This article has been accepted for publication in a future issue of this journal, but has not been
fully edited. Content may change prior to final publication. Citation information: DOI 10.1109/TCPMT.2018.2882626, IEEE
Transactions on Components, Packaging and Manufacturing Technology
Detection of Poor Contacts in Low-Voltage
Electrical Installations
Nedzad Hadziefendic, Nemanja Kostic, Jovan Trifunovic, and Miomir Kostic
Abstract—Effects of a reduced torque on heating and the
electrical resistance of wire-screw terminal connections in an
old (used) receptacle and two new receptacles with
intentionally corroded connections were experimentally
investigated in laboratory. In one of the new receptacles the
corrosion process was accelerated by treating the line
connection with a mixture of nitric acid and hydrochloric acid,
and in the other by treating the neutral connection with
sulfuric acid. It was shown that by using these acids both the
temperature rise and electrical behavior of long-serving
receptacles can be simulated.
The possibility to detect a poor contact in an electrical
circuit by measuring both the line to earth resistance and the
line to neutral short circuit loop resistance during a periodic
verification of low-voltage electrical installations was also
analyzed. In laboratory conditions, a test electrical circuit with
a poor contact in each of the tested receptacles was formed and
the influence of that contact on both of the mentioned
resistances was observed during long-lasting heating processes.
Based on the results of both the laboratory experiments and
periodic verifications of low-voltage electrical installations in
public and commercial buildings with the total of 11,243
receptacles, a new procedure for detecting poor contacts in
low-voltage electrical installations, valid for the TN (Terra
Neutral) protection system, is recommended. The procedure,
intended for periodic verification, provides information about
poor contacts and their location in the tested receptacle (on the
phase, neutral and/or equipment grounding conductor) by
comparing both the line to earth resistance and the line to
neutral short circuit loop resistance to the limit values obtained
during the verification.
Index Terms—Poor electrical contact, contact resistance, hot
spot temperature, poor contact detection, new procedure.
I. INTRODUCTION
Failures in old, damaged or improperly designed,
installed or maintained low-voltage electrical installations
represent a frequent cause of fire in residential, public,
industrial and other buildings [1]–[3]. Frequent types of
such failures are glowing connections [4]–[8] and series arc
[9]–[11], especially when long-lasting. They usually occur
due to overheating of a poor electrical connection
characterized by a high electrical resistance. Therefore, there
is a constant need to develop more efficient methods and
_______________________________________

This research was partially supported by the Ministry of Education,
Science and Technological Development of the Republic of Serbia (project
TR 36018).
The authors would like to thank Prof. Jovan Cvetic, Ph.D., from the
Faculty of Electrical Engineering, University of Belgrade for his useful
advice regarding the means for accelerating the corrosion process, as well
as Dragana Djordjevic, Ph.D., Sanja Sakan, Ph.D., and Aleksandra
Mihajlida-Zelic, M.Sc., all from the Institute of Chemistry, Technology and
Metallurgy, Njegoseva 12, Belgrade, for chemical preparation of
receptacles used in the experiments.
N. Hadziefendic, N. Kostic, J. Trifunovic, and M. Kostic are with the
Faculty of Electrical Engineering, University of Belgrade, Bulevar kralja
Aleksandra 73, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia (e-mail: nedzad@etf.rs;
nmkostic@etf.rs; jovan.trifunovic@etf.rs; kostic@etf.rs).
2156-3950 (c) 2018 IEEE. Personal use is permitted, but republication/redistribution requires IEEE permission. See http://www.ieee.org/publications_standards/publications/rights/index.html for more information.
1
devices for the detection of poor electrical connections in
electrical circuits [12]–[14], as well as to improve
procedures for the design, maintenance and verification of
low-voltage electrical installations in buildings, given in the
relevant standards [15]–[18].
There are two glowing contact detection techniques worth
mentioning. The first is the acoustic sensing technique,
which represents an effective means for the detection of
glowing contacts in industrial applications, based on the fact
that the propagation of an acoustic signal through large and
uninterrupted copper wires and bus bars is characterized by
a very small attenuation. However, this technique might not
be feasible in residential applications, where high-
attenuation connectors are common in electrical installations
[19]. The second technique, infrared thermography (IRT), is
widely used for the inspection of electrical connections,
representing a useful and efficient preventive maintenance
measure [20]. However, it was concluded in [21] that in
earlier stages of poor electrical connections the cool
metalwork surrounding a small overheated area prevents the
latter from being identified. In addition, it is impossible to
detect a hot spot by IRT if there is no visual contact between
the spot and the thermal imager.
Receptacles represent typical electrical components the
malfunction of which can cause fire, usually initiated by
overheating at their poor terminal connections [3], [22],
[23]. Poor contacts are usually formed due to a reduced
effective area [24], a decreased torque on the wire-screw
terminal connection in low-voltage equipment [25] and/or
the presence of various films (such as oxides, contaminants
and reaction products) [26]. The standard procedure for
periodic verification of electrical circuits with receptacles is
to measure their line to earth resistance [27]. In the period of
2012–2017, experts from the Laboratory for testing low-
voltage electrical installations at the Faculty of Electrical
Engineering, University of Belgrade, performed numerous
verifications of low-voltage electrical installations in public
and commercial buildings. In all of those buildings the TN
(Terra Neutral) protection system was used. By examining
the measured line to earth resistances, it was noticed that
their values generally ranged from several hundreds of mΩ
(for electrical circuits on lower floors of the buildings where
the MV/LV (medium voltage/low voltage) transformer
station was positioned inside the building or in its vicinity)
to around 1 Ω (for electrical circuits on upper floors).
However, for some receptacles the measured line to earth
resistance amounted to a few ohms. The current standard
procedure [28] is based on the comparison of the measured
line to earth resistance with the limit value which enables
sufficiently quick operation of the corresponding protection
device (in order to prevent a dangerous electric shock).
Since the limit values are high, all of the circuits where the
measured line to earth resistance amounted to a few ohms
This article has been accepted for publication in a future issue of this journal, but has not been fully edited. Content may change prior to final publication. Citation information: DOI 10.1109/TCPMT.2018.2882626, IEEE
Transactions on Components, Packaging and Manufacturing Technology
were declared as in order, although some of them contained
a poor contact.
The objective of this paper is the development of a
procedure for detecting poor contacts in receptacles, based
on measuring both the line to earth resistance and the line to
neutral short circuit loop resistance during periodic
verification of low-voltage electrical installations. It was
shown in [25] that poor contacts with the electrical
resistance ranging from 80 mΩ to 250 mΩ represent a threat
to safety if the circuit current is high (the current of 16 A,
limited by the applied protection device, generally
represents the maximum rated current in electrical circuits
installed in residential, commercial and public buildings
connected to the mains with the rated voltage of 230 V). If
smaller currents follow, the electrical resistance of a poor
contact continues to rise and can reach values above 1 Ω, as
shown below. If in such a circuit (with the contact resistance
exceeding 1 Ω) the current is increased to around 16 A, a
high power will be dissipated on the poor contact, enhancing
conditions for burning of the surrounding plastics. In order
to prevent this, it is important to improve the current
procedure for periodic verification of electrical circuits in
order to be able to detect a poor contact. The idea elaborated
in this research is based on the detection of noticeable
increases of the line to earth resistance and/or the line to
neutral short circuit loop resistance during periodic
verification of low-voltage electrical installations.
According to the standard [29], the usually applied
(conventional) measuring equipment for verification of low-
voltage electrical installations enables the measurement of
both of those resistances. Line to earth (L-PE) resistance in
the TN system consists of the resistance of the power
transformer’s secondary, phase conductor resistance
between the power transformer and the test location, and
equipment grounding conductor resistance between the test
location and the power transformer. Line to neutral (L-N)
short circuit loop resistance in the TN system consists of the
resistance of the power transformer’s secondary, phase
conductor resistance between the power transformer and the
test location, and neutral conductor resistance between the
test location and the power transformer.
Poor contacts often occur in receptacles which have been
loaded for many years, especially if exposed to humidity,
environmental gases and other pollutants. In such cases
corrosion of contacts can occur, causing a gradual
deterioration of metal surfaces.
Glass et al. [30] exposed electrical receptacles to H2S
(hydrogen sulfide) and tested them both electrically and
thermally. Neither an increase of the electrical resistance nor
overheating was detected. Nevertheless, it was suggested
that other corrosive environments which could cause
overheated connections should be tested.
Babrauskas [1] stated that an overheated poor connector
liberates HCl (hydrochloric) gas (from the PVC (polyvinyl
chloride) material), which is corrosive for copper. Over long
periods, this can lead toward a complete breakage of the
connection. HCl vapors form a white crystalline deposit on
the copper conductor surface, which creates more heat and
continues the heating-corrosion-heating cycle [31].
Franey and Graedel [32] stated that the corrosion is
almost always a result of the synergistic action of several
2156-3950 (c) 2018 IEEE. Personal use is permitted, but republication/redistribution requires IEEE permission. See http://www.ieee.org/publications_standards/publications/rights/index.html for more information.
2
trace atmospheric components. In their opinion, the testing
should include at least a sulfur-containing gas, a chlorine-
containing gas (e.g. HCl) and a nitrogen-containing gas (e.g.
HNO3 (nitric acid)). Đorđević et al. [33] investigated the
composition of atmospheric aerosols in Belgrade, Serbia,
and showed that the most abundant aerosol precursor gases
are NH3 (ammonia), H2SO4 (sulfuric acid) and HNO3,
followed by HCl and various condensable organic acids.
In order to determine the range of the poor contact
resistance in actual electrical installations (needed for a
novel verification procedure), a set of experiments was
carried out on a receptacle that has been loaded for over 30
years, as well as on new receptacles with electrical contacts
intentionally exposed to corrosion (by chemical means).
II. EXPERIMENTAL WORK
In order to analyze the effects of a reduced torque on
heating and the electrical resistance of wire-screw terminal
connections, an old (used) receptacle and two new
receptacles (but with intentionally corroded connections)
were tested in the Laboratory. In order to accelerate the
corrosion process, in one of the new receptacles the line
(phase) connection was treated with aqua regia (conc.
HNO3 : conc. HCl = 1:3 (v/v)), and in the other new
receptacle the neutral connection was treated with H2SO4.
Using these acids, the effect of long-term exposure of
electrical contacts to an acidic atmosphere was simulated.
After treating both receptacles in a way that 0.2 ml of the
chemical was poured out on the selected contact, the
receptacles were left in a cabinet under normal atmospheric
conditions (room temperature and relative humidity in the
range 50–60%) for a month before they were tested.
In laboratory conditions, a test electrical circuit was
formed containing a conductor 3 m long and with a cross-
section of 2.5 mm2 (PP-Y 3x2.5 mm2), a protection device
and one of the three tested receptacles (the old one, the new
one treated with aqua regia or the new one treated with
sulfuric acid). The protection device was a miniature circuit
breaker (MCB, also known as thermal-magnetic circuit
breaker) of type B and the rated current of 16 A, installed in
a plastic switchboard. The switchboard was connected to the
wall receptacle in the Laboratory. The tests were performed
with the mains voltage of 230 V and frequency of 50 Hz.
The current (load) was changed using a resistance decade
box 230 V, 60 A. The experimental setup is shown in Fig. 1.
At the beginning of each experiment, the torque on all
wire-screw terminal connections in the tested receptacle was
adjusted to 1 Nm (very good contact) using a mechanical
torque screwdriver (Wiha TorqueVario-S26462, with a
measuring range 0.5–2.0 Nm and an accuracy of ±6%).
Then, both the line to earth resistance (RsL-PE) and the line to
neutral short circuit loop resistance (RsL-N) were measured
using a conventional installation tester instrument (FLUKE
1653B). Afterwards, the torque on one wire-screw terminal
connection of the receptacle was adjusted to 0.1 Nm (very
poor contact) using a digital torque screwdriver (TSD-50,
with a measuring range 0.05–0.5 Nm and an accuracy of
±2% clockwise and ±3% counterclockwise). In the old
receptacle it was the contact connected with the line (phase)
wire. In one of the new receptacles it was also the contact
This article has been accepted for publication in a future issue of this journal, but has not been fully edited. Content may change prior to final publication. Citation information: DOI 10.1109/TCPMT.2018.2882626, IEEE
Transactions on Components, Packaging and Manufacturing Technology
TABLE I
PARAMETERS DESCRIBING THE PERFORMED EXPERIMENTS
Initial test Initial heating
Torque 0.1 Nm and 1 Nm 0.1 Nm
Current / 16 A
Until phenomena preceding Until phenomena preceding a
Duration /
a series arc occurred
All experiments were made with an old and two new receptacles, the one treated with aqua regia and the other with sulfuric acid.
Fig. 1. Experimental setup (1 – tested receptacle, 2 – clamp meter FLUKE
323, 3 – digital multimeter PeakTech 3360, 4 – plastic switchboard, 5 –
installation tester instrument FLUKE 1653B, 6 – type-K (Chromel/Alumel)
thermocouple probe, 7 – infrared thermometer Cole-Parmer, and 8 –
resistance decade box 230 V, 60 A)
connected with the line wire (the contact previously treated
with aqua regia), and in the other new receptacle the contact
connected with the neutral wire (the contact treated with
sulfuric acid). Using FLUKE 1653B, the RsL-PE and RsL-N
resistances were measured again.
After these initial measurements, the current of 16 A was
established in the circuit until the poor contact reached a
high temperature (750–900 °C), which occurred after 11–15
hours (after 15 hours for the old receptacle, 12 hours for the
new one treated with aqua regia and 11 hours for the new
one treated with sulfuric acid). In each of the three cases, the
current was intentionally interrupted before the appearance
of a series arc, which was followed by natural cooling of the
contact for about 30 minutes. After that the contact
temperature approximately equaled the ambient
temperature. Then, the RsL-PE and RsL-N resistances were
measured again. For each of the tested receptacles, the
experiment was continued the next day (after a pause of
about 12 hours, during which the contact was at the ambient
temperature). First, the RsL-PE and RsL-N resistances were
measured again and it was found that in all three cases they
remained practically the same (none of the contact
resistances changed during the pause of 12 hours).
Afterwards, the whole procedure of the poor contact heating
to a high temperature (750–900 °C), followed by its natural
cooling for about 30 minutes, was repeated with the current
of 13 A, and then by the currents of 10 A, 8 A, 6 A and 4 A,
respectively (in all of these cases the procedure lasted much
shorter than with the current of 16 A – see Section III). In
each case, after 30 minutes of cooling the contact
temperature was approximately equal to the ambient
2156-3950 (c) 2018 IEEE. Personal use is permitted, but republication/redistribution requires IEEE permission. See http://www.ieee.org/publications_standards/publications/rights/index.html for more information.
3
Two series of repeated heatings with smaller currents
0.1 Nm 0.1 Nm
13 A, 10 A and 8 A 6 A and 4 A
Until the hot spot
series arc occurred temperature stabilized
temperature. Note that each of the conducted experiments
with the currents of 8–16 A was intentionally interrupted
when at least one of the phenomena preceding a series arc
occurred. They were: contact cracking, sparks on the
contact, sudden increase of the contact temperature (which
could not have been measured by the applied infrared
thermometer, because it was out of its temperature range), as
well as a sudden rise of the contact resistance and its rapid
changes in time. In the experiments with the currents of 4 A
and 6 A the interruption was intentionally done when the hot
spot temperature stabilized (it occurred at 770–870 °C) –
there was no indication for the occurrence of an electric arc
in any of these cases.
The contact temperature was measured using an infrared
thermometer (Cole-Parmer No. 800-323-4350, the accuracy
of which is ±0.75 °C or ±0.75%, whichever is greater). The
maximum temperature which can be measured by this
thermometer is 900 °C.
Prior to the experiments, the infrared thermometer was
calibrated using the referent type-K (Chromel/Alumel)
thermocouple probe (an accessory to the digital multimeter
PeakTech 3360), measuring temperatures up to 1260 °C
with the accuracy of ±1.1 °C or 0.4%, whichever is greater.
The only visible part of each of the tested poor contacts was
the head of the steel nickel-plated contact screw. The
emission coefficient was adjusted on the infrared
thermometer to 0.8, 0.85, 0.9 and 0.95 for the temperature
ranges of 0–350 °C, 350–550 °C, 550–800 °C and 800–
900 °C, respectively. The checks showed that, using these
adjustments, the measured temperatures deviated less than
4% from those obtained by the reference thermocouple.
During each measurement of the contact temperature, the
contact electrical resistance was also measured using the V–I
method. The current and voltage were measured by a current
clamp meter (FLUKE 323) and the digital multimeter,
respectively.
All parameters describing the performed experiments are
presented in Table I.
III. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The measurement results, showing the effects of a
reduced torque on heating and the electrical resistance of a
phase wire-screw terminal connection in the old receptacle,
as well as the new one treated with aqua regia, are presented
in Figs. 2–9 (t represents the time elapsed from the start of
the experiment, I – the current through the contact, R – the
contact electrical resistance, P – the power dissipated on the
contact, and T – the contact temperature). The results
obtained for the new receptacle treated with sulfuric acid are
not given, because they are very similar to the ones obtained
for the new receptacle treated with aqua regia. In all
This article has been accepted for publication in a future issue of this journal, but has not been fully edited. Content may change prior to final publication. Citation information: DOI 10.1109/TCPMT.2018.2882626, IEEE
Transactions on Components, Packaging and Manufacturing Technology
4

Fig. 2. Current through the contact within the heating periods, valid for the Fig. 6. Current through the contact within the heating periods, valid for the
old receptacle new receptacle treated with aqua regia

Fig. 3. Contact temperature within both the heating and cooling periods, Fig. 7. Contact temperature within both the heating and cooling periods,
valid for the old receptacle valid for the new receptacle treated with aqua regia

Fig. 4. Dissipated power within the heating periods, valid for the old Fig. 8. Dissipated power within the heating periods, valid for the new
receptacle receptacle treated with aqua regia

Fig. 9. Contact electrical resistance within both the heating and cooling
Fig. 5. Contact electrical resistance within both the heating and cooling
periods, valid for the new receptacle treated with aqua regia
periods, valid for the old receptacle

2156-3950 (c) 2018 IEEE. Personal use is permitted, but republication/redistribution requires IEEE permission. See http://www.ieee.org/publications_standards/publications/rights/index.html for more information.
This article has been accepted for publication in a future issue of this journal, but has not been fully edited. Content may change prior to final publication. Citation information: DOI 10.1109/TCPMT.2018.2882626, IEEE
Transactions on Components, Packaging and Manufacturing Technology
experiments, a long-lasting process of reaching the hot spot
temperature with the current of 16 A established in the
circuit was similar to the one described in [25]. In order to
focus on the relevant values of the parameters describing the
heating and cooling periods, only the results measured
during the second day of each experiment are given in
Figs. 2–9.
Analyzing the measurement results presented in Figs. 2–
9, it was noticed that the temperature rise of the poor contact
had similar behavior for the old and new, but intentionally
corroded, wire-screw terminal connections. After the last
cooling period, following the last heating period (with the
current of 4 A), the electrical resistance of the poor contacts
reached high values (1.92 Ω for the old receptacle, 1.84 Ω
for the new one treated with aqua regia and 1.83 Ω for the
new one treated with sulfuric acid). Based on their similar
values, it was concluded that new, but intentionally
corroded, wire-screw terminal connections in receptacles
can also be used to simulate electrical behavior of the
connections in old receptacles. However, it should be
emphasized that the use of acids aimed to accelerate the
aging process of loose connections is not a realistic
simulation of the natural aging process in air. For currents in
the range 4–16 A, the power dissipated on the contacts
(copper conductor – steel nickel-plated contact screw)
belonged to the range 29–76 W for the old receptacle, 27–
45 W for the new receptacle treated with aqua regia, and
30–55 W for the new receptacle treated with sulfuric acid.
These results are in accordance with those obtained in [31],
where power dissipated on glowing copper connections was
reported to be in the range 17–57 W for currents between
1 A and 15 A.
For all three receptacles, tests with the current of 2 A
(which should have simulated low-power single-phase
electrical loads with the rated power of about 500 W) were
also attempted. However, the test could not have been
completed for any of the receptacles. In case of the old
receptacle, at the beginning of the test with the current of
2 A a short circuit occurred between the phase receptacle
contact and the receptacle contact to which the equipment
grounding conductor was connected. The short circuit,
which occurred through the carbonated surface of the
receptacle ceramic body, caused the action of the protection
device, which interrupted the circuit power supply.
Regarding the new receptacles loaded with the current of
2 A, also at the beginning of each test, there was a break of a
conductor at the poor contact (a phase conductor in one
case, and a neutral conductor in the other). This probably
occurred due to mechanical fatigue and material wear
caused by the long-lasting previous testing. The damaged
bodies of all three receptacles, each with a wire connected to
the poor contact and without a plastic casing, are shown in
Fig. 10. It can be observed that PVC insulation of the copper
wires was heavily damaged by high temperatures.
Using the installation tester instrument, the RsL-PE and
RsL-N resistances were measured at the beginning of each
experiment (for the torques adjusted to 1 Nm (very good
contact) and 0.1 Nm (very poor contact)), as well as after
each cooling period. The measured values are given in
Table II for all three tested receptacles.
2156-3950 (c) 2018 IEEE. Personal use is permitted, but republication/redistribution requires IEEE permission. See http://www.ieee.org/publications_standards/publications/rights/index.html for more information.
5
Note that the tests of both the old receptacle and the new
one treated with aqua regia (in both cases the poor contact
was formed with the line conductor) showed that the values
of RsL-PE and RsL-N measured after each cooling period were
almost equal to the sums of their initially measured values
given in Table II and the poor contact electrical resistances
given in Figs. 5 and 9, measured using the V–I method. For
example, for the old receptacle the initial value of RsL-PE was
0.46 Ω (Table II), and the electrical resistance of its poor
contact, measured using the V–I method after heating with
the current of 4 A and 30 minutes of cooling, was 1.92 Ω
(Fig. 7). The sum of these two values (2.38 Ω) is almost
equal to the value of RsL-PE measured after heating with the
current of 4 A and 30 minutes of cooling, which amounted
to 2.35 Ω (Table II). Of course, this was not the case with
RsL-PE corresponding to the receptacle treated with sulfuric
acid, which practically remained the same after each heating
and cooling cycle, because the poor contact in that
receptacle was formed with the neutral conductor (only RsL-N
was increased). All initially measured values of RsL-PE and
RsL-N were in the range 0.43–0.47 Ω, even when the torque
on one of the wire-screw terminal connections was adjusted
to 0.1 Nm (very poor contact). However, measured after
each of the heating and cooling cycles, the RsL-PE values
ranged from 0.59 Ω to 2.35 Ω for the old receptacle and the
new one treated with aqua regia, indicating the presence of
at least one poor contact in these circuits. On the other hand,
the RsL-N values ranged from 0.66 Ω to 2.26 Ω for the
receptacle treated with sulfuric acid, precisely indicating
that the poor contact is the one connected with the neutral
conductor.
IV. PROCEDURE FOR DETECTING A POOR CONTACT IN LOW-
VOLTAGE ELECTRICAL INSTALLATIONS
The maximum line to earth resistances that ensure an
effective operation of the protection device in case of failure
in the TN system (RsMAX), determined for the most
frequently applied fuse-links (both fast and slow) and
miniature circuit breakers of types B and C (with the rated
currents (Ir) of 6–25 A), are given in Tables III and IV,
respectively. For each of the considered fuse-links, first the
minimal current (Ia) for which it operates within 0.4 s (a
condition from standard [28]) was taken from the
corresponding fuse-link overheating characteristic [34].
According to standard [35], the minimal MCB currents (Ia)
for which they react within 0.1 s (and, therefore, within
0.4 s) amount to 5 Ir and 10 Ir for types B and C,
respectively. In all cases, the value of RsMAX was obtained by
dividing the value of the rated mains voltage (230 V) with
the corresponding value of Ia.
It can be seen from Tables III and IV that the RsMAX values
are relatively high, which is why the conditions for a
required quick operation of the protection device (a fuse-
link or MCB) and prevention of electric shock are most
frequently met. As a consequence, in many cases a
conventional verification can show that a circuit is in order,
although at least one poor connection exists. This can easily
be seen analyzing examples of the most common circuits
protected by fast or slow fuse-links with the rated current of
10 A or 16 A, as well as by MCBs of type B or C with the
same rated currents, in which the RsMAX values are rather
high. They amount to 6.74 Ω and 4.50 Ω (for the considered
This article has been accepted for publication in a future issue of this journal, but has not been fully edited. Content may change prior to final publication. Citation information: DOI 10.1109/TCPMT.2018.2882626, IEEE
Transactions on Components, Packaging and Manufacturing Technology
6

TABLE III
VALUES OF Ia AND RsMAX FOR FAST AND SLOW FUSE-LINKS (Ir = 6–25 A)

Ia (A) RsMAX (Ω)

Ir (А)
Fast Slow Fast Slow
6 16.71 29.65 13.76 7.75
10 34.08 55.65 6.74 4.13
16 51.07 86.86 4.50 2.64
20 67.62 110.01 3.40 2.09
25 94.69 138.13 2.42 1.66

Fig. 10. Receptacles after the conducted experiments: the old (left), the one TABLE IV
treated with sulfuric acid (in the middle) and the one treated with aqua regia VALUES OF Ia AND RsMAX FOR MCBS OF TYPES B AND C (Ir = 6–25 A)
(right)
Ia (A) RsMAX (Ω)
TABLE II Ir (А)
THE MEASURED RsL-PE AND RsL-N RESISTANCES PRIOR TO THE Type B Type C Type B Type C
EXPERIMENT AND AFTER EACH COOLING PERIOD 6 30 60 7.67 3.83
8 40 80 5.75 2.87
New receptacle New receptacle 10 50 100 4.60 2.30
Old receptacle
(aqua regia) (sulfuric acid)
13 65 130 3.53 1.76
RsL-PE RsL-N RsL-PE RsL-N RsL-PE RsL-N
(Ω) (Ω) (Ω) (Ω) (Ω) (Ω) 16 80 160 2.87 1.43
torque = 1 Nm, no current 20 100 200 2.30 1.15
0.46 0.45 0.44 0.43 0.47 0.46 25 125 250 1.84 0.92
torque = 0.1 Nm
no current
0.46 0.45 0.45 0.44 0.47 0.46
after heating with the current of I ≈16 A + 30 minutes of cooling
0.74 0.73 0.59 0.58 0.48 0.66
after heating with the current of I ≈13 A + 30 minutes of cooling
0.87 0.86 0.69 0.68 0.49 0.75
after heating with the current of I ≈10 A + 30 minutes of cooling
1.01 0.98 0.80 0.78 0.49 0.92
after heating with the current of I ≈8 A + 30 minutes of cooling
1.25 1.23 1.08 0.95 0.49 1.04
after heating with the current of I ≈6 A + 30 minutes of cooling
1.60 1.59 1.49 1.46 0.50 1.30
after heating with the current of I ≈ 4 A + 30 minutes of cooling
2.35 2.32 2.18 2.05 0.50 2.26
Fig. 11. Number of receptacles for which RsL-PE belonged to each of the
fast fuse-links), 4.13 Ω and 2.64 Ω (for the considered slow ranges 0.1 Ω wide
fuse-links), 4.60 Ω and 2.30 Ω (for the considered MCBs of
type B), and 2.87 Ω and 1.43 Ω (for the considered MCBs of ranges 0–0.1 Ω, 0.1–0.2 Ω,…, 1.1–1.2 Ω and 1.2–1.3 Ω. The
type C). In the conducted experiment, RsL-PE ranged from receptacles for which the RsL-PE resistance was higher than
0.59 Ω to 2.35 Ω and in all those cases very high hot spot 1.3 Ω (1.5% of their total number) are not shown in Fig. 11,
temperatures were recorded on the poor contact. However, because their resistances were scattered within the range
these values are less than most of the RsMAX values 1.31–7.68 Ω.
characterizing the common circuits (with the protection By examining the measured RsL-PE resistances, it was
devices with the rated current of 10 A or 16 A). noticed that the majority of them belonged to the range
Similar conclusions can be reached analyzing the results 0.3–1 Ω. The values lower than 0.3 Ω were measured in
of periodic verifications of low-voltage electrical cases where the MV/LV transformer station was positioned
installations done by the Laboratory in public and inside the building or in its vicinity and for electrical circuits
commercial buildings with the total area of over 150,000 m2, on lower floors of the building. The values higher than 1 Ω
where the RsL-PE resistance was measured for 11,243 were measured for electrical circuits on upper floors,
receptacles. Interruption of the equipment grounding because RsL-PE increases with the distance between the
conductor was detected in circuits containing 84 receptacles, electrical circuit and the transformer station.
which is why the users of the facilities were obliged to make On 82 receptacles the RsL-PE resistances higher than the
the necessary repairments (it should be emphasized that the corresponding RsMAX values were measured. These circuits
interruption of the equipment grounding conductors were also declared as inappropriate for use, because the
occurred exclusively in the receptacles). Therefore, a new
conditions for the prevention of an electric shock were not
total number of receptacles used in the further analysis was
met. In these cases, the RsL-PE resistances ranged from
11,159 (the RsL-PE resistance was measured for each of
them). Fig. 11 shows the number of receptacles for which 1.79 Ω to 7.68 Ω, indicating at least one poor contact in each
the measured RsL-PE resistances belonged to each of the of the corresponding circuits. After tightening all electrical
contacts in their receptacles or replacing the receptacles, as

2156-3950 (c) 2018 IEEE. Personal use is permitted, but republication/redistribution requires IEEE permission. See http://www.ieee.org/publications_standards/publications/rights/index.html for more information.
This article has been accepted for publication in a future issue of this journal, but has not been fully edited. Content may change prior to final publication. Citation information: DOI 10.1109/TCPMT.2018.2882626, IEEE
Transactions on Components, Packaging and Manufacturing Technology
LOOP RESISTANCE ANALYSIS IN CASES IN WHICH THE MEASURED RSL-PE RESISTANCE IS LOWER THAN THE MAXIMUM VALUE OF THE LINE TO EARTH
RESISTANCE (RSMAX) WHICH ENSURES AN EFFICIENT OPERATION OF THE PROTECTION DEVICE
RsL-PE<Rlim RsL-PE>Rlim
RsL-N<Rlim RsL-N<Rlim
The electric circuit
Location of a Poor electrical contact
probably has no
poor electrical on the equipment
poor electrical
contact
contact
grounding conductor
None (in case of
Fire hazards failure, the protection
Probably do not
(consequences device responds
exist
of malfunction) within the safe
interval)
well as tightening all electrical contacts in the supplying
distribution boards, the RsL-PE resistance were measured
again and in all cases their values were not only lower than
RsMAX, but also lower than 1.3 Ω.
There were circuits where the RsL-PE resistances were
lower than RsMAX, but high enough to indicate the presence
of at least one poor contact. In those cases (84 receptacles)
the RsL-PE resistances ranged from 1.3 Ω to 4.38 Ω. Although
the conditions for a proper operation of the protection device
and the prevention of an electric shock were met, the users
of the facilities were instructed to make the necessary
repairments. After tightening all electrical contacts, in all
cases the measured RsL-PE resistance was lower than 1.3 Ω.
Note that poor contacts were also found in receptacles
where RsL-PE was lower than 1.3 Ω, but over 0.5 Ω higher
than the RsL-PE resistances measured on the surrounding
receptacles. This is well correlated with the results obtained
by the conducted experiment (see Table II). For the old
receptacle the initial RsL-PE value was 0.46 Ω, and after the
formation of a poor contact (after 15 hours of its heating
with the circuit current of 16 A) it equaled 0.74 Ω. The
change of the RsL-PE resistance in this case was smaller than
0.5 Ω, but it should be taken into consideration that in real
cases there is a cumulative effect (for example, Table II
shows that, due to additional heating with smaller currents,
the RsL-PE resistance rose from 0.74 Ω to 2.35 Ω). Also, there
are other contacts in the circuits that can cause an additional
increase of the RsL-PE resistance. Although it would be more
convenient to have the fixed recommended maximum safe
acceptable resistance level (Rlim), it was not possible to
determine its unique value valid for each electrical circuit,
which can be illustrated by the following example. In a
building all but one RsL-PE resistance measured for
receptacles at the ground floor were in the range
0.27–0.36 Ω, while for the exceptional receptacle the
resistance was 0.89 Ω (this receptacle had a poor contact). In
the same building all RsL-PE resistances measured for
receptacles at the attic were higher than 0.89 Ω, belonging to
the range 0.97–1.16 Ω, although none of them had a poor
contact. Therefore, when doing periodic verification of low-
voltage electrical installations, as the limit RsL-PE resistance
which indicates that there is at least one poor contact in an
electrical circuit (Rlim), we propose the one which is 0.5 Ω
higher than the highest RsL-PE resistance measured on the
surrounding receptacles.
2156-3950 (c) 2018 IEEE. Personal use is permitted, but republication/redistribution requires IEEE permission. See http://www.ieee.org/publications_standards/publications/rights/index.html for more information.
7
TABLE V
RsL-PE<Rlim RsL-PE>Rlim
RsL-N>Rlim RsL-N>Rlim
 poor electrical contact on the phase conductor, or
Poor electrical  poor electrical contacts on two conductors (all three
contact on the combinations are possible), or
neutral conductor  poor electrical contacts on all three conductors (the
worst case)
Possible, due to a Possible, due to a hot spot on the phase and/or neutral
hot spot on the conductor (in case of failure, the protection device
neutral conductor operates within the safe interval)
The conducted experiments also showed that a poor
contact can occur only on the neutral conductor, which
cannot be detected by measuring the RsL-PE resistance (see
the data presented in Table II valid for the new receptacle
with the neutral contact treated with sulfuric acid). If the
RsL-PE (RsL-N) resistance measured on a receptacle is higher
than Rlim, this indicates that there is at least one poor contact
on the receptacle (on the phase, neutral and/or equipment
grounding conductor). Also, if RsL-PE is significantly higher
than RsL-N, a poor contact is on the equipment grounding
conductor, and if RsL-N is significantly higher than RsL-PE, a
poor contact is on the neutral conductor.
Therefore, not only the RsL-PE values, but also the RsL-N
values should be measured in every circuit (the duration of
each additional measurement is about 5 s when using a
conventional installation tester instrument). By the analysis
of the measured results, it can be determined if there is a
poor contact in the circuit. Table V contains guidelines for
potential locations of poor contacts and possible fire hazards
in all situations which can occur in practice. It should be
applied when the measured RsL-PE resistance is lower than
RsMAX (in the opposite case, the corresponding circuit should
be declared unsafe).
The measurements of RsL-PE and RsL-N, along with the
analysis based on Tables III–V, represent a new procedure
for detecting poor contacts in low-voltage electrical
installations. It is valid for both types of receptacles –
intended for single-phase and three-phase loads. The
difference is that in the case of a three-phase receptacle the
measurements of RsL-PE and RsL-N must be performed, and the
obtained results analyzed, for each of the three phase
conductors.
Upon completion of the periodic verification of the
considered low-voltage electrical installations, it is
necessary to specify in the expert report which electrical
circuits potentially have poor contacts. The obligation of the
electrician or technical service is to find and tighten all poor
electrical contacts detected in those electrical circuits or
replace the damaged electrical components. This refers to
the protection devices located in the distribution board,
switches and distribution boxes, but particularly to the
receptacles. In order to obtain the confirmation that the
defects which caused poor electrical contacts were
eliminated by the action of the electrician or technical
service, it is necessary to re-measure RsL-PE and RsL-N in those
electrical circuits and check if their new values meet the
This article has been accepted for publication in a future issue of this journal, but has not been fully edited. Content may change prior to final publication. Citation information: DOI 10.1109/TCPMT.2018.2882626, IEEE
Transactions on Components, Packaging and Manufacturing Technology
conditions for an electric circuit without a poor electrical
contact and safe protection against electric shock in case of
failure.
The application of the new procedure when verifying the
state of electrical contacts would considerably reduce the
probability for the occurrence of dangerous hot spots. This
would solve the problem of the inability to detect hot spots
by infrared thermography in cases where there is no visual
contact (in addition, the infrared thermography is usually not
mandatory, but represents a recommended method for the
detection of hot spots).
V. CONCLUSIONS
The first objective of this research was to establish
experimentally the effects of a reduced torque on heating
and the electrical resistance of wire-screw terminal
connections in an old (used) receptacle and two new
receptacles with intentionally corroded connections. It was
concluded that new, but intentionally corroded, wire-screw
terminal connections in receptacles can be used to simulate
both the temperature rise and electrical behavior of long-
serving receptacles.
The second objective of this research was to investigate
the possibility to detect a poor contact in an electrical circuit
during a periodic verification of low-voltage electrical
installations by measuring not only the circuit line to earth
resistance (RsL-PE), but also the line to neutral short circuit
loop resistance (RsL-N). The field measurement results
showed that the resistance 0.5 Ω higher than the highest
RsL-PE (RsL-N) resistance measured on the surrounding
receptacles can be recommended as the limit receptacle
RsL-PE (RsL-N) resistance which indicates that there is a poor
contact in the corresponding electrical circuit (Rlim).
The final objective of this research was the development
of a new procedure for detecting poor contacts in low-
voltage electrical installations, based on the measurement of
both the RsL-PE and RsL-N resistances and their comparison to
Rlim.
The application of the new procedure is limited to the TN
system, which is the most frequently applied protection
system. Also, it has to be emphasized that some poor
contacts cannot be detected by the application of the new
procedure. A connection can be loose but still with a very
low contact resistance, especially if the connection is still
clean. Metal-to-metal contact, even under a low contact
force, can be low in resistance, leading the inspector of
electrical installations to misconclude that the circuit is in
order. This is why it is not recommended to apply the
proposed procedure during the initial verification of
electrical installations. As the electrical installation is
getting older, especially if being exposed to increased
humidity, environmental gases and other pollutants, the
application of the recommended procedure will constantly
become more efficient in detecting poor contacts.
REFERENCES
[1] V. Babrauskas, “How do electrical wiring faults lead to structure
ignitions?,” in Proc. Fire Materials Conf., London, UK, 2001, pp. 39–51.
[2] J. J. Shea, “Identifying causes for certain types of electrically initiated
fires in residential circuits,” Fire Mater., vol. 35, no 1, pp. 19–42, Jan.
2011.
2156-3950 (c) 2018 IEEE. Personal use is permitted, but republication/redistribution requires IEEE permission. See http://www.ieee.org/publications_standards/publications/rights/index.html for more information.
8
[3] J. R. Hall. (Apr. 2013). Home electrical fires. NFPA, USA. [Online].
Available: http://www.nfpa.org/~/media/files/news-and-research/fire-
statistics/major-causes/oshomeelectricalfires.pdf?la=en
[4] W. J. Meese and R. W. Beausoliel, “Exploratory study of glowing
electrical connections,” Center for Building Technology, Institute for
Applied Technology, National Bureau of Standards, NBS Building Science
Series, vol. 103. Washington, DC, USA, Oct. 1977, pp. 1–22.
[5] T. Kuroyanagi, S. Inoue, and H. Suzuki, “Glowing phenomena of
copper and copper materials and their electrical characteristics,” (in
Japanese), Copper Promotion Tech. Res. Group J., vol. 20, pp. 198–204,
1981.
[6] J. J. Shea and X. Zhou, “Material effect on glowing contact properties,”
IEEE T. Compon. Pack. T., vol. 32, no. 4, pp. 734–740, Dec. 2009.
[7] J. J. Shea, “Glowing contact physics,” in Proc. Holm, New York, NY,
USA, Sep. 2006, pp. 48–57.
[8] J. Sletbak, R. Kristensen, H. Sundklakk, G. Navik, and M. Runde,
“Glowing contact areas in loose copper wire connections,” IEEE Trans.
Compon., Hybrids, Manuf. Technol., vol. 15, no. 3, pp. 322–327, Jun. 1992.
[9] J. J. Shea, “Conditions for series arcing phenomena in PVC wiring,”
IEEE Trans. Compon. Packag. Technol., vol. 30, no. 3, pp. 532–539, Sep.
2007.
[10] P. Müller, S. Tenbohlen, R. Maier, and M. Anheuser, “Current
characteristics of serial and parallel low current arc faults in distribution
networks,” in Proc. CIRED, Frankfurt, Germany, 2011, pp. 1-4, paper
0181.
[11] B. Maas, H. Krompholz, M. Kristiansen, and M. Hagler, “Arc current,
voltage, and resistance in a high energy, gas filled spark gap,” in Proc. 5th
IEEE Pulsed Power Conf., Arlington, TX, USA, Jun. 1985, pp. 99–101.
[12] J. J. Shea, “Method and apparatus for detecting a glowing contact in a
power circuit,” U.S. Patent 8 854 066 B2, Oct. 7, 2014.
[13] J. C. Engel, “Electrical switching apparatus including glowing contact
protection,” U.S. Patent 6 707 652 B2, Mar. 16, 2004.
[14] M. Baxter, G. Spacht, and B. Baxter, “Systems and methods for
reducing electrically-caused fires in wiring devices,” U.S. Patent 8 139 337
B2, Mar. 20, 2012.
[15] Electrical Installations for Buildings, document IEC 60364, 2016.
[16] M. W. Earley, J. S. Sargent, C. D. Coache, and R. J. Roux, “National
electrical code handbook,” Nat. Fire Protection Assoc., Quincy, MA, USA,
2011.
[17] Plugs and Socket-Outlets for Household and Similar Purposes,
document IEC 60884, 2002.
[18] Low-Voltage Electrical Installations—Part 5-52: Selection and
Erection of Electrical Equipment—Wiring Systems, document IEC 60364,
2012.
[19] X. Zhou, J. Hastings, and T.J. Schoepf, “Application feasibility of
detecting glowing contacts using acoustic sensing technology,” in Proc.
Holm, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada, Sep. 2009, pp. 1–7.
[20] S. Taib, M. S. Jadin, and S. Kabir, “Thermal imaging for enhancing
inspection reliability: Detection and characterization,” in Infrared
Thermography. Rijeka, Croatia: InTech, 2012.
[21] C. Wilson, G. McIntosh, and R. S. Timsit, “Contact spot temperature
and the temperature of external surfaces in an electrical connection,” in
Proc. ICEC, Beijing, China, May 2012, pp. 12–17.
[22] M. Benfer and D. Gottuk, “Electrical receptacles—Overheating,
arcing, and melting,” Fire Safety Sci., vol. 11, pp. 1010–1023, Feb. 2014
[23] J. L. Ferrino-McAllister, R. J. Roby, and J. A. Milke, “Heating at
electrical contacts: Characterizing the effects of torque, contact area, and
movement on the temperature of residential receptacles,” Fire Technol.,
vol. 42, no. 1, pp. 49–74, Jan. 2006.
[24] N. Hadziefendic, M. Davidovic, V. Djordjevic, and M. Kostic, “The
impact of an incomplete overlap of a copper conductor and the
corresponding terminal on the contact temperature,” IEEE T. Compon.
Pack. T., vol. 7, no. 10, pp. 1644–1654, Oct. 2017.
[25] N. Hadziefendic, J. Trifunovic, and M. Kostic, “Effects of a reduced
torque on heating of electrical contacts in plugs and receptacles,” accepted
for publication in IEEE T. Compon. Pack. T., 2018, DOI:
10.1109/TCPMT.2018.2827080.
[26] M. Braunovic, V. V. Konchits, and N. K. Myshkin, “Reliability issues
in electrical contacts,” in Electrical Contacts: Fundamentals, Applications
and Technology. Boca Raton, FL, USA: Taylor & Francis, 2006.
[27] Low-voltage electrical installations – Part 6: Verification, document
IEC 60364-6, 2016.
[28] Low-voltage electrical installations – Part 4-41: Protection for safety
– Protection against electric shock, document IEC 60364-4-41, 2005.
[29] Electrical safety in low voltage distribution systems up to 1000 V a.c.
and 1500 V d.c. - Equipment for testing, measuring or monitoring of
This article has been accepted for publication in a future issue of this journal, but has not been fully edited. Content may change prior to final publication. Citation information: DOI 10.1109/TCPMT.2018.2882626, IEEE
Transactions on Components, Packaging and Manufacturing Technology
9

protective measures - Part 3: Loop impedance, document IEC 61557-3, Jovan Trifunovic was born in
2007.
Belgrade, Serbia, in 1979. He received
[30] S. Glass, C. Mowry, and N. Sorensen, Report on study of electrical
component corrosion related to problem drywall, document SAND2011- the Dipl.Ing.El., M.Phil. and Ph.D.
1539, Sandia National Laboratories, USA, 2011. degrees from the University of
[31] M. Benfer and D. Gottuk, Development and Analysis of Electrical Belgrade, Serbia, all in electrical
Receptacle Fires, document NIJ-2010-DNBX-K218, Baltimore, MD, USA,
engineering, in 2003, 2009 and 2016,
2013.
[32] J. P. Franey and T. E. Graedel, “Corrosive effects of mixtures of respectively. In 2005 he joined the
pollutants,” JAPCA J. Air Waste Ma., vol. 35, pp. 644-648, 1985. University of Belgrade, where he is
[33] D. Đorđević, A. Mihajlidi-Zelić, D. Relić, Lj. Ignjatović, J. presently employed as Assistant
Huremović, A. M. Stortini and A.Gambaro, “Size-segregated mass
Professor. In 2017 and 2018 he was Acting Director of the
concentration and water soluble inorganic ions in an urban aerosol of the
Central Balkans (Belgrade),” Atmos. Environ., vol. 46, pp. 309-317, 2012. Center for the Promotion of Science of the Republic of
[34] Low-voltage fuses - Part 1: General requirements, document IEC Serbia. His areas of interest currently include grounding
60269-1, 2006. systems, low-voltage electrical installations and energy
[35] Electrical accessories - Circuit-breakers for overcurrent protection for
efficiency.
household and similar installations - Part 1: Circuit-breakers for a.c.
operation, document IEC 60898-1, 2015.
Miomir Kostic was born in Vranje,
Nedzad Hadziefendic was born in Serbia, in 1956. He received the
Prokuplje, Serbia, in 1971. He Dipl.Ing.El., M.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees
received the Dipl.Ing.El. and M.Sc. from the University of Belgrade,
degrees from the University of Serbia, all in electrical engineering, in
Belgrade, Serbia, both in electrical 1980, 1982 and 1988, respectively. In
engineering, in 1997 and 2001, 1980 he joined the University of
respectively. He is now a Ph.D. Belgrade, where he is presently
candidate at the same University, employed as Professor. His current research interests
where he has been working as a include grounding systems, low-voltage electrical
laboratory engineer since 1998. His installations, thermal issues of poor electrical contacts,
current research interests include low-voltage electrical energy efficiency in public lighting, as well as ambient and
installations, fire safety, safety and health management, as architectural lighting.
well as thermal issues of poor electrical contacts.

Nemanja Kostic was born in

Belgrade, Serbia, in 1984. He received
his Dipl.Ing.Org. and M.Sc. degrees
from the University of Belgrade, both
in organizational sciences (project
management), in 2008 and 2010,
respectively. He is a PhD student at
the same University and works as a
researcher and Fire Protection
Manager in the Laboratory for testing low-voltage electrical
installations at the University of Belgrade.

2156-3950 (c) 2018 IEEE. Personal use is permitted, but republication/redistribution requires IEEE permission. See http://www.ieee.org/publications_standards/publications/rights/index.html for more information.