BASIC ECOLOGY

WHAT IS ECOLOGY
 the science that deals with the interactions between living organisms and their environment.
 etymology: Greek word `OIKOS' meaning house, thus literally ecology is the study of
houses or more broadly "environments" and is often called environmental biology.
Organisms rarely live alone. Organisms interact with each other. They live together as a
group of interbreeding individuals called a population. In turn, a population interacts with other
populations, forming a community bound together by a close feeding relationship. The
community, on the other hand, interacts with physical and chemical factors of its environment.
Such an interwoven system of interactions of a biotic community with its physico-chemical
environment is referred to as an ecological system or ecosystem.
An ecosystem is considered the basic structural and functional unit in ecology. It consists of
living and non-living components. These components continually interact, producing an integral
system with interdependent exchange of materials and energy.
STRUCTURAL COMPONENTS OF THE ECOSYSTEM
The structure of an ecosystem generally refers to its interacting living (biotic) and nonliving
(abiotic) components.
A. The Biotic Components
Biotic components in an ecosystem are bound together by a need for food. Hence, although
there are over 1.7 million species of organisms documented throughout the world, they are
basically classified into three (3) major groups only, based on their roles in the feeding
relationship. They are classified as producers, macroconsumers and decomposers.
1. The producers of an ecosystem are the organisms that have the ability to manufacture
their own food. They are also known as autotrophs; from the Greek word “autos” meaning
self, and “trophikos” meaning nursing (referring to nutrition). The main producers in the
ecosystem are chlorophyll-bearing organisms, from the microscopic aquatic phytoplankton
to the huge trees in the thickness of the forests. They can manufacture organic nutrients
through the process called photosynthesis. In nature, photosynthetic organisms harness the
radiant energy of the sun, using carbon dioxide and water, to produce carbohydrates such
as sugars, starches, and cellulose. Carbohydrates are the basic “building blocks” from
which nutrients such as proteins and fats are processed.
Besides the conspicuous green plants and minute photosynthetic algae, two groups of
bacteria can also manufacture their own food. They are the photosynthetic bacteria and the
chemosynthetic bacteria. The latter use the chemical energy of simple inorganic materials
rather than light in the manufacture of food.
2. The macroconsumers of the ecosystem include the animals. They are referred to as
phagotrophs, from the Greek word “phagos” (meaning eat) and “trophikos” (nursing). They
are heterotrophic organisms that “eat others” as food. Based on food sources, phagotrophs
may be classified into three (3) major types:
 plant-eaters or herbivores - primary consumers that feed only on plants;
 flesh-eaters or carnivores - the secondary consumers that feed only on animals; and
 mixed eaters or omnivores - higher level consumers that feed on both plants and
animals.
3. The decomposers of an ecosystem are heterotrophs that cause decay of dead
organisms. They are also called saprotrophs, because they feed on dead organic matter.
They break down complex organic substances into simpler forms that can be re-used by the
producers. Without them, the basic elements of life would be trapped in the complex
molecules of the remains of the dead and become unavailable to the producers of the
ecosystem. They play a significant role in the cycling of materials in the living world.
B. The Abiotic Components
The basic features of any ecosystem are determined to a large extent by its abiotic or
nonliving components. In terrestrial ecosystems, three major factors constitute these abiotic
components, namely: climate, soil and topography.
Climatic factors that have significant effects on the ecosystem are light, temperature, water
and wind.

Catherine Genevieve Barretto-Lagunzad

Ateneo de Manila University Loyola Heights Quezon City
cgblagunzad@yahoo.com
 Various aspects of light affect living organisms. For instance, the rate of photosynthesis of
both terrestrial and aquatic plants is greatly dependent on the intensity and quality of light; while
leaf-fall and flowering are influenced by day-length. Likewise, day length influences certain
animal behaviors such as nesting, hibernation and migration.
The ecosystem is also directly and indirectly affected by temperature. Plants and animals
require specific temperature ranges for efficient metabolism. Similarly, temperature can affect
the rate of evaporation; hence significantly influence water availability to living organisms.
Water constitutes the main bulk of a living organism. It is the medium of life in an aquatic
habitat and an important resource in terrestrial habitats. The amount of rainfall influences
vegetation type, which in turn, influences the variety and number of animals in a particular
habitat.
Wind is basically air in motion. The velocity of the wind influences the rate of evaporation of
water from the earth’s surface. Wind action accelerates evaporation of water. The rate of
evaporation serves as one of the factors that determine the atmospheric humidity in an
ecosystem.
Edaphic Factors pertain to soil factors. They include mineral nutrients, moisture content and
acidity of the soil. In terrestrial habitats, the soil as a medium for plant growth serves as a water
and mineral reservoir. The nutrient and moisture contents act as environmental controls, which
determine the types and distribution of vegetation and, consequently, also determine the types
and distribution of animal life. The pH or acidity of the soil influences the solubility and thus, the
availability of essential inorganic substances in forms that can be used by plants. In addition,
soil acidity and the size of its particles affect the water-holding capacity of the soil as well as its
ability to leach out minerals.
Topography or surface relief is another aspect of the physical environment which influences
the distribution of biotic communities on land. The topographic factors that define the amount
of solar energy which influences the climatic conditions affecting various life forms in terrestrial
habitats include altitudes or elevations and slope orientation.
Mossy forests dominate plant life at high elevations where cloud rats are found while field
rats are confined to the thick vegetation of the lowlands. Water-loving plants flourish on gentle
slopes while dry-tolerant ones thrive along steeper slopes. The warmer slope, directly oriented
towards the sun, sustains more luxuriant vegetation than the shaded portions. Thus, marked
variations in the biotic communities can be observed as an effect of topographic features in
terrestrial ecosystems.
Interdependence
Nature teaches us that in an ecosystem, “everything is connected to everything else”. Every
structure conforms to a particular function. Every function contributes to the integrity of the
whole.
After studying the structural components of an ecosystem, hopefully we can appreciate the
fact that “everything has an important role to play in the web of life”. Hence, every life form has
a place under the sun, because even unknown to man, every living thing is important to
something or to someone. And even those that have no life are part of the pattern. The air that
we breathe, the water that keeps us alive, and the land that provides our needs, help maintain
the stability of our ecosystem.
And so we respect life and all things that make life as we know it possible.
FUNCTIONAL COMPONENTS OF AN ECOSYSTEM
 Food Web/Food Chain – Organisms in a biotic community are bound together by their
common need for FOOD. The complex pattern of food dependency relationship that defines
who eats and who gets eaten is called a food web.
 Energy Flow – – Energy enters the biosphere in the form of light during photosynthesis. As
energy moves from one trophic level to another, a certain amount of energy is lost.. It
leaves the biosphere mostly in the form of heat Thus, we say that energy generally follows
a one-way path in the biosphere.
 Biogeochemical Cycles – also known as nutrient cycling is the continual exchange of matter
between organisms and their nonliving environment.. Matter (that is, elements and inorganic
compounds in the form of minerals in the soil, gases in the air and water) moves within an
ecosystem in a cyclic path. It enter the biosphere through physiological processes such as
Catherine Genevieve Barretto-Lagunzad
Ateneo de Manila University Loyola Heights Quezon City
cgblagunzad@yahoo.com
 photosynthesis and ingestion and leave the biosphere through processes such as respiration
and decay
 Biodiversity – refers to the variety of genes, species and ecosystems important in
maintaining stability. It is the wealth of all life forms on earth that is a product of years of
evolutionary processes.
 Change – Change may occur through growth and development at the various levels of
biological organization that include organisms, populations and communities. Growth refers
to quantitative changes such as population growth. Development refers to qualitative
changes such as ecological or community succession.
 Cybernetics or self-regulation. The DYNAMIC BALANCE OR EQUILIBRIUM (in terms of
population size of the different species) which results from the interactions among the
members of a biotic community and from the interaction between organisms and their
physical environment is known as “balance of nature”.
FOOD CHAINS AND ENERGY FLOW IN ECOSYSTEM
1. The earth is an open system. It receives inputs of energy from the sun and makes outputs
of heat energy which are passed to outer space ("sink" - a place that absorbs a flux).
2. Through photosynthesis, sunlight is transformed into chemical energy and stored in
complex chemical molecules. This energy can be released by the organism through the
process of respiration.
Photosynthetic plants possess the ability to transform solar energy to chemical form. They
are called producers or autotrophs (auto = self; troph = nourishment).
All other biotic components are dependent on prefabricated organic material. Heterotrophs
(hetero = other; troph = nourishment) are either macroconsumers (phagotrophs) chiefly
animals which ingest other organisms and particulate organic matter or microconsumers
(saprotrophs and osmotrophs) chiefly bacteria and fungi. These latter organisms break
down complex compounds of dead protoplasm, absorb products of decomposition and
release inorganic nutrients.
3. Energy-rich molecules stored by the producers are eaten by a series of consumers. As food
moves from one trophic level to another, so does the energy that food contains. This
feeding relationship is either a food chain or a food web.
4. The laws of thermodynamics govern energy processes in biological systems. The First law
of Thermodynamics (Conservation of Energy) states that “energy is neither created nor
destroyed”. Second law of thermodynamics (Entropy) states that each time energy is
transformed it tends to go from a more organized and concentrated form to a less organized
or more dispersed form. Corollary to this is that energy transfers are never 100% efficient.
KEY CONCEPTS AND PRINCIPLES
The major concepts in this module are listed below.
1. Ecosystem, the functional unit of the environment, consists of living (biotic) and non-living
(abiotic) components. These components continually interact, producing an interdependent
exchange of materials and energy.
2. The biotic components of an ecosystem include the producers, consumers and
decomposers; while, the abiotic components refer to the climatic, edaphic (soil) and
topographic factors.
3. Ecosystem functions cover the major life sustaining processes that include production,
consumption and decomposition. These functions involve a complex system of interactions
and interdependence.
4. Feeding relationship is the type of relationship in which energy-rich molecules stored by
producers are taken in by a series of consumers.
5. There is a one-way flow of energy in an ecosystem. Entering the living world mostly as light
through the trophic chain, energy leaves mostly as heat.
6. In contrast, materials flow in an ecosystem in a cyclic pattern. Materials utilized by the biotic
components of the ecosystem return to the physical world mainly through the processes of
respiration and decomposition.
7. A balanced ecosystem is achieved when the natural processes involved are maintained in a
steady dynamic state. Such dynamic balance is maintained through the unhampered
interdependence of the biotic components as they interact with; and in turn, are affected by,
their physical environment.

Catherine Genevieve Barretto-Lagunzad

Ateneo de Manila University Loyola Heights Quezon City
cgblagunzad@yahoo.com