuate systems can be
distinguished by their geographic position and their age. The Principal Western Alpine (PWA)
arc is the larger, older (Eo-Miocene) and more internal arc described by the structures of the
Helvetic-Dauphinois zones (Fig. 1). Mio-Holocene structures are more external and include the
distinctive arcuate Jura fold and thrust belt (Jura arc) and the Digne thrust. These structural
systems are summarized below.
Building on the work of Platt et al. (1989a), an updated compilation of kinematic data around
the external western Alps is presented in Figure 2a. Based on their ages, the data are divided
into two groups: late Eocene-early Miocene (Group 1; Fry, 1989b) and late Miocene to
Holocene (Group 2). The first data set describes the PWA arc (Fig. 2a). Arrows represent
material displacement directions derived principally from linear indicators such as stretching
lineations in mylonites, wear grooves and crystal fibres on fault planes (see Table 1 of Platt et
al., 1989a and caption of Figure 2 for data sources). The ages of most data are constrained by
Tertiary stratigraphy and are essentially those of Platt et al. (1989a) with the addition of new
data in SE France (Lawson, 1987; Fry, 1989a and b; Meckel et al., 1996; Bürgisser and Ford,
1998).
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Figure 2. (a) Kinematic data of Eocene to early Miocene age describing the Principal Western
Alpine arc. Arrows represent particle displacement paths derived principally from linear
indicators of relative motion such as stretching lineations in mylonites, wear grooves and
crystal fibres on fault planes. Arrows show sense of shear. The location of data is indicated by
a filled circle. Data are principally taken from Platt et al. (1989a). New data in SE France are
from Fry (1989a, c), Butler (1992a), Meckel et al. (1996), Bürgisser and Ford (1998),
Lickorish and Ford (1998). The Pelvoux-southern Belledonne massifs are shaded grey as they
formed a paleogeographic high. Internally derived exotic flysch nappes were emplaced onto
the foreland. First the Embrunais-Ubaye nappes were emplaced toward the SW (Kerckhove,
1969; Merle and Brun, 1984) and later the Prealps were emplaced toward the NW (Mosar et
al., 1996). Abbreviations are the same as Figure 1. FPF, Frontal Pennine Fault.
(b) Mid- Miocene to Holocene kinematic data. The late Miocene-Pliocene data occur in
the Jura arc (shaded area) and the Vercors and Chartreuse massif . These smoothed and
interpolated strain trajectories are derived principally from fault-slip data and stylolite peaks
(Philippe et al., 1996) Arrows indicate sense of shear. Jura fold axial traces are shown by
dashed lines. White areas within the shaded Jura indicate Tertiary-filled synclines. In SE
France Mid-Late Miocene and Pliocene data represent principal shortening axes and sense of
shear derived principally from fault slip data. Mid-late Miocene data are taken from Fry
(1989a and c), Platt et al. (1989a), Ford and Stahel (1995), Ritz (1991), Lickorish and Ford
(1998). Pliocene data are from Ritz (1991) and Champion et al. (2000), while Quaternary data
are from Ritz (1991). Abbreviations are the same as in Figure 1 except CA, Castellane arc, V-
L, Ventoux-Lure fault, Dur., Durence Fault, Lub., Luberon Fault. External crystalline massifs
were exhumed at this time around the arc.
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It is important to constrain the variation in amount of shortening (displacement) around

the arc. In front of the Alps, shortening estimates from cross section balancing and kinematic
data are available for the Helvetic nappes and Northern Subalpine Chains (NSC Fig. 1; Menard
and Thouvenot, 1987; Butler, 1984, 1985, 1992b; Butler et al., 1986; Mugnier et al., 1987,
1990; Guellec et al., 1990; Gratier et al., 1989; Philippe et al., 1998; Burkhard and Sommaruga,
1998). A maximum of 105 km of Eocene-Miocene NW-directed shortening is reported in
western Switzerland (not including the Jura shortening, Burkhard and Sommaruga, 1998).
Estimates of shortening decrease gradually toward the SW to 10 km in the Chartreuse massif,
while the shortening direction changes from NW to WNW to W. West-directed shortening dies
out south of the Vercors massif in the Diois region (Fig. 1).
In the Bauges and Chartreuse massifs it is commonly difficult to separate Oligocene-
early Miocene deformation from Miocene-Holocene deformation (e.g., Deville et al., 1994;
Beck et al., 1998). Late dextral strike-slip on NE-SW striking faults in the NSC and along the
Belledonne thrust (e.g. Mugnier and Gidon, 1988; Philippe et al., 1998) has been interpreted as
indicating strike parallel shear. These faults have however, been more recently interpreted as
inherited oblique faults that were reactivated in a contractional field with strike-slip
displacement (Philippe et al., 1998).
In the Southern Subalpine Chains (SSC) in SE France, SW-WSW-directed shortening is
estimated to reach a maximum of only 21-26 km (Lickorish and Ford, 1998 ; Ritz, 1991) along
a SW-NE cross section south of Digne. The SSC comprise the Digne thrust sheet, whose
geometry was controlled strongly by Mesozoic passive margin structures, facies and thickness
changes (Gidon, 1975; de Graciansky et al., 1989). Triassic evaporites acted as the principal
detachment horizon. Shortening decreases northward toward the Dévoluy massif (Fig. 1) where
3 km of WSW shortening is recorded on the Median Dévoluy Thrust before it links into an
oblique strike-slip fault (Meckel et al., 1996). Two phases of alpine shortening can be
distinguished in the SSC: 11 km during the late Eocene to Oligocene, related principally to the
emplacement of exotic flysch nappes onto the foreland (Embrunais-Ubaye nappes; Kerckhove,
1969; Merle and Brun, 1984) and 10.5 km shortening in the Miocene or later related to
exhumation of the Argentera crystalline massif (see below; Lickorish and Ford, 1998).
Unlike the Helvetic-NSC domain, much of SE France was affected by northward-
directed Pyrenean-Provencal compression before the onset of Alpine deformation (Late
Cretaceous-early Eocene; Flandrin, 1966). E-W structures of this age are particularly well
developed to the south in the Castellane arc and, farther north, in the thick Mesozoic marl-rich
sequence of the Diois and Baronnies regions (Fig. 1). It also caused the exhumation and
deformation of the Pelvoux crystalline massif (Ford, 1996). The presence of these oblique
structures and basement highs provided a complex template for later alpine deformation.
Structures of the SSC curve southward into the E-W trending Castellane arc. Farther south
these structures curve into the N-S trending Nice arc (Dardeau, 1987). These more local and
structurally complex arcs (Fig. 1) are not considered in this study.
Kinematic Models for the Principal Western Alpine Arc

Argand (1916) proposed that the western alpine arc resulted from the collision between a
curved promontary on Africa and a matching embayment in Europe. However, Goguel (1963)
suggested that the palaeogeography of the European passive margin restores to a linear form.
More recent plate tectonic models consider the arc as due to collision between a linear
European margin and an indenter (Tapponnier, 1977), either in the form of an Adriatic
promontary on the African plate (Channell and Horvath, 1976; Channell et al., 1979), or a
separate Adriatic microplate (Biju-Duval et al., 1977). The indenter model is widely accepted
today (e.g. Ricou, 1984, Coward and Dietrich, 1989; Stampfli and Marthaler, 1990). Although
the plate movement path for the African plate is now reasonably well constrained (Dewey et
al., 1989), it is still unclear to what extent the Apulian block moved with, or independently of,
the African plate (Platt et al., 1989a).
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Kinematic field data collated around the western Alps Figure 2 have been related in
different ways to the motion of the indenter Apulia or the African plate. The principal models
are summarized below.
Figure 3 - Four models for the origin of thrust patterns around the arc of the western Alps. (a)
A linear plate motion vector (PMV), combined with topographically driven body forces
(gravity) within the 3D rounded orogenic wedge (stippled), generates radial thrusting (Platt et
al., 1989a). (b) Rotational plate motion generates radial thrusting (Vialon et al., 1989). (c)
Linear plate motion, combined with later lateral collapse of a hangingwall ramp, produces two
orthogonal thrust systems (Butler et al., 1986). (d) Northward displacement of Apulia, followed
by westward impingement (dashed faults), generates successive orthogonal thrust systems and
their associated strike slip faults (Ricou and Siddans, 1986). SRL, the Simplon-Rhone Line;
FPF, Frontal Pennine Fault. External basement massifs are shown in grey.
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(1) Straight indentation by a rounded indenter

Based on kinematic data (particle displacement paths; Fig. 2a), Platt et al. (1989a) argue that
the pattern of thrusting around the external arc is broadly radial and directed outwards. They
propose that a three-dimensional radial orogenic wedge develops ahead of a rounded indenter
(Fig. 3a) because of the combination of the plate motion vector and local body forces generated
perpendicular to the trend of the orogenic wedge. They therefore use the radial kinematic data
of the western Alps to define the motion vector of the Apulian indenter (their Adria). The
required WNW-directed motion of Apulia implies that it moved independently of Africa since
the Late Cretaceous (70 Ma) or at least since Late Eocene (40 Ma). Fry (1989c) points out that
according to the Platt et al. (1989a) model displacement directions in the SSC on the SW side
of the Alps should progressively rotate from NW to W to SW whereas field data indicate a
consistent SW displacement direction.
The interpretation of Platt et al. (1989a) does not consider the variation in amount of
shortening around the arc. As already described herein, NW-WNW-directed shortening in the
Helvetic nappes and the northern Subalpine chains decreases to the SW, while SW-WSW-
directed shortening in the SSC decreases and dies out to the N. The PWA arc is not therefore a
continuous arc but comprises two orthogonal, synchronous systems that accommodated very
different amounts of shortening. These features cannot be explained by the Platt et al. (1989a)
model.
(2) Rotational indentation
Several authors argue that linear NW displacement of the Apulian indenter is valid only for the
early stages of collision; these authors have proposed a rotational translation for the indenter
during later stages (Vialon et al., 1989; Philippe et al., 1996; Schmid and Kissling, 2000).
Vialon et al. (1989) propose that, since the Miocene (25 Ma), the translation direction of the
indenter rotated anticlockwise, generating divergent displacement directions in the external
zones accompanied by helical dextral strike-slip faults (Fig. 3b). Their ring shear model
involves anticlockwise rotation and expulsion of the Mt. Blanc-Belledonne-Pelvoux block
along the western sidewall of the Apulian (their Adriatic) indenter that was itself moving
northwestwards (Fig. 3b). Based on analysis of geophysical data, in particular deep seismic
lines, Schmid and Kissling (2000) argue that, after 35 Ma, the arcuate shape of the western
Alps was accentuated by WNW- directed translation and anticlockwise rotation of their
Apulian microplate (not equivalent to the Apulian indenter as used in this paper); the
microplate was decoupled from the central and eastern Alps along the dextral Tonale-Simplon
shear zone.
(3) Two phase indentation
In two-phase or multi-phase indentation models, primary thrusting took place toward the NW
to WNW followed by later thrusting toward the SW to WSW (Butler et al., 1986; Ricou and
Siddans, 1986; Coward and Dietrich, 1989; Laubscher, 1991; Fig. 3c and d). In these models
NW-directed collision is necessarily accompanied by sinistral strike-slip or transpression along
the NW-trending sidewall of the Alps.
Ricou and Siddans (1986) suggest that the SW-directed compression was generated by a
late anticlockwise change in the translation path of the indenting plate (Fig. 3c) that was
accommodated in the main body of the orogen by NE-SW dextral strike-slip (Dietrich and
Durney, 1986). Laubscher (1971, 1991) also supports this multi-phase translation history for
the indenter, proposing an earlier Eocene rotational phase for the development of the internal
Penninic zones, followed by two phases of translation, first northward to form the Helvetic
Alps, and then westward to form the external arc. Laubscher (1991) retrodeforms the Alps in
map view as a series of discrete blocks delimited by strike-slip faults.
Due to the synchroneity of shortening around the Alpine arc as demonstrated in the
foregoing, these two-phase models are not considered to be appropriate. However they may be
quite valid for other arcuate orogenic systems and therefore these models have been replicated
in sandbox experiments.
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(4) Lateral escape or collapse of the orogen

Butler et al. (1986) propose that the SW- directed thrust system was produced by late orogenic
sidewall collapse. As the main body of the orogen thickened during NW-directed convergence,
the hanging-wall to the lateral ramp became gravitationally unstable and collapsed outward
toward the SW (Fig. 3c). They argue that the SSC constitute a second, entirely independent
thrust system, probably in the footwall to the floor thrust carrying the NW-directed thrust
system.
In the model of Mancktelow (1992) and Hubbard and Mancktelow (1992) SW
shortening in the SSC is a form of late lateral escape generated by strike–parallel extension in
the Central Alps (Simplon shear zone) channeled along NE-SW, dextral strike slip faults. The
difficulty with this model is that strike-parallel strike-slip faults with adequate displacement
cannot be traced from the Simplon Fault to link with the Digne thrust system.
Although SW shortening is considered as late stage by these authors, it is possible for
SW and NW shortening to occur contemporaneously, the NW shortening driven by plate
convergence and the SW shortening due to lateral gravitational instability of the internal
orogenic zones. However, gravitational forces cannot be simulated in the simple sandbox
experiments used in this project.
(5) Other factors - heterogeneities in foreland mechanical stratigraphy

More local irregularities in displacement paths can be induced by one or more of the following
intraplate heterogeneities: thickness and facies variations in foreland stratigraphy, in particular
the distribution of easy slip horizons (Fig. 4), the presence of basement paleo-highs or the
presence of older deformation phases. The influence of these heterogeneities appears to
decrease with increasing deformation intensity. Thus, on the internal edge of the external arc
adjacent to the Frontal Pennine Fault (Fig. 1), structures trace out a relatively smooth curve.
However, toward the thrust front where deformation is weaker, partitioning of deformation by
foreland stratigraphic variations or along faults become more pronounced (e.g. de Graciansky
et al., 1989; Philippe et al., 1998). Triassic evaporitic levels (Fig. 4) acted as the principal
décollements during Alpine deformation. The Pelvoux-Belledonne crystalline massifs (Figs. 1,
4) that lie in the core of the external alpine arc, were a relatively high-standing block
throughout the Mesozoic and the Tertiary (Debrand-Passard et al., 1984; Tricart, 1981; Ford,
1996). On the massifs, the absence of Triassic evaporite facies and of Jurassic and Cretaceous
thick shale sequences means that the usual detachment levels are absent (Ford, 1996). Some
authors have speculated that this basement high may have blocked outward translation of
material during collision, thus forcing partitioning and divergence of displacement paths (e.g.
Bravard and Gidon, 1979; Tricart, 1981).
MID-MIOCENE-HOLOCENE ARCUATE STRUCTURAL FEATURES

As with the PWA arc, the Miocene-Holocene external arc can be described as comprising two
synchronous, orthogonal and non-connected systems, the Jura belt with overall shortening
toward the NW (max. 35 km) and the smaller Digne-Castellane system with significantly less
shortening (10.5 km) toward the SW to SSW. At this time, crustal thrusting and exhumation of
the external crystalline massifs accelerated from the Argentera to the Aar massif (e.g.
Burkhard, 1990 ; Seward and Mancktelow, 1994; Seward et al., 1999). The cause and geometry
of this deformation of the external massifs is still a matter of debate (see Burkhard and
Sommaruga, 1998; Mosar 2000), however it is now clear that exhumation of these massifs
occurred synchronous with formation of the Jura fold and thrust belt (Burkhard and
Sommaruga, 1998) and reactivation of the Digne and Castellane thrust systems (Lickorish and
Ford, 1998).
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Figure 4 - Present-day distribution and thickness of Triassic basins in the external alpine arc
and its foreland (deformed state). Light gray denotes the evaporitic basin (sequence thickness
>100m) and the darker gray indicates the thickest parts of the succession. Evaporitic facies (v)
occur at either Muschelkalk or Keuper levels, or both. Data are from Debrand-Passard et al.
(1984) and Philippe et al. (1996).
The 90° Jura arc formed mainly from the Serravallian to the Tortonian (11-8 Ma,
Laubscher, 1961, 1965; Philippe et al., 1996). The Mesozoic passive margin succession of up
to 2.5 km (thinning eastward) was folded and thrust above two principal evaporitic levels: the
middle Muschelkalk serves as the main décollement in the Swiss Jura while farther west this
role was transferred to the Keuper evaporites. The outer arc of the Jura mimics the northern and
western pinchout of the evaporite basins (Fig. 4). A considerable amount of kinematic data are
available for the Jura. Late Miocene to Pliocene data for the Jura fold and thrust belt (Fig. 2b)
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are taken from Philippe et al. (1996, 1998; see also Hindle and Burkhard, 1999; Homberg et al.,
1999a and b). These data, recording a 90° divergence of material transport directions around
the Jura arc, were derived from fault-slip data, stylolitic peaks, joints and veins. Maximum
shortening was 35 km toward the W and WNW, south of Geneva, while in the centre of the belt
NW-directed shortening is estimated to be 25 km (Fig. 2b; Philippe et al., 1996). Toward the
east, N-directed shortening decreases gradually to zero (Fig. 2b ; Burkhard, 1990). SW of
Geneva, Miocene to Holocene deformation can be traced into the Vercors and Chartreuse
massifs (Fig. 1, 2b) where WNW-directed shortening dies out toward the south from 13.7 km
to 6.8 km (Philippe et al., 1998).
In SE France, final emplacement of the Digne thrust over the Valensole conglomerates,
involving 10.5 km of SW to SSW displacement that died out to the north, began in the Miocene
(Fig. 2b ; Gidon and Pairis, 1992). Mid Miocene-Quaternary kinematic data (Fig. 2b) were
derived from analyses of fault slip data by various authors (Platt et al., 1989a; Ritz, 1991; Ford
and Stahel, 1995; Lickorish and Ford, 1998; Champion et al., 2000). These data show
southward directed shortening in the Castellane arc and SW-SSW directed shortening in the
Digne thrust sheet. Farther out in the foreland (west of the Valensole block) uplift of the
Vaucluse block is recorded on the Ventoux-Lure, the Luberon and the Durance faults (Fig. 2b ;
Ford and Stahel, 1995; Champion et al., 2000).
Kinematic Models for mid-Miocene-Holocene arcs

Philippe et al. (1996) restore the entire Jura fold belt using a three dimensional block mosaic
restoration technique, based on cross section balancing. Although large errors can be built into
such 3D restorations, they do however, yield important results. Firstly, the bulk shortening
increases toward the SW, suggesting that the Jura developed due to a 10° clockwise rotation of
the North Alpine Foreland Basin (Fig. 1) about an axis at the eastern tip of the Jura (Philippe et
al., 1996). This rotation is related to the coeval exhumation of the frontal external crystalline
massifs (Aar, Aiguilles Rouges, Mont Blanc and Belledonne) and to dextral displacement on
the more internal Simplon-Rhône line. Secondly, the displacement vectors for the blocks show
a 40° divergence, markedly less than the 90° divergence of the strain trajectories computed
from fault data (Homberg et al., 1999a; Hindle and Burkhard, 1999; Fig. 2b). This is believed
to indicate the important role played by wrenching within the Jura arc (Fig. 1).
SAND-BOX EXPERIMENTS1
Modeling procedure
The external western Alps involves principally detached sedimentary cover. Experiments,
designed to represent the upper crust only, were designed in a perspex box, 115 cm square (Fig.
5), filled with either 30 mm of homogenous layered colored sand, or 24 mm of layered sand
above 6 mm of silicone putty (to simulate a low-viscosity layer). The box was sufficiently
wide, that evolving structures did not interact with the side-walls. Indenters, straight or
rectangular, were also made of perspex. This material, being polished, offers a small sliding
friction against sand. In experiments where sand was the only modeling material, it was in
direct contact with the perspex base of the box. In the other experiments, where sand rested
upon a silicone layer, the resistance to basal sliding was less than on the sand/perspex contact,
depending as it did upon the viscosity of the silicone and the small rates of deformation that
were imposed by the piston. Low resistance to basal sliding resulted in thrust wedges with
small apical angles (about 16° for sand upon perspex and about 10° for sand upon silicone).
The sand used was dry Fontainebleau sand sieved to 315 µm. Such a sand can absorb almost
1
Full details and photographic documentation of the 26 experiments carried out in this project are
accessible on the following website!: http://www.ensg.inpl-nancy.fr/sandbox/index.html
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10% strain before it fails, according to a Mohr-Coulomb criterion (Mandl, 1988). It has
negligible cohesion and an angle of internal friction of about 30˚. Deformation is independent
of strain rate (without silicone putty) and failure occurs along discrete faults. These properties
make the sand a good analog for the brittle upper crust (Byerlee, 1978). A 5 cm grid of
coloured sand was drawn on the surface, to facilitate quantitave analysis of the deformation.
The silicone putty used was Silbione Gomme A0009, manufactured by Rhône-Poulenc, France.
This silicone deforms as an almost perfectly Newtonian fluid. For the dynamical scaling of
such experiments, the reader is referred elsewhere (e.g. Ramberg, 1967; Davy and Cobbold,
1988, 1991).
Figure 5 - Plan view of the apparatus used for sandbox experiments with a rectangular
indenter. The area filled with layered homogenous coloured sand is shown in gray.. The
corners of the indenter are labelled A, B, C and D. The leading edge is B-C and the lateral
edge is A-B. The final position of the indenter is shown after 25 cm of motion on motor No. 3.
The speeds of the three motors can be varied to create most translation and rotation paths of
the indenter. For experiments using foreland stratigraphic heterogeneities, the indenter box
was replaced by a bar as wide as the sand-box, motors No. 2 and No. 3 moved at equal speeds
and motor No. 1 was inactive.
In the first set of experiments a rectangular indenter (ABCD, Fig. 5) was pushed into
the sand along an orthogonal, diagonal, curved or rotational translation path (Fig. 5), each
representing a translation path proposed for the Adriatic (Apulian) indenter with respect to the
European foreland. One thrust belt was generated ahead of the leading frontal edge (B-C), and
another along the leading lateral edge (A-B) (Fig. 5). The trailing lateral edge (C-D) and rear
edge (A-D) were not considered in these experiments. The regions left behind these two edges
as the indenter moved were kept filled with sand, to minimize any interference with the
developing thrust belts. The results of four experiments are shown as a sequence of top-views
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representing progressive stages, each with its field of incremental displacement vectors for
material points (grid intersections) on the top of the sand (Figs 6 to 9). These experiments did
not have a basal easy slip horizon of silicone putty. All indenter experiments moved the
indenting corner B by the same finite amount by the end of the experiment, except the
orthogonal experiment that had the same finite movement in the X direction only. The final
stage of these experiments, together with finite particle displacement paths, are shown in Figure
6.
In the second set of experiments, foreland heterogeneities were created by varying the presence
and thickness of a detachment horizon (silicone putty) at the base of the sand stratigraphy.
Figure 6 - Final stage (100% complete) of each of the four indenter experiments, showing finite
displacement vectors for material points on the top of the sand. (a) Orthogonal indenter
movement (Experiment 8: Fig. 7). (b) Diagonal indenter movement (Experiment 6: Fig. 8). (c)
Rotational indenter movement (Experiment 18: Fig. 10). (d) Curved indenter movement
(Experiment 14: Fig. 11).
Linear Frontal Indentation (orthogonal)

As an analog to phase 1 of the models of Butler et al. (1986) and Ricou and Siddans (1986; Fig.
3c and d) and as a control for more complex experiments, the indenter was pushed into the sand
perpendicular to the leading edge and parallel to the lateral edge (experiment 8, Figs 6a and 7,
deformation rate 20 cm/hour). Similar experiments have been described by Davy and Cobbold
(1988), Marshak et al. (1992) and Zweigel (1998). This produced a gradually widening arcuate
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thrust belt ahead of the leading edge. Particle displacement paths are linear except in the corner
region where the thrust belt terminated by abrupt curvature of the leading thrust trajectory (Fig.
7: 20%, 40%). Displacement vectors were difficult to define in this region as the sand wedge
collapsed outward. Activity in this lateral belt only persisted while it remained ahead of the
leading edge of the indenter. Once the indenter moved past (Fig. 7: 60-100%), deformation in
the lqterql beslt became strike-slip, parallel to the AB edge.
Figure 7 - Five stages in the evolution of a sandbox experiment (Experiment 8) involving linear
frontal indenter motion (orthogonal). The stages show increasing percentages of complete
shortening. The small arrows represent incremental displacement vectors of material points at
grid intersections. Note the fixed reference point in the undeformed foreland.
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Diagonal Indentation
An analog for the model of Platt et al. (1989a) (Fig. 3a) requires that the whole arc be active
simultaneously. To generate simultaneous shortening along both edges, the box was pushed
into the sand at an angle to both the leading and lateral edges. In experiment 6, the indenter was
moved along a trajectory at 33° to the reference direction AB. Thrusts formed around the entire
arc, from the beginning of the experiment (Fig. 8, 17%). More shortening was produced in the
leading thrust belt (BC) than in the lateral thrust belt (AB; Figs 6b, 8, 9a). Both thrust belts
grew independently, at rates proportional to the asymmetry of the system. An active thrust
wedge with a topographic expression curved around corner B in a manner similar to the model
of Platt et al. (1989a). Thrusts were parallel the indenter edges and each displacement vector is
intermediate in orientation between the plate movement vector and the normal to the indenter
edge (Fig. 6b). This implies that, if the indenter had a curved form (as in the model of Platt et
al., 1989a, Fig. 3a) , displacement vectors would have a more continuous radial distribution
with respect to the plate movement vector. However their angular spread would be the same.
The angular difference between the frontal and lateral displacement vectors is 45° - much less
than the 90° change in strike of the thrusts.
Strike-slip components were accommodated along the edges of the box and within the
older thrust sheets or along older thrust faults, as revealed by the shearing of grid lines on the
surface (Fig. 8, dextral in the frontal system and sinistral in the lateral system). Motion on the
active frontal thrusts was dominantly dip-slip. Between the frontal and lateral systems, the
youngest faults at each stage were curved. Thrusts near the corner either became part of the
lateral thrust system or were quickly destroyed and broken up by the impinging indenter. Grid
deformation indicates considerable stretching around the corner arc, diffusely accommodated
within the sand. Due to its higher shortening rate, the leading wedge widened more rapidly than
the lateral wedge
The principal difference of varying the angle of indentation is in the degree of

asymmetry between the frontal and lateral thrust belts (Fig. 9a), as noted by Zweigel (1998).
The angular difference between the displacement vectors of the frontal and lateral systems
remains around 45°. The diffusion of strike-slip into the sand wedges, away from the edge of
the box, seems to be more efficient at small angles of indentation (Fig. 9a). In experiments 10
and 6 (16.7˚ and 33˚ obliquity) strike-slip deformation is absorbed in the leading sand wedge.
At greater angles of obliquity (experiment 11, 57˚) 30% of strike-slip deformation is absorbed
in the lateral sand wedge while the remainder occurs along edge of the box (Experiment 7, Fig.
9a).
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Figure 8 - Six stages a sandbox experiment showing the evolution of an arcuate thrust belt due
to diagonal indenter motion (Experiment 6). The stages represent increasing percentages of
complete shortening. The plate motion vector (large arrow) lies at 33° to the lateral edge of the
indenter (A-B). The small arrows represent incremental displacement vectors of material
points at grid intersections.
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Figure 9 - (a) Final configuration of thrust traces and particle displacement paths in four
experiments in which the obliquity of a diagonal indenter was varied. The angle shown for
each experiment represents the angle between the plate motion vector and the lateral edge of
the indenter (A-B), (b) Rotational indenter movement. In these four experiments the position of
the pole of rotation with respect to the initial position of the corner A was varied (150, 70, 43,
30 cm) so that the rotational arc of the indenter was gradually reduced. In order to give the
same total displacement of point B that was achieved in experiment 6 at 100% (Fig. 8), the
angle of rotation was increased accordingly (8.9°, 17.3°, 25.1°, 32°).
Rotational Indentation
To examine the effects of a rotational component, as proposed in the models of Vialon et al.
(1989; Fig. 3b) and Schmid and Kissling (2000), the indenter was pushed into the sand around
a fixed pole of rotation (Fig. 10). The pole of rotation was positioned to the left of the starting
position of corner A of the indenter box. This positioning ensured that the leading and lateral
edges of the box remained in compression during each experiment, while maximizing the
effects of the rotational component of motion. Thus, in the initial stages of each rotational
experiment, point A moves tangentially. The further away from the pole a point on the indenter
edge is, the greater its arc of rotation. Therefore, along the sidewall displacement increases
from A to B. The distance between the pole and corner A can be varied (Fig. 9b). In experiment
18, the pole of rotation was placed 70 cm from A and the angle of rotation was chosen (17.3°),
so that the total displacement of point B was the same as in experiment 6 (Fig. 10 and Fig. 6c).
The first thrust formed along the leading edge (Fig. 10: 17%) and slowly propagated
along the lateral edge. Particle displacement paths curved progressively anticlockwise during
the experiment (Fig. 6c). The angular spread of displacement vectors around the arc was 45° at
any one time. Between the leading and lateral thrust systems the youngest thrusting at each
stage was radial with faults linking around the arc. The differential increase in shortening
around the arc caused a rotation of the grid lines. Grid lines in the deformed region became
non-orthogonal, recording penetrative shear strain accommodated both along the edge of the
indenter box and internally within the older thrust sheets or along older thrust faults.
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Figure 10 - Six stages of a sandbox experiment showing the evolution of an arcuate thrust belt
due to rotational indentation (Experiment 18). The stages represent increasing percentages of
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complete shortening. The plate motion vector (large arrow) rotates progressively anticlockwise
around a fixed pole of rotation 70 cm from the initial position of the corner A. At 100%
complete the indentation caused the same total displacement of the point B as that in
experiment 6 (Fig. 8). The small arrows represent incremental displacement vectors of
material points at grid intersections.
The effects of varying the position of the pole of rotation are shown in Figure 9b. For a
pole that is infinitely far away, the indentation path is linear (Fig. 7: 60%). In general, the
nearer the pole, the greater the angle of rotation, to conserve the total displacement of point B.
Decreasing the distance to the pole of rotation while increasing the angle of rotation produces
both an increase in the shortening along the lateral edge, as well as an increase in the gradient
of differential shortening along the lateral and leading edges. In the experiment with the
greatest angle of rotation (Fig. 9b , Experiment 12, 32°), the shortening at point B was greater
in the lateral thrust belt than in the leading thrust belt.
Curved (or two-phase diagonal) Indentation

The idea of generating an arcuate thrust belt by two sequential perpendicular thrusting phases
(e.g. Ricou and Siddans, 1986; Fig. 3d) was examined by moving the indenter box, first
perpendicular to the leading edge (similar to experiment 8, Fig. 7), and then parallel to the
leading edge (results not shown). Due to the abrupt 90˚ change in the translation path of the
indenter two orthogonal, independent thrust systems were produced with a cusp of undeformed
sand in between.
In order to smooth out this discontinuity in the translation vector, it was given an
elliptical rather than a rectangular path (experiment 14, Figs. 11 and 6d). At each stage in this
experiment the deformation produced was equivalent to that in a stage of indentation using a
diagonal indenter, but with the obliquity of indentation changing progressively. Thus the
earliest thrusts formed parallel to the leading edge (Fig. 11: 17%) in the same manner as with
the linear indenter (Fig. 7: 20%). Later thrusts started to form asymmetrically around the arc
(Fig. 11: 33-50%) in a manner similar to the diagonal experiment with a low obliquity
(experiment 10, Fig. 9a). Further deformation resulted in thrusts of increasingly oblique
displacement along the leading edge and decreasingly oblique displacement along the lateral
edge, but always with thrusting directions between the plate movement vector and the true dip
slip vector (Figs. 11 and 6d).
The main differences between this and the rotational indenter experiment are that the
kinematics of the early thrusts differ from those of the later thrusts, and that the distribution of
early and late shortening varies with time between the leading and lateral thrust systems
(compare Figs. 6c and d).
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Figure 11 –sandbox experiment showing the evolution of an arcuate thrust belt as a result of a
curved (two-phase) indenter motion (Experiment 14). The stages represent increasing
percentages of complete shortening. The plate motion vector is initially parallel to the lateral
edge of the indenter and then turns gradually anticlockwise. The small arrows represent
incremental displacement vectors of material points at grid intersections.
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Heterogeneities in foreland mechanical stratigraphy

The effects of heterogeneities in the foreland plate were examined using the local presence or
absence of a low viscosity silicone layer at the base of the sand. All these experiments were
conducted with a bar 115 cm wide, that was pushed into the sand-box over a distance of 25 cm,
at a constant speed between 3 cm/h and 5 cm/h (Fig.5).
Local detachment
The importance of a local detachment was investigated in experiment 20, in which a semi-
circular layer of silicone was placed ahead of the central part of the growing sand wedge (Fig.
12a). Initial deformation formed a linear thrust belt parallel to the advancing bar (Fig. 12a).
Once the silicone layer was intercepted, an arcuate deformation front jumped forward, initially
causing tectonic thickening above the silicone, while to each side the thrust front continued to
migrate slowly forward (17% complete shortening, Fig. 12a). A pop-up structure eventually
formed at the leading edge of the silicone after 50% of complete shortening, creating a
pronounced salient. Movement on these curved thrusts is dominantly parallel to the direction of
shortening, but with a slight radial component. With subsequent shortening very little
deformation occurred over the silicone layer as deformation was accommodated largely on the
frontal pop-up. The lateral thrust systems eventually caught up with the salient (Fig. 12a: 100%
complete shortening) and the arcuate thrusts were incorporated into a larger thrust belt.
Variation in the thickness of a local detachment

Experiment 21 examined the effect of variations in the thickness of the silicone layer. A
rectangular zone of silicone had a maximum central thickness of 10 mm, thinning
symmetrically on both sides (Fig. 12b). Initially a linear thrust belt developed behind the
silicone (Fig. 12b: 17% complete shortening). A slightly faster deformation rate (4 cm/h) and a
larger coverage of silicone meant that the first thrusts to develop over the silicone were not at
its leading edge. Preceded as before by tectonic thickening of the sand layers, the thrusts tended
to first nucleate in the region of thickest silicone (e.g. Fig. 12b: 50% complete shortening) and
then to propagate laterally (e.g. Fig 12b: 100% complete shortening) with a gradually reduced
spacing. This resulted in an arcuate thrust belt, leading to the conclusion that not only the
presence of an easy slip horizon, but also variations in its thickness, can generate local arcuate
structures.
Presence of a foreland obstacle

The opposite problem to that of a localized detachment, is that of an obstacle blocking the path
of an advancing thrust system. Experiment 22 has a detachment of 6 mm of silicone
everywhere, except below a square zone (representing the obstacle) situated in the center of the
sandbox with one edge parallel to the indenting bar (Fig. 13a). In Experiment 23 the silicone-
free square was oriented at 45˚ to the indenting bar (Fig. 13b). Similar experiments were
designed by Dominguez et al. (2000) to replicate the subduction of seamounts, and by Macedo
and Marshak (1999) to replicate the orthogonal shortening of two basins separated by a
structural high.
In both experiments initial deformation formed a linear thrust belt parallel to the
indenting bar. Tectonic compaction then propagated forward in the sand on either side of the
obstacle whereas, at the edge of the silicone-free zone, this deformation was taken up by pop-
up structures on lateral or oblique ramps (Fig. 13a and b: 33% complete shortening). In the case
of experiment 22, this produces a structure very similar to the Salt Ranges in Pakistan (Jaumé
and Lillie, 1988). In experiment 23, V-shape pop-up structures developed (e.g. Fig 13b: 66%
complete shortening). While thrusting propagated on either side, deformation behind the
silicone gap accumulated on existing thrusts (Fig. 13 a and b: 100% complete shortening). The
‘obstacle’, overlain by sand, remained relatively undeformed, and these thrusts eventually
ramped up to the free surface. Despite the obliquity of the thrust strike in experiment 23, the
direction of thrusting was dominantly parallel to the regional direction.
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Figure 12 – Sandbox experiments including restricted areas of silicone putty at the base of the
layered sand (shaded areas) representing a weak detachment below the foreland stratigraphy.
Small arrows represent incremental displacement vectors of material points at grid
intersections. Back-thrusts are indicated by teeth.
a) Experiment 20 incorporates a semi-circular zone of silicone at the base of the sand. The
convex limit of the silicone controls the creation of an arcuate deformation front in the initial
stages of the experiment, which eventually becomes incorporated into a larger thrust belt.
b) In experiment 21 a silicone layer is thickest (10 mm) in the centre and decreases stepwise
outward (shown by shading and labels). The deformation front propagates faster above the
thicker silicone forming an arcuate thrust belt.
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Figure 13 - Experiments on foreland obstacles. A silicone layer was deposited at the base of
the sandbox stratigraphy, everywhere except in a square area in the centre of the sandbox
(shaded square). The small arrows represent the movement vectors of material points on the
grid for each step in the experiment. (Teeth are marked on back-thrusts only.) (a) Square
obstacle with one side parallel to piston displacement. (b) Square obstacle with sides at 45° to
piston displacement.
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DISCUSSION
The sandbox experiments were designed to evaluate published models for the evolution of the
external western Alps and to provide new insights into the three dimensional development of
arcuate thrust structures in general. In comparing these models with the external western Alps
we must point out several limitations of the models. Firstly, alpine kinematic data provide
displacement and shear sense and thus are considered to indicate material displacement
directions. These can be compared to, but are not equivalent to, the particle displacement paths
in the sandbox experiments, which are scaled to represent upper crustal deformation. Secondly,
gravitational forces cannot be replicated in these simple experiments. Thirdly, the rigid indenter
in the sandbox experiments is equated to the Apulian indenter in the Alps. As we are
considering the evolution of the external Alps only, strictly speaking the ‘indenter’ that pushes
them includes all material above the frontal Pennine Fault (internal alpine units, Ivrea zone,
Southern Alps, north Italian lithosphere). Despite its complexity, the movement of this
composite ‘indenter’ is primarily controlled by plate convergence. Therefore, we refer to it
simply as Apulia. Fourthly, the difference in rigidity of the perspex indenter and the layered
sand is extreme in comparison with competence contrasts within the Alpine upper crust. This
extreme competence contrast within the experiments causes a component of strike-slip strain to
be partitioned along the edges of the Perspex box rather than being dispersed in the sand
wedge.
Indenter experiments
In indenter experiments, the maximum orthogonal displacement (MOD) experienced by
material was measured orthogonal to the indenter edge (Fig. 14). In the linear frontal
indentation experiment the MOD decreased in an abrupt manner around the corner B. This
experiment cannot be compared to the western Alps but a similar model was used for the Ibero-
Armorican arc (Burg et al., 1987).
Following a diagonal, rotational or curved translation path, the indenter created an
arcuate system with significant tangential extension (longitudinal strain) around corner B. If the
indenter were round instead of rectangular, such longitudinal strain would have been
distributed all around the arc because strain partitioning is, in part, controlled by the orientation
of the indenter boundary.
A rotational indenter produces a pattern of MOD that decreases around the arc in the
same sense as plate rotation (Figs. 14 and 15c). Because of the rectangular shape of the
indenter, the variation of the MOD around the corner B is complex in rotational experiments. In
experiment 18 (Figs. 9b and 10) the MOD decreases abruptly at B (Fig. 14). As the arc of
rotation increases, the decrease in the MOD around corner B becomes increasingly abrupt until
the results of indenter rotation resemble those of an orthogonal indentation experiment (e.g.
Fig. 9b, Experiment 9). As the radius of rotation decreases (Fig. 9b), the variation of MOD
around the arc eventually becomes smooth (experiment 5) and even increases abruptly around
B in Experiment 12 (Fig. 9b). Longitudinal strain on the outer arc did not increase during
rotational experiments.
The rotational model can best explain the gradual increase in orthogonal shortening of
the Jura arc from east to west, thus implying that an ‘indenter’ impinged upon the Jura
following a clockwise rotational path. Such a model was proposed for the Jura by Laubscher
(1961), who used an 8° clockwise rotation, and refined by Philippe et al. (1996) who suggested
a 10° rotation around a pivot point located just east of the eastern termination of the Jura. The
amount of rotation is unclear and measured rotations range from 0° to 25°(Hindle and Burkhard
1999).
Two nearly identical rotational experiments, one incorporating an easy-slip basal
detachment and the other not, show continuous arcuate systems in their final stages (Fig. 16).
However, as a broader, low-angle wedge was constructed in the presence of the basal silicone
layer, the curvature of the outer arc increased more rapidly and a more extreme narrowing of
the thrust belt toward corner A was therefore required.
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Figure 14 - Maximum orthogonal displacement (MOD) is the component of displacement,

measured orthogonal to the indenter edge, experienced by sand found immediately against the
indenter edge. This component of the total displacement is measured for a series of points
around the indenter perimeter and plotted against its position around the indenter (ABC) for
each of the four experiments shown in Figure 6. Inset shows the progressive migration of
corner B of the indenter through three time stages (t1, t2, t3) in a diagonal experiment.
Between t1 and t2 the sediment bxyz (shown in gray) is incorporated into the sand wedge.
Between t2 and t3 the sediment yuvw becomes incorporated into the sand wedge and thus
experiences less deformation (smaller MOD) than the sand bxyz For both the diagonal and
curved indentation experiments, shortening is minimal around corner B. Due to the angle of
obliquity in the diagonal experiment 6 (33°), shortening in the lateral thrust system is less than
that in the frontal system (ratio of 1:1,4)
Both diagonal and curved (two phase) indenter motions produce a MOD that decreases
toward B from both sides (Fig. 14). This similarity is due to the fact that the curved indentation
experiment is essentially a diagonal indentation in which the angle of indentation becomes
more oblique with time. Both these experiments are potential models for the PWA arc. Cross
sections cut around the arc of a curved indenter experiment and a rotational indenter
experiment are compared with cross sections around the external western Alpine arc (Fig. 15).
Alpine cross sections incorporate both Oligocene and later Miocene shortening. Nevertheless,
the total displacement decreases from both sides toward the center of the arc in the Vercors-
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Pelvoux region (Fig. 15, section a(iii)). This pattern clearly correlates with the curved or
diagonal indenter experiments (Figs. 14 and 15b).
Comparison of experiment results with variations in amount of displacement around the
PWA arc therefore indicates that the Apulian indenter followed either a diagonal translation
path or a curved (anticlockwise) path. Other observations around the western Alpine arc allow
us to distinguish between these two models.
Figure 15 - Variation in shortening around three arcs shown in a series of cross sections. (a)
The external western Alpine arc excluding the Jura belt (B is the Belledonne Massif, A is the
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Argentera Massif). The cross sections show a decrease in shortening from sections (i) to (iii)
(Guellec et al., 1990) and an increase in shortening again from sections (iii) to (v) (Lickorish
and Ford, 1998). Section (v) through the Digne thrust belt is split into two parts. (b) A curved
indenter experiment (26) with a silicone detachment. Symmetrical structures result from
silicone detachment. Shortening decreases from section (i) to (iii) and increases again from
(iii) to (v). (c) A rotational indenter experiment (18) showing a progressive decrease in
shortening around the arc from section (i) to (v).
(1) Timing of initiation of structures around the arc.

In both experiments initiation of deformation becomes progressively younger toward the centre
of the arc. In the Southern Subalpine chains it is impossible to detect such a younging pattern
as Tertiary deposits are lacking in critical areas, stratigraphic resolution is not sufficiently
refined and several phases of shortening have been superimposed. However, in the Helvetic
nappes Dietrich and Casey (1989) propose that the zone of active thrusting moved from east to
west so that the youngest increment is observed only in western Switzerland.
(2) Partitioning of strike-parallel shear within the sand wedge.

In the rotational, diagonal and curved experiments dextral transpressive deformation was
observed within the frontal deforming wedge, and sinistral transpression within the lateral sand
wedge. A substantial component of strike-slip was partitioned along the edges of the indenter
due to the high contrast in mechanical behaviour between the sand and the perspex box. The
shear is absorbed mainly in the older parts of the wedge, causing diffuse transpressive
deformation and late oblique motion on older thrusts. The intensity of strike-parallel shear thus
increases toward the inner zones of the sand wedge and the younger thrusts on the outer arc
accommodate dip-slip displacement.
In the Helvetic and Northern Subalpine Chains middle Miocene to Holocene NE-SW
strike-parallel dextral shear has been documented, for example along the Rhone valley fault
zone (Fig. 3, e.g. Steck, 1984; Burkhard, 1986; Dietrich and Casey 1989; Pavoni et al., 1997).
This strike-slip has been interpreted as linking strike-parallel extension in the central Alps with
SW thrusting in the SSC as a form of late lateral escape, related to a late change in the
movement vector of the Apulian indenter (e.g. Hubbard and Mancktelow, 1992; Mancktelow,
1992). It has also been used as evidence for a rotational indentation model (Vialon et al., 1989).
Comparison with the sandbox experiments suggests an alternative model: dextral strike-slip
may have been generated by strain partitioning during diagonal, rotational or curved plate
convergence.
In the Southern Subalpine Chains evidence for NW-SE sinistral strike-slip movement is
equivocal. Minor NNE-SSW strike-slip faults reported in the Digne thrust sheet show dextral
displacement and are interpreted as reactivated oblique paleonormal faults, (Lickorish and
Ford, 1998). NW-SE sinistral displacement along the sidewall of the orogen is necessary to
accommodate the NW directed impingement of Apulia and is locally documented along the
Frontal Pennine Fault (Ceriani et al., 2001) and within the internal zones (Ricou, 1981, 1984;
Maury and Ricou, 1983; Thomas et al. 1999). However other authors argue that there is no
clear evidence for NW-SE sinistral shear in the internal western Alps (Platt et al., 1989b).
Strike-slip strain in the western Alps therefore remains insufficiently constrained to compare
directly with sandbox experiments.
(3) Anticlockwise rotation of thrusting directions.

Anticlockwise rotation of transport directions has been documented in the NSC and the
Helvetic nappes (e.g. Gourlay, 1986; Gratier et al. 1989; Ramsay, 1989). For example, changes
in the orientation of stretching lineations within the Helvetic nappe stack (Dietrich and Durney,
1986) are interpreted as recording a change in overthrust shear direction from N to NW during
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the Oligocene. Most authors relate these changes in transport direction to an anticlockwise
rotation of the Apulian indenter or of the African plate (e.g Vialon et al., 1989; Coward and
Dietrich, 1989). But, as we have argued, the variation in MOD around the alpine arc excludes
this interpretation. In the curved indenter experiments (Fig. 11) final displacement paths curve
in an anticlockwise manner right around the arc (Fig. 6d) in a manner very similar to that
observed in the NSC and the Helvetic nappes. A similar rotation of thrusting directions is
detected in the lateral Digne thrust system only during its very latest activity (Quaternary, Fig
2b).
(4) Change in shortening ratio around the arc through time.

The distribution of shortening between the frontal (frontal shortening, SF) and lateral thrust
systems (lateral shortening, SL) changes during the curved indenter experiments. This ratio SF:
SL will decrease as the angle of obliquity (Fig. 9a) increases. This accords well with the
changing ratio of shortening around the western alpine arc. For the Eocene-early Miocene, the
ratio of shortening between the frontal thrust system (Helvetic nappes and NSC) and the lateral
thrust system (early SSC) is estimated to be approximately 10:1 (105 km:11 km). In the Mio-
Pliocene it was roughly 3:1 (Jura shortening:late SW shortening in the SSC, 30-35 km:10.5
km). This decrease in the shortening ratio around the arc indicates an anticlockwise change in
the plate movement vector of between 10° and 15°.
Therefore our experiments suggest that the Apulian indenter followed a diagonal
movement path from the Eocene to the Miocene and then curved gently anticlockwise during
the Miocene. This is probably the simplest possible motion vector for Apulia (e.g., Laubscher,
1991).
The dispersion of particle displacement paths in sandbox experiments do not correspond
to the spread of field kinematic data around the alpine arc. Field data indicate a 90° divergence
in material displacement around the western Alps (for both stages) and also in the smaller Jura
arc (Fig. 2). In sandbox experiments, maximum divergence of particle displacement paths (60°)
was obtained during rotational indentation (Fig. 10). Diagonal and curved experiments show a
divergence of around 45°. The dispersion of displacement vectors, predicted by Platt et al.
(1989a) around a rounded indenter and controlled by the plate motion vector and body forces
acting normal to the trend of the mountain belt, was also less than 90°.The orientation of
particle displacement paths is controlled by the orientation of the indenter edges and the
amount of rotation (for rotational experiments) or the angle of obliquity (of a diagonal
indenter). Therefore in a sandbox indenter with orthogonal sides, whether its corner is rounded
or angular, cannot produce a 90° divergence of particle displacement paths. In addition, our
analog models do not simulate gravitationally induced deformation.
Heterogeneites in foreland mechanical stratigraphy

Both the Jura fold and thrust belt and the SSC are low-friction wedges developed above a
Triassic evaporitic detachment. Each is wide (70 km and 100 km respectively) and
accommodated relatively little shortening (35 km and 21,5 km respectively; Lickorish and
Ford, 1998; Hindle and Burkhard, 1999). In nature, a low-friction critical wedge is usually
underlain by a weak detachment horizon and/or comprises weak material so that it evolves as a
wide belt with a very low surface slope (a = 0-1°; Davis and Engelder, 1985). In experiments,
the distribution of evaporitic facies in the European foreland is replicated by the variable
presence of a basal silicone layer (Fig. 4). With this weak detachment conjugate fore-thrusts
and back-thrusts (Fig. 12b) developed, rather than the almost universal creation of fore-thrusts
in high friction experiments. This symmetry of thrust orientation is due to the low critical taper
angle of the silicone-based wedge (Davis and Engelder, 1985). Similar structural symmetry is
found in the Jura Mountains (Laubscher, 1965).
In experiment 20 (Fig. 12a), the deformation front advanced rapidly to the front edge of
the detachment horizon above the silicone layer leaving the intervening sand relatively
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undeformed. In a similar manner, at about 13-11 Ma the migrating alpine deformation front
intersected Triassic evaporates and transferred 100 km N-NW to the edge of the Triassic
evaporitic basin (Fig. 4). The North Alpine Foreland Basin was thus passively incorporated into
the external orogenic wedge (e.g. Laubscher, 1961, 1965; Burkhard and Sommaruga, 1998).
Experiment 20 can also be compared to the relatively undeformed syn-orogenic basins that
develop above detachments in evaporitic layers (e.g. Pakistan, Jaumé and Lillie, 1988). The
lateral decrease in intensity of deformation in the Jura corresponds well with that observed in
experiment 21 where the lateral decrease in silicone thickness represents the variation in
thickness of the Triassic evaporitic strata (Figs. 4, 12b).
In the core of the external western Alpine arc the Pelvoux-Belledonne massifs formed a
prominant palaeohigh since Triassic times (Fig. 4) and appears to separate two orthogonal
thrust systems (Fig. 2a). In the experiments, an obstacle lying in the path of an advancing
deformation front was modeled as a square without the basal silicone layer (experiments 22 and
23, Fig.13). Although thrust orientations were controlled by the orientation of the silicone-free
zone and thus could be oblique, their displacement vectors remained close to the regional
transport direction. These experiments show that the presence of an obstacle does not partition
thrust transport directions into two orthogonal thrust systems. The presence of the Pelvoux-
Belledonne paleohigh in the core of the external alpine arc would therefore appear to be
coincidental. These experiments also illustrate that structural trendlines alone cannot define
constraints for arcuate kinematics.
Figure 16 - Final configuration of two rotational experiments, one with a silicone layer at the
base of the sand (a) and the other without it (b). In both experiments, structures are continuous
around the arc and particle displacement paths (small arrows) are very similar. In the
experiment with silicone (a), the thrust wedge has a small angle of taper and layer-parallel
thickening of the sand layers extends far beyond the thrust front. The curvature of the outer arc
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is far greater than in the experiment without silicone and the thrust belt narrows abruptly
toward the corner A.
Conclusions
The arcuate form of the external western Alps comprises two regional arcuate systems,
distinguished by their geographic position and their age. The PWA arc developed during the
Eocene-Miocene in two orthogonal, synchronous branches. Major shortening (105 km) was
toward the NW to WNW with minor shortening (11 km) toward the SW. Shortening in each
branch decreased toward the core of the arc. The dichotomous nature of the PWA arc is
reflected in the evolution of the Tertiary depocentres around the arc (Ford et al., 1999; in
press). During the late Miocene and Pliocene formation of the Jura arc accommodated a
maximum of 35 km N to WNW shortening while the lateral Digne thrust system
accommodated 10.5 km of SW-SSW shortening. Coevally, the external crystalline massifs
were exhumed on deep seated thrusts.
The geometry of these arcs was controlled by two independent factors that exert their
influence at different scales: at the regional scale the relative motion between the European
plate and the Apulian indenter, and, at a more local scale, the heterogeneity of the stratigraphy
of the European plate.
In this study, four tectonic models were examined by sand-box modeling. Comparison of
experimental results with the external western alpine arc suggest that the alpine indenter
followed a slightly diagonal path with respect to the European margin from the Eocene to the
early Miocene and curved anticlockwise by 10-15° in the mid-Miocene. Although
experimentally formed structural trend lines form an adequate arc, no sandbox particle
displacement field replicates the 90° spread in kinematic data around the alpine arc. With the
exception of frontal linear indentation, all experiments generated displacement vectors with a
lower divergence in orientation (usually around 45°) than the curvature of the structural trend
lines (90°). The experiments show that the orientation of thrusts (trend lines) was controlled
primarily by the shape of the indenter margin whereas displacement along the thrusts was
controlled by the orientation of the indenter margin and its motion vector. In nature, crustal
scale gravitational forces, which have not been replicated in our experiments, play an important
role in orogenic processes. These undoubtedly contributed to the generation of the 90° spread
in kinematic data around the alpine arc.
Results of experiments investigating heterogeneities in foreland stratigraphy support the
widely accepted hypothesis that the presence of thick Triassic evaporites played a primary role
in the evolution of the Jura arc. Other experiments suggest that the presence of the Pelvoux-
Belledonne palaeohigh in the core of the alpine arc is largely coincidental. The influence of the
foreland mechanical stratigraphy was more prominent in regions of weak deformation, such as
the external boundaries of the Alpine orogen (Jura fold belt, Digne Thrust). The final state of
deformation within the external Alps therefore represents an interplay between these two
controls.
Combining our results with those of Platt et al (1989a), Macedo and Marshak (1999)
and Zweigel (1998) we conclude that, in order to identify the mechanisms of formation of
arcuate structural systems in nature and experiment, the following parameters need to be
documented around an arc:
(1) incremental and finite material displacement paths (kinematic data),
(2) amount of shortening,
(3) timing of shortening,

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(4) width of the external orogenic wedge,
(5) partitioning of strike-slip motions and
(6) trend lines of structures.
If the effects of stratigraphic heterogeneities are superimposed on those of an indenter in a

collision zone, the plate movement vector and the indenter shape are the principal controls on
primary arc evolution when convergence is significant. When convergence is weak, local
factors such as heterogeneities in the foreland stratigraphy can play a significant role in primary
arc evolution.
Acknowledgements
The experimental work for this paper was undertaken at Géosciences-Rennes by WHL and JB
and was funded by the ETH Zürich. Jean-Jacques Kermarrec provided extensive technical
assistance. W.H.L. was funded by the Swiss National Science Foundation and Judith Burgisser
by the ETH-Zurich. We thank Martin Burkhard, Jeff Amato, Steven Marshak, Wanda Taylor
and an anonymous reviewer for helpful reviews and Olivier Bourgeois for discussions and
improvements to the text.
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Lichorish et al.

Arcuate thrust systems in sandbox experiments: a

1 Geologisches Institut, ETH Zentrum, CH-8092, Zürich, Switzerland

2 School of Earth Sciences, University of Leeds, Leeds LS29JT, UK

*communicating author : mford@crpg.cnrs-nancy.fr

THE PRINCIPAL WESTERN ALPINE ARC

It is important to constrain the variation in amount of shortening (displacement) around

Kinematic Models for the Principal Western Alpine Arc

(1) Straight indentation by a rounded indenter

(4) Lateral escape or collapse of the orogen

(5) Other factors - heterogeneities in foreland mechanical stratigraphy

MID-MIOCENE-HOLOCENE ARCUATE STRUCTURAL FEATURES

Kinematic Models for mid-Miocene-Holocene arcs

Linear Frontal Indentation (orthogonal)

The principal difference of varying the angle of indentation is in the degree of

Curved (or two-phase diagonal) Indentation

Heterogeneities in foreland mechanical stratigraphy

Variation in the thickness of a local detachment

Presence of a foreland obstacle

Figure 14 - Maximum orthogonal displacement (MOD) is the component of displacement,

(1) Timing of initiation of structures around the arc.

(2) Partitioning of strike-parallel shear within the sand wedge.

(3) Anticlockwise rotation of thrusting directions.

(4) Change in shortening ratio around the arc through time.

Heterogeneites in foreland mechanical stratigraphy

(1) incremental and finite material displacement paths (kinematic data),

(2) amount of shortening,

(3) timing of shortening,

(4) width of the external orogenic wedge,

(5) partitioning of strike-slip motions and

(6) trend lines of structures.

If the effects of stratigraphic heterogeneities are superimposed on those of an indenter in a

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