Religion and Historic Faiths PDF

R e ligi o n and
H istori c Fait h s
O T T O PF L EID E R E R , D D . .
Professor in the Un i ity

v ers of B li
er n
T R AN S LA T ED F R OM T H E G ER MAN BY
D ANIEL A H UEB SC H , PH D . .
A uthor i z ed Edi ti on
N EW YO R K
B . W . H U E B SC H
I 07
9
C O PYR IG H T , 1 9 0 7 , av
B . W H U EB S CH
"
R e m m on um ) Rm c xom w
bl i h d M y 5 9 6
Pu s e a 1 1 0
P i vi l g f C py i g h i h U i d S
.
,
r e e o o r t n t e n te ta tes
v d d h A pp v d M h 3
res e r e un e r t e ct a ro e arc , r gos, by
J F L E HMAN N, Mun ch en
. . .
PR E F A CE
T H E l ectures here publi shed were del ivered at

the University of Berlin during the la s t w inter
s emester before an audience composed of students of
a l l the faculties and older non collegiates ; some o f
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the lectures were also given i n a publi c course at a

high school The hearty reception accorded to
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them by both audiences was a pleasing proof o f

present day active growth o f i nterest i n things r e
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l i g i ous in all ci rcles .
O n the basis o f stenographi c reports w ithout ,
material change I have prepared the contents of

,
these lectures for press ; so that as far as possible , ,
the s p iri t o f the spo k en word woul d be caught by

the reader The l im i ted period set for each lectu r e
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re q u ired a curtailment o f the q uotations but i n most ,
cases they have bee n inserted in this vol ume at

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proper length The close o f the semester p r evented

.
he actual delivery o f the concluding lecture on

I slam ; completeness however made such an omi s
, ,
sion here impossible .
I t i s sel f evident that within the narrow l imits o f

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these lectures only the essentials o f the w ealth of

m aterial a fforded by the h istory of religion coul d
be chosen for em p hasis In the selection my deci
.
,
2 9 02 9 0
P r e face
sion was guided by the w ish to draw the clearest
possible pictu r e o f the characte r istic features of
the religions showing thei r points o f d i fference
,
and of contact The th r ee int r oducto r y lectures

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wi ll make clear the v iew points w hich se r ved as my

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standa r ds Pe r haps it w ould be advi sable to r ecom

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m end to those readers who are less interested i n the

philosoph ical reflections contained i n the open ing
lectures that they begin at the fourth lecture and
, ,
after having read the histo r ical matter turn bac k ,
to the po r tion devoted to the philosophy of rel igion .
F or deeper study I refer the reader to my larger

,
wor k Religionsph ilosophi e auf geschichtlicher

”
G rundlage ( 3 A ufl , and to the text books
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o n the general history o f religion by Tiele Chan ,
tep i e de Saussaye O r el l i and Menzies ; i n them

, ,
l ists of books treating of the separate religions are

given .
O TT O P F L E IDE R E R .
G R O S S -L I G H T E R F E L D E , Ma r ch , 1 906 .
T A BL E OF CO N T E N T S
P AG E
THE ESSE N CE OF R ELIGI ON

R ELIGI ON A ND E T H I CS
R E L IGI ON A N D S CIE N CE
T H E B EGI NN I N GS OF R ELI G I ON
T H E CH I N ESE R E L IGI ON
T H E E GYP T I A N R E L IGI ON
T H E B A B Y L ON I A N R E L IGI ON
T H E R E L IGI ON OF Z A RAT H U S T RA A ND T H E
MI TH RA CU L T
B RA H MA N IS M A N D G A UTA MA B UDD H A
B UDD H IS M
T H E G REE K R ELIGI ON
T H E R E L IGI ON OF IS RA EL
P O S T E X ILI C J UD A IS M
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CH R IS T I A N I TY
IS L A M
R e l i gi o n an d H i s to r i c F a i th s
THE ES SE N CE OF R E L I G I ON
B EF OR Ewe enter into the consi deration o f th e

various historical rel igions w e must make clear ,
ans w er to the question : What are we to under

stand by religion gene r ally ? The simplest answer
to thi s q uestion was contained in the etymological
explanation given by the church father L a ctantius -
“
R elig i on i s th e a tta ch m en t to G od b y th e b ond
”
o f i
p ye t .This defin ition i s enti r ely correct but i t ,
re q ui res explication in order to demonstrate its gen

eral appl icability .
AS i s well known there are some religions wh ich

,
do not believe in one G od but in a plu r ality o f gods

,
o r spi rits or even in so m e va ue but div ne some

, g i
thing such as the power of fate and the like I n
, .
or der to make our defi nition hold good for these

rel igions we wi ll be compelled to take th e con cep
,
tion god i n a general sense ; something like thi s

That to which the religious man feels himsel f bound
i s asup e r natural world governing power True to
,
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.
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this there imm edi ately does appear the Ob j ection

,
that the gods of the lower reli g ions do not govern

9
R e l igi o n an d H i s to r i c F ai th s
the wo r ld that the savage does not even have
,
”
th is latter conception The conception wo r ld i n .
,
o ur sense o f unive r se does p r esuppose a trained

,
understand ing such as we are not able to accept

,
as p r esent at the beginnings of mankind N eve r .
th el es s
,
i t remains co r r ect that even the savage
”
believes h is world that is the sum of the Obj ects
,
o f his expe r ience to be bound to h is god as the

,
ruling power Deity everywhere i s the power wh ich

.
unites the mani fold experience o f each separate ex

i s ten ce the i ndivi dual to h i s social group an d h is
,
nature environment i nto a whole and somehow

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ordering thi s whole governs it , .
Toward thi s superior power man fi rst has the

feel ing o f powerlessness and dependence ; he knows
that h is weal and w oe depen d upon i t N aturally .
,
he feels the woe mo r e k eenly and i n s o far i t was not

enti rely incorrect when i t was said : F ear created
,
”
the gods in the beginning B ut th at i s not the .
whole truth ; man has though t the possessions whi ch

h e had or hope d for to be d epe ndent on the divine
po w er as well as th e evils wh ich h e fea r ed and , ,
therefo re h e felt himself bound to i t not only by

,
fear but also by g r atitude and confidenc e G oethe .
has emph asized th is S i de o f religious f eeling p ar

ti cul arly i n h i s beautiful words :
In b osom s p u e
o ur st u ggle eve
’
r , w e r r
T o y i eld ou selves f r f ee i ll O o ur ow n r w
I g at i tude to a h igh e
n r pu e u k o r, r r, n n w n
W e call i t be i g pi ous n .
"
IO
T h e E ssen c e o f R e l igi on
A b eing to whom ,
can yield mysel f i n gratitude
I ,
i s not only an Obj ect o f fear but also o f confidence ,

.
Therewith me r e fear becomes reverence and the

,
simple feeling of dependence rises to an obligation

to obedience to volunta r y subo r dination and sur
,
render Toward g r eater human beings befo r e

.
,
whose p ower w e b ow and upon w hose f r i e n dly

a ttitude we depend we have respect and a sense ,
o f duty . B ut to w ard men thi s feeling o f attach

ment is always conditio n ed because despite all , ,
superiority they stand o n a level w ith us in th e

,
m atter of hu m an li m itation and i m pe r fection I t .
i s di fferent with the divine po w er which gove r ns ,
o ur entire universe : i t stands in unmeasurable

superiority beyond us and all w h o a r e like us ; with
rega r d to it we feel oursel v es to be absolutely
,
dependent in duty bound to abs o lute subo r di n atio n

, ,
attached to i t w ith all our bei n g and o ur w ill I n .
s o far Schleie r m ache r w as right in hi s cha r acter
i z a ti on o f r eligious feeling as that of absolute “
”
dependence .
Th is definition however m ay easily lead to m i s

, ,
unde r standing as though religion consisted o i a n

,
unf r ee slavish dependence which excluded any and

, ,
all freedom Such i s not at all the case In the

. .
state m ent that w e feel ou r selves i n d uty b oun d to

subordi nate ou r selves to the divine po w er the r e i s ,
contained the decla r ation that that subo r dination i s

a f r ee act of o ur w ill not a fate which w e su ffer ,
p assively but an activity o n our part wh ich i s

, ,
I I
R e l igi o n an d H i stor i c Fa i t h s
i
d em a nd ed us A necessity wh ich i s not free

of .
rules only i n nature her laws act automatically ; but,
i n man the la w o f the whole becomes a demand

,
upon the w ill obedience to wh ich i s not compelled

, ,
but which only can and S hould be performed v ol un

ta r i ly Sch iller has put thi s di fference aptly in h is
well known distich :
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t h ou th h igh est th g eatest ? T h p la t

S e ek s t
'
e , e r e n ca n th y
teach e be r :
Wh at lac k i g i ll i t i s b e t h ou i t h W ill ; t h at t i s
, n w , , w
'
.
"
This attachment to God through the will i s th e

p iety the faith wh ich the Apo stle Paul h as des i g
, ,
”
mated as an obedience o f the heart F urther .
more man is not afrai d that by th is free Obedience

, ,
or sur r ender to God he wi ll lose h is human f r ee ,
dom and dignity ; but on the contrary he i s confi , ,
dent that i n the allia n ce w ith God he will ach ieve

, ,
freedom from the l imitations and fetters o f s ur

rounding natu r e and those w orse li m itations and
,
fette r s o f natu r e w ithi n uS The manifold desi res .
a n d fea r s o f the natu r al m an constitute h is slave r y ,
making him unf r ee and unhappy ; i n that the B ible ,
ag r ees w ith the w ise m en o f all ages— let me re m ind

you o f th e Stoics and o f Spinoza The elevation .
above nature to God the sur r ender of personal will ,
to the divine w ill i n Obedience and con fi dence leads to

f r eedom from th e m iserable bondage to and degra ,
dation under natu r e Seneca said at h is early

, .
,
”
day : To obey G od is to be f r ee .
True as to what this r elease means or w h at t h e

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T h e E ss en c e o f R e l igi o n
content of t h at hap piness i s wh ich the p ious man

seeks w i th and hop es fo r, from G od there have
, ,
been widely di ff ering notions each on a level wi th

,
the spiritual and moral p lane ofAd ev elop m ent of men

‘
.
F r om the pleading o f p rim itive peoples that thei r

gods S hould help to defeat thei r enemies orfl b r i n g
rain or frui tfulness to their fi elds up to the prayer
fi
o f the pious Psalmist : C reate in me a clean heart ,
0 God and renew a right S pirit w ithi n me " there

,
—
i s certainly a long road whose stations we will pass
i n our j ourney through th e h istory of the religions .
D es p ite differences o f content of p urposes of rel i

, ,
g ous striving th is much remains un ch anged : man

i ,
seeks freedom from the limitations o f the world and

from the unrest of his own heart i n t h e all iance
w ith G od .
Yo u k no w th at beauti ful saying o f A ugustine i n

h is C onfessions : Thou hast created us for Thy
sel f therefore our hearts are restless until they fi nd
, ,
”
rest in Thee . T h e theme of the enti re history o f
religion might be found i n that sentence— the d r i v
ing force and the law o f its development f rom th e
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nai ve beginnings o f primit ive religion up to the

of a religion o f the s p i rit N ote .
well : in order to understan d a development either

o f the natural or the spi ri tual li f e according to its ,
innermost meaning and principle the lowest f o rm s ,
m ust not be tak en as the standard o f measure an d

made the explanatory reason Of the whole ; but j ust
th e rev ers e in th e highest that whi ch appear s l as t
, , ,
I3
R e l igi o n an d H i s tor i c F ai t h s
the k ey must be sought w hich wi ll explain the whole ,
even i ts crudest beginnings By the acorn one .
cannot recogn ize w hat kin d O f an oak w ill grow ;

not unti l the tree i s full grown is i t disclosed The
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.
new born ch il d gives no k nowledge of the nature

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o f the future man i t does not become k nown until

,
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the man has reached m aturity Thus too concern .

, ,
ing the essence of a religion one must not j udge by ,
its lowest beginnings but by its later heights then , ,
for the fi rst time th e deep er meaning h idden In the

, ,
beginning as the unconscious i nstinct i n the chil d

i s h play is uncovered and revealed
, .
I t i s a pity that th is i s ove r looked s o O f ten to—

day ;
we would be spared the curious naturalisti c theori es
of some scholars who are industriously engaged i n
ferreting out the crude beginnings o f religions but ,
who seem to have no sense of what i s really essential

in them As a type O f all such I ta k e F euerbach
.
, ,
the bes t k no w n and i n h is way the cleverest rep

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, ,
r es en ta ti v e of that on e si ded tendency whic h h as

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contributed s o much toward discrediting religious

h istorical studies and causing many friends of rel i
gion to regard them wit h sus p i cion .
F rom the undeniable fact that i n t h e lower ,
stages o f religion the f ul fi llment of wi s h es mainly

, ,
sensual and sel fi sh i s sought f or by p rayers and

,
.
sacri fi ces F euerbach drew the conclusion t h at reli

,
gion altogether was nothing more than a product of

the selfish heart and the d r eam ing fancy ; the gods
”
were wish ing beings w hom man invented to
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I4
T h e E ssen c e o f R e l igi o n
decei v e h imsel f as to h is ow n we ak ness If t h at be

.
true h ow explai n the ri ddle that a S imple deception

,
p ersisted among all pe oples during thousands Of

years ? A nd that a construction o f unreason o f ,
the diseased egoi stic heart has proved to be the

,
most effective means o f con q uering natural e goism ,
o f basing and upholding reasonable customs order ,
and culture in S hort has p roved to be the principal

, ,
m eans O gm or al education of human ity as the h is ,
tory of religion indisputably teaches ? I f i t be true

”
here to o that by thei r fruits ye S hall k no w them
, , ,
then by thei r re asonable e ffects we m ay d raw the

j usti fi ed conclusion that according to its innermost
essence ( naturally n ot acco r ding to its constantly
imperfect forms of mani festation ) religion i s n ot
an i llusion or deception b uth h i gh es t truth —an d its
, ,
o rigin i s not to be foun d i n the unreason o f th e
sel fi sh h ea rt but must be sought in reason itsel f the

, ,
divine tendency o f our race wh ich contains o ur

,
capacity and destiny to rise above an d beyon d

n ature .
F rom t h e t ime of Plato and A ristotle all earnest ,
th inkers h ave agreed that the i dea o f G od belongs

o f necessity to o ur reason We di fferentiate tw o
.
modes o f the activity o f the reason A S cog n o s .
ci ti v e ( theoretical ) reason i t st r ives to achieve a

,
harmonious order o f all o f our ideas by tracing al l

p articular being and b ecomi n g back to on e all
encompassing uni form cause Thi s unifo r m h a r
.
,
m oni ous o rder and combination Of all the varied

IS
R e l igi on an d H i stor i c F ai th s
phenom en a i s the idea o f tr uth the climax o f theo ,
r e ti ca l reason ,
which i s at the bottom o f all o f
i ts will to kno w Thereup on reason looks to the
.
,
desi r e act i vities o f our soul and seeks to establish

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o r der an d ha r mony there also by classing all , ,
obj ects o r pu r poses o f the will according to thei r

relative values according as each i s not only p ur
,
pose O f the individual for the moment but for al l ,

,
and for all time and here too reason striving

, , , ,
for u n ity does not rest content unti l all particular

,
purposes are subordinated to o ne highest ab s o ,
l utely valuable purpose which i s the i dea o f the

,
g o o
,
d t h at wh ich ought to be the climax o f r
p ac ,
tical reason whi ch all reasonable willing and s tr i v

,
ing looks forwa r d to as i ts highest goal or i deal .
Wi ll i t be possible for reason to rest satis fi ed d eh

n i tely with thi s dual ism o f highest i deas the i dea ,
o f the true and the idea of the good ?
Let us remembe r well that the one does not coin

cide absolutely with the other ; on the contrary i n ,
the w o r ld of pheno m ena both always form a more ,
o r less distinct cont r adiction : the ideal o f what
ought to be i s neve r one with w hat actually is but , ,
to a ce r tain extent always bears the relation o f

,
oppo sition and negation to p r esent reality So it .
seems that p r actical reason w hose guiding star i s ,
the i deal of the good stands i n i rreconcilable con

,
fl iet with theoretical reason which is occupied with ,
the truth of being Yet i t i s one and the sa m e

.
reason which seek s to b r ing about a p erfect unity

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and harmony of our whole S pi ritual li f e W i ll i t be .
p ossible for that one reas on to rest fi nally w ith a

conflict and a dualism o f the i dea of the true and the
i dea of the good ? Some have thought reason ought
to rest content thus b ecause a resolution o f thi s
,
contradiction into a higher unity wi ll not be capable

o f proof . C ertainly in the world o f the manifol d
,
and o f the becoming of space and of ti m e the high

, ,
est unity w ill never be found the cont r adiction of ,
is and ought will never disa p pe ar completely F o r .
that ve r y cause i f reason does not wish to give itsel f

,
u p i t cannot do other than elevate itsel f above the

,
world to a last and highest unity i n wh ich all con ,
tr a di cti on s even that o f th e true and the go od are

, ,
un ified —to G od
, .
Yes G od is the word wh ich solves all worl d

,
~
riddles even the most di fficult which lies i n that

, ,
contradiction O f i s and ought ; i n the i dea of G od ,
reason striving for un ity fi nds i ts ultimate Ob j ect ,
i n wh ich alone i t can be at rest which f rom th e ,
b eginning hovered before i t always as the impel ,
ling motive and regulative of al l o f i ts interpreta

t ive purpose— dete r m ining thin k ing — actually th e ,
alpha and omega the p r esupposition and the goal o f

,
all o f i ts thoughts B ut because the i dea o f G od

.
,
i s the presupposition Of the truth of a l l O f o ur

thin k ing —the basi s of the connection of ou r w hol e
,
w orl dl p i ctur e, therefore the truth Of this idea can

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,
not itsel f be demonstra ted by any single series Of

thoughts and can not be laid bare as a S ingle
,
I7
R e l igi o n an d H i s tor i c Fa i t h s
m e m be r in the connection o f —
wo ld picture ; to o ur r
expe ct o r to de m a n d that w ould simply be sel f

cont r adiction In s o fa r i t i s t r ue i t does re m ain
.
, ,
t r ue that G o d is the Obj ect o f o ur bel ief and not

an obj ect of demonstrable kno w ledge by reasoned
p roofs .
This bel ief however i s not an a rbit r a ry hy p oth e

, ,
s i s — taken o n the
,
si m ple b as is of some outside
—
autho r ity o r even by denial of r eason but on the , ,
cont r ary the belief in God i s the r evelation of the

,
inne rm ost nature of reason absolute o f its divine ,
n ecessity supe r ior to all arbit r a r iness or in other , ,
w o r ds ,
the r evelation of God w ithin the hu m an
”
spi r it Natu r ally this revelation does not r e
.
,
“
lieve man o f self activity ; it does not come to h i m

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a s a fi n i shed gi ft but as a duty as an i r r esistible

, ,
i m pulse to r ise above all finite contradictions to the

Sup r e m e u n ity w h ich is the cause o f al l that i s and
,
the goal o f all that ought to be ( Rom x i 3 6 . .

,
.
F o r o f him and th r ough h im and to h i m a r e

, , ,
all thi n gs .I t i s the necessity o f the tas k whi ch

gua r a n tees that to some exte n t i t i s solvable ; i f
, ,
i t be a divi n e i m pul se of the spi rit w hich u r ges

us to seek God then i t i s a d ivine po w er o f the
,
spi r it w h ich w ill enable us to find h i m —find h i m s o

far at least a s i t i s po ssible for ch ildren o f Ti m e to
g r asp the ete r nal Spi r it ; eve r more and more closely ,
ever sh r ouded i n a symbol ever in the reflected ,
pictu r e o f the finite ever i n some da r k ri ddle of a

,
m yste r ious secret .
I8
B ut however inapt words however inade q uate

o ur ,
o ur conceptions of God are an d may remain the ,
truth o f the belief in G od itself i s in no w ise shaken ,
resting as i t d oe s on the demonstration o f the

“
”
Spi r it and of powe r ( I Cor i i The belief
.
,
in God gives o ur reason the gua r antee o f its o w n

t r uth and at the same ti m e of all other thinking and
k nowing i n the wo r ld ; it gives to our conscience the
fi r m support o f our feel ing o f duty ; i t gives to o ur
will the courage to hope and to our action th e
po w er o f accomplishment What th e reason O f
.
the reasonable cannot s ee a childlike S pi r it doe s in

,
”
its S impli city. I t i s certainly the most di fficult
task of hu m an l i fe to find the comp r o m ise between
freedom and necessity between the world s ha r sh
,
’
r eality and the i deal o f an aspiring heart What .
helps man to perform that task at least acceptably

i s the beli ef in G o d in which that contradiction fi nds
,
ete r nal solution because He i s the cause o f all being

,
and at the same time the accomplishment of all

, ,
that ought to be .
So th e belief i n G od proves its truth by helpi n g

man to the r ecogn ition o f h is destiny i n the wo r ld
and to the fulfill m ent the r eo f But i t not only h elps
.
to solve p r oble m s i t i s itself— be ing the h ighest s y n

,
thesis the u n ity o f the deepe st cont r adictions— the

,
deepest p r oble m o ffe r ed to man with w h ich h e has ,
st r uggled th r ough thousa n ds o f yea r s o f histo r y

a n d w ill have to struggle i n the futu r e It i s de .
ter m i n ed o f God that they shoul d seek the

“
I9
R e l igi o n an d H i stor i c F ai t h s
L ord i f R
they might feel after him and fi nd
h ap ly ,
him though h e is not far from each one o f us

,
.
F o r i n him we l ive and move and have our, ,
b eing .
( Acts xvi i 2 7 , ,
The sub j ect o f the entire h istory o f religion i s

given i n these words O f Paul ; i t i s a pe r petual
s eeki ng after G od an ever renewed e ffort to feel h i m
,
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and to fi nd him the unfathomable who i s so near

, ,
to us the i ntangible who does encompass us all

, ,
as our l ife element I t i s to be expected that in

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.
these attempts to fee l and to fi nd the highest unity ,
the balance would be now on on e si de and now on

the other of the two contradictions unified in God ;
and a glance at the main fo rms o f the h istori cal
religions confirms our expectations Two gr oups .
they form : the one grou p seeks G od i n the world ,
as the cause o f all being as the reality behind all

,
p henomena as the l aw of necessity ; the other

,
group th inks o f G od as the i deal of f r eedom as the ,
supermundane will of the good as the master ,
and di rector o f h istory through which he w ill

realize his pu rpose The former are religions of
.
i m manence ( God i n the wo r ld ) o r of pantheis m ,
relatively polyt heism ; the latter are rel igions o f

transcendence ( God beyond the world ) or o f
monotheism E ach Of these ideas O f God has a
.
mood o f piety corresponding to i t ; i n the former ,
q uiet contem plation p r epo nderates a feeling eithe r ,
o f j oy o r o f r esigned sub m ission to the present
condition o f things ordered by God ; wh ile in the

20
T h e E ssen c e o f R e l igi on
latter active striving p reponderates the struggle

, ,
against the world for G od and t h e h op e of a f uture

actualization of the divine good .
N ot to anticipate too much th e h istorical p res

en ta ti on wh ich f ollows I w ill l imit myself to a few
,
brief suggestions The classi c representatives o f

.
the first k ind of rel igions ( they might be termed the

esthetic contemplative grou p ) were the I ndian s and
-
the G reeks Both began with a ch i ldli k e j oyous

.
,
nature religion wh ich worsh ipped the workings o f

-
the gods i n the phenomena of nature and in the

arrange m ents o f social l i fe and regarded th e divin e ,
only as so far above real ity as they saw the es th eti

cally exalted j oy of l ife and beauty o f the worl d i n
the gods G radually the many n ature gods became
.
-
less distinct ; contemplative th in k ing began to con

si der them as the varied man ifestations o f the one
divi ne being which as the world soul or B ra hm a
, ,
-
,
i s the p ermanent basi s beh ind the gay round o f

p henomena fi nally became the all —
,
one true being , ,
i n contrast to which the world o f the many and

the changeable S inks i nto a m ere unsubstantial
semblance When man is aware o f the semblance
.
,
when he grows conscious of hi s unity w ith the all

on e he is free O f the j oys and s o rrows o f the world
,
and in the S ilent rest of abnegation he en j oys the

, ,
h ighest inner happiness of peace which removed , ,
from the changes o f time i s superior to fears and ,
h opes A contemplative piety th is which may well

.
,
satisfy the world weary s p i rit but never gives cour

-
,
21
age or strength I t was so too with the G reek s
‘
.
, , ,
when Homer s b eauti ful world of g ods w as lost i n

’
the p antheism O f the E leatic and H eraclitean p h ilos

Op h y a nd O rp h i c mysticism There too the worl d .
, ,
'
becomes v ain semblance o r a purposeless Circle O f

p henom ena a senseless child s play f rom which
,
’
-
,
non partici p ating and h o pe less the wise man w i th

-
draws .
And n ow w it h that grou p contrast t h e rel igion

‘
, ,
o f struggl e an d hope conscious o f its p urp os e ; th e

‘
classic representatives i n ancient times were th e

I r anian prophet Zarathustra an d the p rophets o f
Israel Here G od i s the supermundane i deal o f th e
.
,
good the self glorious w i ll wh ich does not e v anesce

,
-
,
i n the worl d but th rones above i t as its Cre ator and

L ord ; at th is t ime th e struggle for lordship still
continues against the i nimical powers of reality and ,
only through t h is struggle wherein man i s i n duty ,
boun d to fi gh t on t h e side O f God w ill H is rule be ,
tri um p hant i n the f uture a n d the realm of the goo d ‘
be b r ought into being H ow f ar remo v ed f rom the

.
chi ldlike j oyous Optim ism o f n ature religion are

,
-
these p rophets " B ut h ow f ar too from the l i fe , ,
w eary resi gn ation o f p antheism " Thei r p iety con
sists in a w rathful and condemnatory opposition to

wicked reality and i n a battle for G od s good cause ’
against the false nature gods and agai nst the um -
righteousness of m en An energetic pi ety i t i s wh ich

.
loo k s upo n the ea r th as a field o f battle upon man ,
as a f ellow soldier for God and upon th e world s

-
’
22
T h e E sse n c e o f R e l igi o n
h isto ry as th e path to the w o ld j ud g ment and the r -
government of God ; but naturally i t i s not free

, ,
f r om the one sidedness and the warmth of men of

-
wi ll and militant nature .
A nd n ow h ow about Ch r istianity ? I t stands

,
above the contradiction because i t sought to com

bi ne bot h si des into a unity from the beginning
th e immanence and the transcendence of G od th e ,
salvation o f man that i s and that ought to be th e ,
mood of combat and o f hope and that o f peace an d ,
o f j oy i n the present inner possession o f the high est
good O n the on e hand i t says

. Thy Kingdom
, ,
”
come ( and p erish th e earth the oldest Ch r is
“
,
tians added i n thei r p essim istic v i ew of the world ) .
O n the other hand there was a conviction present

, ,
from the beginning that th e Ki n gdom of G od i s

,
now here internally w ith in us in the f orm of the

, , ,
righteousness j oy and peace accompl ished by the

,
divine spi rit i n the heart ( R om x iv I 7 L uke

. .
, .
xvi i
, Here G od i s the supermundane Lo r d
, ,
who guides h isto ry toward the purpose of hi s com

i ng Kingdom an d who will destroy h i s ene m ies all
o n th e great day o f j udgment ; wh ile there Christian ,
faith i n salvation holds the union and reconciliation

o f the human and the divine to be a completed fact
i n the hu m ani zation o f th e Son o f G od an d as a
pe rmanent p r esence existing through the ind w ell ing
o f the divine spi r i t in the hea r ts of God s child r en
’
and i n the cong r egation o f the faith ful whom he ,
consecrated as the tem p le of G od Accordingly .

,
23
the pious mood i s a co nstant interm ingling o f o r ,
oscillation bet w een the feel ing of peace and j oy in

,
the consciousness of salvation and alliance wi th

G o d and the unstilled longing and hope for the
futu r e appearance and completion o f the f r eedom
and glo r y o f the ch ildren o f G od Thus Chri s .
ti a n i ty seeks to unite into a unity i n itself th e

op p osing fo r ms o f ea r lier rel igions ; the r ein l ies its
g r eat superio r ity of abundance and st r en gt h o f r e
l i g i o us truth but also its g r eater di fficulty o f
, , ,
mediating bet w een these va r ied mo m ents bound up

i n the nature o f its principles into a unity th eo r eti
cally and practically perfect I t i s th is mediation
.
which is the task of its h istorical develop m ent in ,
the course of which these opposites even though ,
i t i s not with thei r fo rm e r exclusiveness al w ays ,
do make thei r p r esence noticeable to some deg r ee .
Its h isto ry i s for that reason so much richer ,
as its nature i s mo r e co m plicated than in a n y

other reli g i on ; i t has its contemplative th inke r s ,
its w o r ld w eary mystics its p r ophets o f an ideal

-
futu r e and its battling he r oes and m en of world

gove rn ing ene r gy—e ach S ingl e character i s funda
mentally di ff e r ent f r o m the others a n d yet all a r e
,
Ch r istians united by the co m mon spi r i t o f the

,
r el igion God huma n ity ove r r ul ing all i n

“ ”
of -
.
dividual cha r acte r istics I cannot enter into mo r e

.
detail of the h isto r y of Ch r istia n ity at th is po int ;

yet I would sho w by th e m odern exa m ple of the
classical thinke r s and poets h ow the opposite funda
24
T h e E ssenc e o f R e l igi o n
mental tendencies winding through the history o f,
r eligion may b e reco gn i zed even i n world views

,
-
which are not di rectly influenced by the Ch r is

tian church — there because they are grounded in
, ,
hu m an nature itself I am thinking o f Spinoza and .
Goethe o n the one side and o f Kant and Schi ller ,
o n the other .
In Spinoza the I ndian and th e G ree k pantheism

,
h ad a rebi rth F or him God i s o n e w ith nature

.
, ,
the all one being wh ich i s at the basi s o f all phe

-
,
n om ena binding them all by the i r on law o f n e

,
ces s i ty . I n the ci r cle o f l aw abiding occu r rences -

,
there a r e only causes no pu r po ses ; these latter are,
merely the poetic addition of hu m an i m a g ination .
M an too i n so far as he i s fettered in the S lave r y

, ,
o f the passio n s i s subj ect to the rigi d mech anism

,
o f the la w s of nature ; but he becomes free from
thi s m iserab le condition wh en he recogn i zes the

unreasonableness of h is passi ons and regards al l
external events i n the light of eternity that i s as , ,
fleeting phenomen a i n the moving All whi ch obeys

the eternal l aws To give up one s own small sel f
.
’
i n thoughtful v i ewing o f the divine All and to b o w

i n peaceful sub m ission beneath the necessity of the
whole that is Spinoza s piety Th is conte m plative
,
’
.
,
selfless composure was w hat attracted Goethe to

Spinoza ; the r ei n h e found the w holesome medicine
for h is youthful heated tempe r a m ent But G oethe
, .
tr an s fi g u r ed the se r iousness o f Spinozistic th i n king
through esthetic j oy in natu r e o f the ancient G ree k ,
25
manner o f thin k ing wh ich saw the world fi ll ed with ,
d ivine power and glory

Wh at e e a G o d h m e ely sh oved i th out
w r , w o r w .
A d n onh i fi ge h i led t h
s o ld about ?
n r w r e w r
T i s h i to m ove t h o ld d h old
’
s e w r an
H i m self i atu e atu e h i m se lf e f old

n n r , n r n ,
S o t h at h at i h i m l i ves d m oves d i
w n an an s,
N ot h i s pi i t s h i st e gt h
r i ll m i ss
n or s r n w .
”
The thought o f an extra worldly God and o f a -
God fo r saken world was not acceptable to nor a d

-
m i tted by a poet who i n gratitude and ad m i r ation

, , ,
perceived the deed and gove rn m ent o f God i n the

o r der o f the wo r ld i n the beauty o f nature and i n, ,
the inspi r ations of genius every w he r e N o one has .
the right to declare this Goethe s way of thinking ,

’
,
i m pious ; only this i s co r r ect that i t i s one S ided and ,

-
does not exhaust the natu r e of r eligion But Goethe .
hi m self was awa r e of that a n d the r efo r e the ve r se , , ,
q uoted requi r es the follo w ing to co m plement It

Th e e i s a u i ve se i t h i us too
r n r w n , ,
H e ce p a i se o t h y h at t h at i o s do
n , r w r w e n n
Th best t h at eac h
e h d k o s one as an n w ,
H e am es i t G od h i G od ; besto s
n , s w
Up o H i m h eave n d ea t h above , n an r ,
H i s f ea d he e h rh i love
an w r e ca n , s .
Here G od i s the name for that ideal wh ich forms

th e inne r wo r l d of o ur hea r t but i s far supe r ior to ,
all exte r nal real ity ; i t i s that to w h ich because w e ,
ackno w l edge i t to be the best and the most valuable

absolutely w e asc r ibe rule r ship ove r heaven a n d
,
ea r th the po w e r to co n quer the w o r ld The r e w ith

, .
the j ustification o f the moti ve o f supe r mundane

26
T h e E ss en c e o f R e l igi o n
religion and th is basis in human natu r e i s conceded ,
and the val i dity of imm anent r eligion put back into
its proper pe r spective w h ich does not exclude the
,
fact that fo r Goethe h imself the preponderance w a s

with the latter .
The contrast to Spinoza i s Kant the philosopher ,
o f freedo m of the m o r al i deals and of the st r i ct

,
division of natu r e fro m spirit wo r ld of the senses ,
an d mo r al la w IS and O ught According to h im

, .
,
the bel ief in God i s not to be based upon our ex p e r i

ence o f the exte r nal world but i t i s only demanded ,
by our m oral r eas on as a presupposition for th e

_
po ssibi lity o f the futu r e realization o f the highest

good i n which there w ill be reconciled the co n t r a
,
d iction o f reason and the senses o f v i r tue and hap ,
p n es s which a r e i r r econci lable for us ; i n other

i ,
wo r ds the bel ief i n G o d serves the righteous as a

,
g uarantee o f the hope that vi rtue w ill pa r take in th e

future o f that happiness wh ich it dese r ves — a vi e w ,
against which f r om the presuppositions of a st r ict

,
Kantian i dealism so m e not unj ustifiable ob j ec

,
tions m ight be urged Hence Sch iller Kant s g r eat

.
,
’
d isciple took what w a s permanently valuabl e o ut of

,
h is idealism w ithout adhering to the li m itations

,
which were p r esent in Kant .
According to Schiller the bel ie f i n G od i s not

“
,
merely a demand an assumption in the inte r est of

,
men who sought compensation for vi r tue through

happ i ness ; ra the r he w arns against the madness
,
w hich expects r e w a r d for the good by exte r nal

h app iness at any time and yet there remains for ,
27
R e l igi o n an d H i stor i c F ai th s
him the belief i n the i d eal o f the holy will w h ic h ,
h ighest thought weav es above time and space ; t his

belief remains for h im an i m mediate certainty which ,
the heart tells and w ithout w hi ch man would b e ,
robbed o f al l value The i deal however should not

.
, ,
only remain a su p ermundane ( abst r act ) quantity ,
but i t should be taken up in our will and become the

inner power and j oyousness of good v oli tion and
action In this Sch iller fi nds the peculiarity o f
.
,
Christianity i n that i t places free incl ination in th e

,
stead O f law ; therei n would be represented the

”
h umanization of the sacred Taking Kant s .
’
ideal as a sta r ting point Schiller brought i t do w n

-
,
to actual h um an l iving j ust as G oethe starting

, ,
from reality elevated himsel f to the ideal

, .
These are the two tendencies whi ch wind t h roug h

t h e history o f religion and fi nd oneness o f princi
ple i n Ch r istianity — wh ich does not prevent some
,
from placing the emphasis on the one side and others

o n the other each according to hi s ow n p eculiar
,
nature I nstead o f q uar r eling with o ne another

.
about i t we ought rather to re j oice i n the va r iety

,
o f religious cha r acters as the l iving proof o f the
abundance o f truth o f spi r it and o f power which

, , ,
i s bound up wi th rel igion in general and i n Chris ,
ti an i ty i n particular Whoever would understand

.
the h istory of religion aright let him hol d fast to ,
the beauti ful words o f Goethe The recognition ,

“
o f G od wherever and however H e reveals H imself

, ,
”
that is real blessedness on earth .
28
R EL I G I O N AN D E T H I CS
I N t h e p rev i ous lecture I have attempted

,
to
describe th e essence of religion w ithout entering
,
into that q uestion which still plays so prominent a

r Ol e i n the text boo k s : I s religion a thing o f the
-
emotions or o f the reason o of the wi ll

r ? I n fact ,
that ought not to be a q uestion any longer since all ,
psychologists are agreed that these three psych ical

functions or conditions cannot be s o separated from
one anot h er that now one and now another alone i s
p resent ; logically we may di fferenti ate them but in
, ,
the real li fe o f eve ry day they are never di ffer

,
en ti a te d
,
but always in each moment o f full con
s ci o us n es s they are so inseparably connected and s o
,
reciprocally active that one w ithout the other can

,
not be understood That a century ago i n i ts pa s

.
,
s i ona te reaction against th e shallow pe r spicuity and
the frosty morali zing of the age of E nl ightenment ,
Romanticism elevated the feelings as the one and all - -
o f religion ( as o f art ) — h istorically we can under

,
stand ; but that does not permit us to W i thhol d th e

j udgment that it was a fatal error F or to i t must
.
,
be ascribed the blam e f or the great and w ides p read

29
R e l igi o n an d Hi s tor i c Fa i t h s
con f usion thoughtlessness an d anarchy i n things
,
religious f rom w h ich we are suffering to day

,
-
.
E m otion every w he r e is nothing but the coming

, ,
into consciousness o f a stimulation of the will

th r ough an i dea ; accordingly as it i s positive o r
n egative attractive o r repulsive i n i ts e ffect on an
,
instinct we become conscious o f it as a feeling o f

,
an ag r eeabl e or disagreeable nature I f the r e can .
be no feeling i n general w ithout the stimulus o f

an i dea th en i t i s natural that there can be no
,
rel igious feeling without some k ind o f an i dea o f

a corresponding obj ect some superhuman power , ,
u p on wh ich man feel s that h e i s dependent and

to which h e feels himsel f bound Some i dea o f .
the divine i s therefore the p resup p osition o f the

o r igin o f a religious feeling H owever the mere .
i dea of G od i s not religion for religion IS a matter ,
Of the whole man O ne may have a mass of i deas

.
a bout G o d pe r haps carry a whole system o f church

,
doct r ines about in hi s head and yet be an enti rely ,
i rreligious person and remain so as long as those

,
i deas are merely matter of k nowledge and fi nd no

echo in the will so long as they do not release
,
religious feelings The presence of religious feel

.
ings is an evidence that a man does not only k no w

about G od but that he i s moved by i t as to his wil l
,
and follows i ts decisions ; that h e has God not only

in h is head but also in his hea r t
,
Would y ou .
have him as your Ow n then feel the G od y ou ,
thin k
. The feelings released by the ideas do not
30
R e l igi on an d E t h i cs
remain for themselves as conditions of rest but ,
they becom e i m pelling powe r s for th e w ill whi ch

sets th e will i n motion i n th e direction indicated by
the content o f the i deas D irectly the w ill reacts
.
inwardly upon th e G od i dea i n that i t enters i nto

-
a corresponding relation w ith G od a ffi rm s and ,
ackno w ledge s i ts attach m ent to the divin e will an d ,
makes its deci sions acco r dingly surrendering itsel f ,
to H im i n Obedience This movement o f th e w ill

.
,
at fi rst inward external ize s i tself i n corresponding

,
”
action in the se r vice of G od
“
Th is takes place .
i n two fold fash ion : pa r tly i n unmediate d relation

-
to G od as service of God i n the n arrower ( cultish )

sense partly in mediate relation through th e moral
, ,
action among men and th ings of the worl d wh ich

correspond w ith the divine will .
N atu r ally the r e can be no suc h t h ing as a d i rect

action upo n God i n the st r i ct sense o f th e word ,
hence th e activiti es o f the cult service of God hav e -
Hat s symboli c mean ing ; they are th e symbolic

‘
'
representative exp r ession of the inner t endency O f

the wi ll to G od the i m mediate expression o f th e
,
pious feelings and at th e same ti m e the means o f

, ,
Sti m ulating energi zing and impa r ting those feel

,
ings The real service of G od i s actuall y o n ly

.
,
moral world in s o far as th e p i OuS

,
soul i t as the ful fi llment o f tasks set h i m by

G od as a s ervice for th e cause o f G od for th e
,_ ,
realization o f the divine purposes i n the world .
Yet i t must be rem embere d that this di fferentiation

3 1
R e l igi o n an d H i stor i c Fa i th s
of ou r s bet w een actual an d inactual real and sym ,
h ol i c cultish service o f G od i s n ot yet clear to th e

-
,
nai ve r eligious co n sciousness ; the latter doe s not

think of m e r e sy m bolism i n th e pe rformances o f
th e cult activiti es but thin k s that he i s perfo r ming
-
,
a d i r ect se r vice to h i s god thereby that i t i s an ,
ag r eeabl e and desi r e d deed w h ereby th e favo r of th e ,
god i s w on and a retu r n de e d i s bough t Since thi s .
di rect cult act for the god disregards the moral pur
-
pose s o f soci ety and does not com e into contact

,
w i th th em or i f i t does i t i s a m ere matter o f

, ,
chance and o f seconda r y import i t i s well possible ,
and happens f r equently that a conflict ari ses b e

tween the cult service of G od an d th e moral p ur
-
poses of society Then instead o f being the most

.
,
powerful motive of morality religion becomes its ,
g r avest obstacle .
Th e ultimate source o f th is evi l l ies in the ch ild

i s h senseless mode of thought o f primitive religion
, ,
w hich w ithout fu r the r ado

, places the relation to ,
God on a level w ith the relation to a p owerful

man that i s ascribes to h im a sel fi sh will p eculiar
,
-
, ,
ne eds a n d sel f seeking wish es ; whereas th e divine

-
w ill i s pe r fectly good s o that its ob j ect i s absolutely

,
o n e w ith the general high est good The same .
lo w e r ing Of G od to t h e fi n ite i s also t h e source of

th e co n flicts bet w een religious ideas and profane
knowledge ; for i f God i s conceived as an indivi dual
B e ing acti n g alongside o f othe r s di ffering from
, ,
o ther fi nite beings me r ely i n degree of p ower th en ,
32
R e l igi o n an d E t h i cs
p eculiar fi nite activitie s w i ll be ascribed to H im

wh ich collide with those o f other fi nite causes h ence ,
brea k ing through and nulli fying the causal con

n e cti on O f th e whol e o f the wo r ld order ; whe r eas i n
-
reality G od i s the infinite powe r and wi sdom : H e i s

,
th e eternal basi s o f the reasonable o r der o f th e

world and the guarantee o f the k nowledge of i t for
o ur th inking .
T h erewith w e h ave ar r ive d at the important

,
q uestion : What i s the relation o f religion to eth ics

and to science ? Thi s q uestion i s of utmost impor
tance for a prope r j udgment of p r esent and past
religion Th ere f ore w e will enter more deeply
.
,
i nto i t
.
l
R g on
e i i an d e th i cs — w h at a much vexe d s ub
j cet of our day " Many there are who th in k that
thei r origins were distinct that they di ffe red totally ;
,
that religion originally had no connection w ith

morals but that th e latte r had be en something
,
extraneous added subse q uently as an accidental to

the form er ; that there fore they do not belong es
, ,
s e nti a l ly togeth e r that they may well be able to go

,
farthe r apart than they are now an d that such a ,
separation would better serve th e interest o f ethics .
O n the other hand there are those who are con

,
v i nce d that the separation not only contradicts al l
past history but also the i r own nature and that i t ,
woul d be p roductive o f the g r avest disaster to both .
At the outset l et us test these two opposing opinion s

,
i n the l ight o f the facts o ffered b y history .
33
R e l igi o n an d H i s to r i c Fa i t h s
O n one point the re can b e not th e slightest doubt
th e notion that religion and ethics were originally
entirely separate and distinct i s false — an almost ,
inconceivable erro r Among th e se r ious research

.
students wo r king ove r ancient pe r iods i t is gen ,
er a l ly conceded to day that th e moral conduct o f

,
-
,
men had i ts beginning i n the religious faith and

r eligious rite s The f eel ing of allegiance to the one
.
com m on deity o f a ce r tai n social g r oup was th e

original ti e o f all moral soli da r ity and commun ity ,
that was th e sou r ce o f social order and morality o f

mankind Th e sanctity o f th e family emanated
.
from the cult service The h earth was th e hom e

-
.
alta r the house fathe r was the p r iest who acted for
,
-
the fa m ily in performing the service to the house

hol d deity In th e t r ibe that w as the position o f
-
.
the oldest o r the t r ibe chief ; with a nation i t was

-
the national king They were th e rep r esentatives

.
o f th e di vinely founde d unity of th e tribe o r nation

-
th e mouthpieces of the divine w ill and the mediator s ,
bet w een the god and men ; hence even Ho m er calls ,
”
the m Zeus bo r n -
So too all legal p r ocedure i n
.
, ,
the world o f the anci ent peopl es was sanctified by

religion ; eve ry w h e r e th e w r itten and the un w ritten
l a w was traced back to d ivine establishment a td
‘
/
}
revelation .
N ot only th e law o f Moses but among th e ,
I ndians the law o f Manu a m ong the Pe r sians that

, , ,
o f Zarathustra amo n g the G r e eks that o f Lycurgus ,
among t h e R omans that of N uma—all o f them

, ,
34
we re loo k e d upon as divinely given and sanctioned

by divine oracl es H ere as eve r y w here the high
.
, ,
est source O f human authority and order i s de i ty

itsel f B ecause th e god founde d and e stablishe d
.
all rights an d laws i t was logically concluded that

,
the god was the protector o f al l rights and the

av enge r o f al l in j ustice F r om o f ol d thi s thought
.
,
has been e ffective as a mighty e ducational powe r

among men The human j udge pe r forms hi s o ffice s
.
as a commi ssion o f the g od j udging and where hi s ,
power p roves to b e too weak it i s suppl emente d by

th e divine N em esi s an d Di k e and th e E r i nny es th e ,
fearful daughters o f N ight All turning points i n

.
-
th e l i fe of the individual and th e political comm a

n i ty we re also sancti fi e d by religion i n the beginning .
Thus at th e bi rth of a chil d i t was placed unde r

, ,
the p rotecting care o f th e h ousehold de ity w ith -
solemn ce remony ; the attainm ent o f ma j o r ity the ,
marriage th e entombment —
,
they are celebrate d by
,
festal rites establish ed by the god And then the .

'
,
best an d m ost precious things which th e awa k ening

spi ri t of man brought forth h i s arts we re th e , ,
children o f rel igion ; th ey e rected th e wondrous

structure of the temple for the gods they decorate d ,
its halls with noble statuary and precious dedicatory

gifts. Th e l ively antiphonal songs an d ci rcl e
dancing at th e v intage feast of D ionysus gave rise
-
to th e classic dra m a th e overwh elming tragedies

, ,
and th e w itty comedies o f th e G ree k s .
B ut no l ess the e arn est business and e v ents i n t h e

35
R e l igi o n an d H i sto ri c F ai t h s
p olitical l i fe t h e p eo p le th e counci l and j udicial
of ,
meetings the departure for war the founding of

, ,
coloni es— all o f thi s too e v entuate d according to

, ,
th e oracular speech o f th e god and i n trust o f h i s

p rotection Th e return ing army v i ctorious dedi
.
, ,
ca te d i ts trophies as a tribute o f than k s to th e g od .
S o th e whole life o f th e individual and of th e nation

was encompassed and perm eated order ed and regu ,
lated elevated an d sancti fi ed by thei r rel igion I t

, .
was not as i t i s w ith us a thing a p art for i tsel f ; i t

, ,
was th e soul o f the social l ife th e bond o f p ol itical,
communi ty th e i mpulse to sel f s acr i fici ng p atriot

,
-
i s m th e e ducation to a highe r culture t h e s an ctifi

, ,
cation and th e crown of l i fe There was not as .
yet any distinction between c h urc h an d state ; the

temporal and the rel igious l i fe o f th e p eo p le was an
u ndivi de d unity regulate d by th e same laws and
,
se r ving th e same purposes : th e honor of th e national

god who was w rappe d up In t h e p erp etuation and
b est w el fare of th e whole n ation .
N atu r ally i t coul d not remain S o l ong I t i s a

, .
pecul iarity o f rel igion that i t keeps a tight h old on

t r aditional i deas and ceremonies w ith great tenacity .
That i s i ts st r ength for the r eby th e fleeting and

, ,
changeabl e l i fe o f the ch ildren o f men gains hold ,
pe r manence and firmness But that which i s i n .
t r uth its st r ength i s at the same time i ts wea k ness .
F or the fo r w a r d and upwa r d striving h uman S piri t

cannot possibly remain fettere d by th e leading
strings o f traditions and commandments When .
36
man o p ens h i s eyes and loo k s about h im i n t h e

world h e fi nds that there are many things quite
,
di fferent from what h e had been led to th ink by

th e pious traditions of h is fathe r s handed down f r om
gen eration to gene r ation Th e wo r k of cultu r e i n
.
soci ety becomes mo r e complicated th e activity o f ,
the individual becomes more i ndependent and more

intens i ve and s o both brea k loose f r om th e fixed
,
traditional form s o f rel igion N o longe r i s the .
custom and th e faith of the parent but man s ow n ,

’
Opinion and h i s wi sh as an individual i s declared ,
to be th e measure o f all th ings At fi rst this i s .

’
,
rather a loss than a gain but i t i s a n ecessary step

,
on the pathway of th e evolution o f the human spi r it ,
as i n the period of th e Soph ists and again i n th e ,
modern age of E nlightenment ( even as early as th e

Renaissance ) W ith thi s release o f th e thinking
.
,
and the willing o f the indi v i dual from th e traditional

faith and custom rel igion an d moral ity enter i nto
,
that o p position to on e another wh ich leads to strug

gl e We cannot ta k e u p each o f the phases o f that
.
combat i n detai l ; w e are still i n th e m i dst o f th e

fray and t h ere i s n o S ign to tel l us when i t wi ll
end .
h inkt li att he combat coul d s oon b e br ough t

fi m fl
to a close i f every o n e woul d only r ecogni ze that - -
fhe tw o h ad noth ing to d o w i th on e another ; o n

' '
Sundays religion m ight have i ts s ay for a b r i e f

,
h our but beyon d that ethi cs an d sci ence go thei r

,
ow n way h eedless o f rel igion

, Yes there are some
.
,
37
who go furth er and maintain that morals will not
i m prove unti l ethics h a s freed itself completely f r om
r eligion for the i n fluence exe r ted by religion upon
,
morals i s bad Religion s o these men s ay makes

-
.
, ,
man unfre e in that i t subordinates man to the

,
strange wi ll o f God robs man o f hi s ow n fre e sel f

,
dete r m ination upon which all mo r al dignity rests .
By th e employment of the motives of fear and hope

i n the insistence upon its co m m and m ents religion ,
deg r ades mo r als and makes the m uncl ean for ,
action wh ich has regard f or reward an d p unis h

,
ment i s a pseudo mo r ality

,
-
.
F u r the r mo r e instead Of urging man to depend

,
upon hi s ow n mo r al powe r and e ffo r t rel igion t e ,
fers h im to d ivine grace and providence which will ,
do al l th ings for h im ; religion even denies freedom

to man and h i s power for good and thus paralyzes ,
all h i s energies making h im discouraged and i n

,
dol ent co w a r dly an d u n fit for th e st r uggl e for exist

,
ence Th e m o r e s o since rel igion ever points to

.
a r ealm beyond and rep r esents thi s earthly exist

,
ence as vain and valueless as a valley o f sorrows,
w h i ch i s not w o r th th e concern o f men ; thus re ,
l i g i on e m bitte r s ea r thly toil for m en and turns

them against thei r i m m ediate tasks and duties mak ,
ing the m unfit i n habita n ts of th e earth F inally .

,
as a chu r ch r el igio n has fi xed i ts ordinances i n

, ,
w h ich i t has s e t do w n what S hall b e true and goo d
foreve r ; the r e w ith man i s p r evented from striving

for k nowledge of the truth from the exerci se of ,
38
inde p endent testing an d j udging from the attai n

,
m ent of a fi rm personal convi ction —killing man s

,
’
sense o f truth ma k ing h im e ith e r deceitful o r

,
i gnorant ; and while on e church reviles the othe r ,
religion foments the worst of discord all m i s for ,
tunes and evils wh ich th e nations are su ffering .
What s h all w e s ay to all of thi s ? F i rst o f all I ,
thin k w e will ta k e h eed not to answe r the uncalled

for exaggerations o f our opponents with like ex
aggeration W e do not wi sh to m aintain that
.
,
among thos e estrange d from religion or who th ink

the y are estranged from i t the r e are not moral
,
men ; that would be a contradiction of experience .
I t cannot b e denied that even among those who are

n ot associate d w ith any positive religion there are
moral characters dese r ving o f h igh respe ct — men ,
d istinguished by thei r consci entiousness thei r i n ,
d us try in thei r calling an d th ei r eagerness f or the

,
p ubl ic w elfare B ut w h ence have these men Ob

.
tai n e d th ei r moral principles and the i r moral atti
tude ? A re they not the f r uits o f an education

wh ich f rom youth im p ressed the good as th e ab s o
l utely v aluable up on them an d cause d th em to love
i t wa k ene d the i r sense o f duty and molded thei r
,
consciences Th is education was given to them by

?
th e moral community i n which th ey grew up and ,
th e moral spi ri t wh ich pervade d i t rested upon i ts

religious world vie w I n the consciousness of S ingl e
-
.
i ndivi duals th i s close i nterweaving o f th e moral

,
and religious con v ictions may be some w hat dar k

39
R e l igi o n an d H is to r i c F a i th s
ened n eve r theless i t r emains an indisputabl e fact

,
that th e co m m on mo r al consciousness of human

society rests on i ts religious beliefs standing an d ,
f alling w ith them Th ere i s no disputing the l es

.
sons taught by the expe r ience o f h istory ; in ages o f

rel igi ous decadence o f faithlessness and skepticism
, ,
the moral consciousness o f a nation usually sinks

and degenerates i nto confusion and disinteg r ation .
How could i t b e oth erwise ? Where else could th e

mo r al consciousness ac q ui re the faith i n th e ab s o
l uten es s o f duty and the sanctity o f th e moral i deal ,
i f not from the f aith in an absolute ete r nal will of

the good superior to the arbitrariness of men that ,
i s from God ? O nly i n a consciousness o f th e

allegiance to th e ; d i v 1ne w ill wh ich i s th e l com m on
,
cause as i t i s the common l aw and goal o f th e

l ives o f m en can m e n feel themselves bound one to
,
th e othe r by th e i r r efrag ib le mo r al bond Of mutual

obl igation Th erefore everywhe re i t is the rel ig
.
,
i ous belief of peoples in whi ch th e stoutest roots o f

the consciousness o f duty a r e i m bedded ; the relig
ious bel ie f suppo r ts the consciousness of th e indi
v idual and the community and keeps i t al ive and ,
i t gives pe rpetual gu arantee o f the subordination o f

th e individual members to th e o r der o f th e whole
and thei r wi lling su rrender to th e p urp ose of the
whol e .
How ab out t h ose charges brough t against rel ig

ion i n regard to its influence upon mo r als ? A S a
p reli minary i t must be sai d that the essential di ff er
,
40
ence between religion itsel f and i ts positive church

fo rms doctrines ordinan ces and customs i s over
, , ,
loo k ed We ought to be permitted to tak e i t for

.
granted that any one w h o talks about these mat

ters k nows that these things a r e not religion but ,
merely i ts imperfect p r esentation forms cove r ings -

,
an d shells ( Kant , w hi ch are con
d i ti oned by time and changeable i n ti m e And n o .
less ough t we to presuppose a knowledge of the

fact concern ing the law of evolution under whi ch ,
we are accustomed to consi der al l physical and h is

tor i cal l ife to day namely that i t holds good i n
-
, ,
religion as well as i n mo r als Both o f them were .
gi ven at the beginning not as completed entities but ,
were compelled to wor k thei r way out o f c r ude

beginnings gradually to rise from attachment to
,
th e senses to f r eedom of the spiri t Through .
arduous e ffort and education of generation after

generation reason must gradually be b r ough t to
,
consciousness i n men and finally to mastery over

them I n this educative pr ocess to reasonableness
.
the race as well as the i ndividual must pass th r ough

, ,
certain d i fferent stages and every educator kno w s

,
that the sam e demands cann ot be made i n the lo w er

stages as i n the high e r —
I n th e chi ld stage o f
.
development the good cannot be known by a rea

,
s on ed j udgment and cannot be desi r ed no r done

,
through a voluntary sel f dete r m ination but to each

-
one there comes an exte r nal co m mand wh ich de ~
m ands the sub ordination of the person al will und er

4I
R e l igi on an d H i stor i c Fa i th s
the co mmanding wi ll I t i s p erfectly natural th at
.
this stage of development corresponds to the the o

crati c form o f religi on and morals that is the , ,
i dea that the good i s a command to men f r om a

strange and external will of G od th e supe r mundane ,
Lord I n thi s form o f rel igious consciousness man

.
,
does bear a relation to G od which i s as unf r ee

as that of a slave to h is master or of a minor ch ild
,
to i ts tutor J ust as this form of consciousness

.
i n the lower stage o f development i s inevitable ,
s o l ittle should i t remain permanent When th e .
time was ripe the discipline o f the law was r e

,
moved and mankin d called to freedom as the full

grown sons o f G od That was the new conscious
.
ness of G od s children brought by Ch ristianity

’
.
Paul says :
Stand f ast t h erefore in the l iberty wherewith
Ch r i st hath m ade us free and be not entangled
,
agai n with the yoke o f bondage ( G al v I

.
) .
, .
B ut th is freedom o f Chri stians i s not equivalent

to l icense ; i t stands j ust as far above the heathen
lac k of law an d unbri dled freedom as i t does above
Je w i sh legal ity and unf r eedom I t i s the freedom
.
i n God i n allegiance o f conscience to H im wh ich

, ,
makes free fro m the compulsion of the wo r ld an d

does at the same ti m e unite man to men i n love ; as
”
L uther says o f the freedom of Christian men ,
that th ey are master of all th ings in faith and ser

vant o f all in love That too i s th e fun dam ental
'
.
, ,
though t of the classical ph i loso p hy o f i dealism ,
42
whi c h Sc h iller has ex p ressed in the well k nown -
v erse :
A b sor b th e d i v i n e I n to y ou r W 11 1 ,
F r om i ts w or ld t h r on e t i ll desce n d
-
,
’
w ,
Of i tsel f th ya i g ch asm i ll fi ll
e w n n w
T h f ea f ul ob j ect ta k e
e r d an en .
T h st o g l i k s o f t h l
e r n n bi d e aw ca n n
T h slav i s h se se d i sda i i g t h e m alo e

e n n n , n ,
W i th t h o p p os i t i o o f m va i sh es
e n en n
T oo th m aj esty o f G od
, e .
Therewith th e reproach o f impure motives a t

tributed to religious morals i s also r emoved In .
the condition o f i mmaturity when the good sti ll ,
a p pears as the external command o f a strange w ill ,
the moti ves o f fear and hope are naturally indis

p ensable But i n th e measure w ith wh ich m an
.
g r ows o ut o f the condition of immaturity and li fts

h imsel f to the state of childshi p o f God thos e ,
motives lose thei r meaning ; i n thei r stead enters th e

j oyous surrender to the good as God s purp ose ’
whi ch is at the same ti m e our ow n reasonable pur

p ose O f l ife and there enters the reasonable service
,
o f God which i s
,
at the same time the service o f
, ,
men in unselfish love .
Concerning th e further e ffects of the belief i n

p rovidence does i t actually ma k e m en i ndolent ?
,
E xperi ence hardly confi r ms i t as a fact The t r uly .
p ious belief i n provi dence was ever a prop for

morally striving and st ruggling men and a p r op ,
w it h which i t would be di fficult to dispense H ow .
coul d man endure i n the struggle and e ffort for th e

good if he di d not believe that hi s goal was attain
43
R e l igi o n an d H i stor i c Fa i th s
able i f he dared not hope for the future victory
,
o f the r ight ove r wrong o f love over sel fi shness

, ,
o f t r uth over falsehood ? But how can man cher

i s h such hopes i f he builds solely upo n h i s o w n
w eak po w e r s a n d r ega r ds only exte r nal expe r ience
, ,
i n w hi c h s o often evi l t r iu m phs over good ? When

m a n believes i n God as the Lord o f the wo r l d and
the di r ecto r o f the wo r ld s cou r se then he knows
’
of a su r ety that all th i ngs i n the wo r ld m ust se r ve

the pu rposes of God and must coOpe ra te to w a r d the
vi cto ry o f the good F or the truly pious the g r ace
.
,
o f G o d i s anything but a pillo w o f i dleness for
moral sloth Consider the great he roes of the h is

.
to ry o f r eligion : a Paul a L uther a Calvin a , , ,
Knox—we r e they idle men or were they not rather

most powe r ful he r oes o f active work ? I t was not
s o despite the fact but because they felt themselves
,
to be inst r u m e n ts of divine g r ace dri ven and borne ,
by the divine spi r i t whose power they k ne w to b e

,
stro ng in thei r w eakness .
T h e hope o f a wo r l d beyond the world weariness

,
-
,
the lo n ging fo r heaven — must they not p aralyz e

,
all mo r al activity ? W ell yes that di d ap pe ar at

, ,
ti m es for exa m ple at the close of the ancient worl d

, ,
a n d agai n i n the m edieval w orld l ike some epide m i c
of dise ase and it i s to be j udged i n the sa m e fash ion

,
as that se n ti m en tal w o r ld woe w hich attacks s ome

-
people i n thei r youth ful stages o f development .
B ut such conditio n s a r e diseases o f youth which ,
have thei r ti m e a n d the n pass o ff So too the .

, ,
44
C hristian believers di d not rest at the stage o f

world denial but con q uered i t by the inner force o f
-
,
thei r f aith W e p ray : Thy k ingdom come ; Thy

.
”
w ill be done on earth as i t i s in Heaven
,
We hope .
for its coming upon thi s o ur earth ; we h Op e that

,
thi s scene of o ur sorrows and j oys our labor and ,
toil will become consecrated to a realm of the good

, ,
where right will become might and peace embrace ,
j ustice .
N aturally even with th is hope there remains an

, ,
excess o f the other— worldliness o f the ideal wh ich ,
can never be absorbed com p letely by the world o f

o ur ex p erience h ere belo w That l ies in the natur e
.
o f the matter i n the nature o f the i deal and i n the

, ,
need of the h uman s p i rit We ca nnot h ide f ro m

.
o ur S ight the fact that despite al l our labor an d our
striving the ultimate goal i s something that we can

”
ne v er reach S O long as man st r ives h e errs
.
, .
The i deal constantly recedes before him v anishing ,
ever i nto higher and greater distance And yet .

'
there i s a sanctuary of refuge where we can par ,
take of the eternal as something present —i t i s p ious ,
devotion whether i t be i n the quiet of our own

,
chamber or i n the common service with th e whole

c o ng r egation The r e we rise somewhat to th e view
.
point of God an d loo k upo n things of time unde r .
the aspect o f eternity There that w h ich will be

.
,
now is ; the c h asm between what i s and what ought

to be wh i ch never can o r shoul d disa p pear for those
,
s triving after m or ality is bridged by the f eel ing O f

,
45
R e l igi on an d H i sto r i c Fa i th s
eternity i n wo r sh ip With the eye of G od we loo k
.
,
upon l i fe wh ich is ever becoming and striving and

ever i mpe r fect and we s ee i ts g r eat gaps fi lled an d
,
s ee i ts battles ended we s ee the i deal as an i nner

,
v ision and feel i t as a living p r esence I n such w ise

.
,
religion i s not only the fi rm roo t of the power of th e

mo r al but also its crown and its com p letion ; th e
,
my r i ad bits of earth i t gathe r s up i nto a complete

entity ; i t l i fts us out o f th e sorrows the
g l eS of time to et er ni ty .
R EL I G I ON AN D S CI E N CE
V E X ED as i s the problem o f the relation of ethics

to religion o f wh i ch we S poke i n the last l ecture
more so i s the p r oblem Of th e relation of religion
to science In order to have a clear idea wherei n
.
the cause o f the va r ious conflicts between religion

and science l ies and whether a solution m ay b e
,
hoped for we m ust fi rst see how that origi nates

,
which i n religion form s the teachabl e matter o f

tradition the content o f the i deas of faith A t the
,
.
outset religion as the psych ical determ ination o f

, ,
l ife of the whole man must be di fferentiated from

,
the doctri nes of religion as content o f knowledge .
That the latter does form a pa r t of religion i s a con

elusion which follows f r om what was sai d i n the
last lecture concern ing the necessa r y coinci dence o f
i deas with feeli n gs and activities of the w i ll i n r e
l i g i on ; fo r th e ve r y reason that the rel igious idea i s
an essential mo m ent b u t only one mo m ent i n th e
, ,
whole of the rel igious li fe o f the soul there h as ,
also been said that the rel igious idea an d doctrine

must not be substituted fo r r eligion itsel f R e .
l ig i ous i deas may be subj ected to the most thorough

47
R e l igi o n an d H i s to r i c Fa i th s
going changes and yet religion may remain essen
,
ti a l ly the fundamental o f the soul F rom wh i ch i t

.
,
follows that conflicts between p r ofane k nowledge

,
and the traditional religious ideas rai se no q uestion

o f the r i g ht o f religion itself but they are merely
,
i ndications that the fo r mer mode of thought i s n o

lo n ge r the ade q uate form for the rel igious l i fe and
the r efo r e stands in need of more or less emendation
o r renovation .
Science forms th e th ings i t k nows by means o f

the thinking o f reason ; the mo r e Obj ective and
sober the grasp of a subj ect by the thinker the less ,
p lay he grants to h is subj ective pre j udices ten ,
d en ci es and moods the mo r e nearly h e w ill ap

,
p roach to the t r uth In religion however at first

.
, ,
not at all and later me r ely i n pa r t and with condi

,
tions does reason shape the doct r ine ; but f

, ,
the beginning i t i s the poeti c fancy i n which

,
elements o f a doctrine the religious myth s lege

, ,
and sayings have thei r o r igin

, .
Thi s d i ffe r ence i n or igins i s naturally t h e so urce

\
of a ve r y great d i ffe r ence between the doctri nes o f
r eligion and science Religious fantasy never ma k es
.
i ts poet r y voluntarily as i s the case w ith the poet

, ,
w h o does hi s work w ith conscious art The origi

.
nal legends are rather the products o f the un

conscious poetic activity o f the popular spiri t ; they
a r ise f r om the con fl ux of the pictures present in the
soul s o f the many ; one cannot say where or h ow .
N ei ther does the religious fantasy draw i ts p oetry

48
R e l igi o n an d Sc i e n c e
f rom now h ere but rather attaches i t

,
actual ex to
p e r i en ces to phenomena
,
of nature and the events
o f history to such expe r iences as released si m ilar
,
religious feel ings i n the souls o f the many E xam .
ples ? Above all there i s that universal po em o f the

,
fantasy which i s still found i n o ur day whereve r

,
there are children o r pri m iti ve peoples that a scr i b ,
ing o f a soul to all the things o f natu r e which we

usually te r m anim ism O f itself animism i s not
.
,
reli gion but i s its foundation ; one m ight call i t th e

,
most elem entary popular metaphysics N aturally .

,
among the pheno m ena o f nature those must have ,
been the most impressive i n every age wh ich were

o f most i ncisive impo r tance for the preservation o f
li fe such as the dying of the nature wo r ld i n th e

,
autumn and its reawakening i n the spring S ince .
fantasy s a w living souls spi r its and gods eve r y

,
where present i n natu r e thi s death an d resurrection

,
o f nature m ust have been the fate o f the deities
whose souls d w elt therein .
B ut i t i s the way of the poeti zing f antasy that an

event which i s constantly occu r r ing or ever r ecur -
ring i s summed up i n one sto r y o f the past Thus

, .
,
the primitive myths o f the death and r esu r rection o f

the g ods o f n atu r e and o f f r uitfulness— O si ris ,
Adonis Atti s D ionysos Persephone and the l ike

' r
, , , ,
had thei r beginning O ut of such a car r yi ng back

.
-
o f a continually returning event i n natu r e into a
o n e time story o f the past the Babylonian myth o f

-
C reation originated which is closely related to th at

,
49
R e l igi o n an d H i sto r i c F ai th s
of t h e B ible as we shal l se e m o re in detai l later ; a

Sp ring song i n wh ich the annual vi ctory of the s un
,
g o d over the powers of Chaos was celeb r ated served ,
the fantasy o f a seer o r priest as a model for the

p oetic pre sen tation of the original emergence o f an
ordered universe out of the chaos o f the first begin
n ing I t i s likely that the F lood myth originated
.
-
i n such wi se also th e f r equently recurring floods o f

,
M esopotam i a being consolidated i n on e epi c o f a

o n e time catastroph e o f the early days o f the world
-
.
Soon other q uestions fo r ce the m selves upon the a t

tention of men : Whence co m es al l the evi l of the
wo r ld ? Whence all the sicknesses and cares o f
human l ife ? Why must women bear w ith pain an d ,
men labor i n the sweat o f thei r foreheads ? The

answer to these q uestions reads : The blame for all
o f th is rests upon the curiosi ty of woman and the
w eakness of m an— E ve and Adam P andora an d ,
E pi m etheus Prometheus -
.
O ut of these early sagas o f nature myths and the

recollections o f historic experiences o f primitive
t r ibes there a r ise then the epi cs o r songs o f heroes
, ,
i n which the oldest form of hist or i cal tradition i s to

be seen When the single t r ibes unite i nto o n e
.
p eople thei r tri bal dei ties c ombine into a national

,
system o f gods i n which the i ndivi dual gods are

,
genealogically combined di fferentiated according ,
to ran k and oc cupation and subordinated to o ne

-
supreme nation al god w he r eas the local gods an d

,
the g ods of th e smaller t r ibes a r e lo w ered to the

50
R e l igi o n an d Sc i en ce
ran k of demi gods or human heroes of the early

-
days The epi c he r oes are the divine ancestors to

.
,
whom the tribes and families t r ace b ack thei r origin ,
and wh ose deeds and fates partly mi rror the h is

to r i cal memories o f the tribes Here i s where the .
—
cult myths belong i n w h ich priestly fam ilies trace
bac k the h ist or y o f thei r sanctuary to a divin e
establishment and revelation ; such are the Python
A p ollo m yth o f Delph i the Demeter Ko re my th o f
,
-
E leusi s the Heb r e w myths o f the appearance o f

,
G od at Heb r on B ethel and the like An i m portant

,
.
ep o ch i n the history o f culture the transition f r om

-
,
human to ani m al sac r ifices i s desc r ibe d i n the sto r ies

,
whi ch tell o f n on —fulfi l l m en t by d ivine i nter v ention ,
i n the instances o f Isaac and Iphigenia .
Most imp o r tant however are the legend s wh ich

, ,
attach themselves to the epoc h mak ing personalities -
o f the h istory o f religions the prophets and r e ,
formers the s o— ,
called f ounde r s o f religions B e .
cause th e words from them were loo k ed upon as th e

t r uth by the congregation faith made of these m en ,
messengers mediato r s and even inc arnations o f

,
the god Thei r biogra p hies are adorned w ith

.
wonder tales the sy m bols o f the truth o f di rect i n

-
spi r ation b y revelation as i n the cases o f M oses

, ,
Zarathustra Pythagoras B uddha Jesus With

, , , .
the last named the origin of thei r mortal persons

-
,
i s soon t r aced back to the di vine an d th is divine ,
nature soon parta k es of the god without in any , ,
way attem p ting to deny th e man of the eart h F or

, .
51
R e l igi o n an d H i stor i c F a i ths
p o p ular l egend there lay n odi fficulty therein to dei fy

the human and to hu m anize the divine — for h ad , ,
not that been the theme o f all the epic hero myths -
o f p revious pe r iods Th e di ffi culty fi rst becam e

.
apparent when the understanding approached the

n a i ve myth with the q uestion : H ow i s one to
thin k i n such case could an actual god become a
,
man or could an actual man become a g od ?

Christianity has been busy with this q uestion fo r
more than half a millenium and i n the end i t ,
has not been solved but S imply set down and fi xed
i n the cont r adi ctory form o f the do g ma D ogma .
i s therefore n ot as i s so often thought th e

, ,
arbit r a r y i nvention o f the theologian Do gm a i s .
the attem p t o f the reflecting unde r standing t o

state the content o f the pious l egend in concep tual
f ormula .
W EW W W
' ‘
“
A r al l times the fundamental idea the p eculiar

'
cha r acter o f any religion i s the h eart O f its central

,
dogma ; the i dea contained i s attached to historical

o r legenda r y events an d v isualized th r ough the per
s on of the p r opheti c founder who natu r ally under ,
goes i d eal i z a ti on for that purpose Thus for the

-
.
,
Persians Za r athustra i s the em bodiment o f hi s

,
religion of struggle an d the h ope o f a future vic

to r i o us rule r sh ip o f God ; for th e Buddhists G autam a ,
B uddha i s the e m bodi m ent o f sal v ation through

k n ow led ge self ab n egation and benevolence ; for
,
-
th e Ch r i stian Jesus i s the embodiment o f th e

,
child of God i dea salvation f r om the world and

- -
,
52
R e l igi o n an d Sc i en ce
rec onci liation w ith G od in faith and love T o t h i s .
cent r al dogma usually there become attached doc

, ,
trines concern ing the beginning and the end o f th e

world the materials for whi ch are found pa r tly i n
,
ancient myths and partly i n ph i losophi cal S pecul a

tions F i nally all o f th i s i s woven w ith great a r t
.
,
i nto on e com p lete theologica l doct r inal system

whic h describes an all encompassing picture of th e
-
world H ere an d Beyond h ist ory ( legend ) an d

, ,
metaphysics and morals ; then i ts autho r itative vali d

i ty for the fait h o f the church i s fi xed and firm unt il
a contradiction with the k nowledge of p rogressing
culture i s recogn ized .
The op p osition to ecclesiastical doctrines Of f ait h

originated wi t h the natural sciences I n the s ix .
teen th century when C opernicus p resented h i s

,
teach ing that the earth does not stand still but with , ,
the other p lanets revolves about the sun Mel an ch ,
thon regarded thi s teaching as gross error and de ,
m an ded i ts suppression by the superior authorities ;

he recogn ized its contradiction of the biblical repor t
o f C reation and the biblical world picture with a l l
-
the far reaching conse q uences more k eenly than d i d

-
the later theologians who have learned to accep t

,
th e Copern ican vie w of the w o rld i n the main b ut

-
close thei r eyes to th e se p arate logical consequences .
W hat Copernicus had begun physics and math e ,
maties continued i n the seventeenth and eighteent h

’
centuries by thei r habit o f exact logical and causal

53
thus the conviction o f the invariable
'
th i nki ng , an d
ness of eventuation i s for m ed Spinoza fi r st made .
th is thought the basi s o f a ph i IOSOp h ic vie w o f the

world and he even drew the conclusion therefrom
,
that m i racles i n the actual sense of supe r natural

,
nature phenomena were not possible because they

-
, ,
would indicate a cessation of the order of the wo r ld ,
which i s on e with the eternal an d unchangeable

nature o f God F inally the nineteenth centu r y
.
,
ca m e with the theo r y of evolution whi ch La m a r ck ,
p r epared and Darwin carried o ut to i ts victo r ious

completion according to whi ch all h igher species o f
,
ea r thly l iving beings including men developed

, ,
from certai n simple ground forms th r ough gradual -
and natu r ally— conditioned changes But what b e .
comes o f the B ibl ical Paradise ? of the Creation ? o f

the pe r fect condition o f man at the beginning ? In
stead o f such a peaceful i dyl l there i s put a semi
animal beginning of o ur race w ith al l th e horrors
o f the hard struggle for exi stence with the slo w and ,
laborious elevation to human culture ; nevertheless

i t i s a rise fro m th e depths o f animal nature to
spi ritual f r eedo m and i n the end that is a more
, , ,
subl i m e thought than the church doctrine o f a fall -
f r o m so m e myth ical height to an abysmal dep th o f

depravity .
F o r the science of histo r y th e thought o f evolution

,
also became impo r tant In h isto r y man learned to

.
,
regard mo r e closely the g r adual becomi n g of the

h igher o ut of the lo w er without any leaps or abru p t
,
S4
R e l igi o n an d S c i en c e
new beginnings ; i n the stead of divine m iraculous

-
deeds there ente r ed the natu r al relation o f the

,
doings o f i n dividuals unde r the conditioning i n

fl uen ces of the social conditions o f the ti m e an d
thei r env ironment I t was recogn ized that th e
.
g r eatest her oes and innovating spi r its were always

ch ild r en of the i r pe r i o d and i n some m easu r e
hemmed by i ts limitations that eve r ything tempo r a l
,
was tempo r ally limited and relative These p r inci .
ples were then applied to bibli cal h isto r y and led to

a complete overturning of traditional views The .
exam ination o f the biblical w r itings after the cr i ti

cal method usually applied to p r ofane w r itings was
begun and thei r dive r gencies and partial con tr ad i c
tions i n the separate traditions as wel l as i n the total
conception of Christianity was regarded Whatever .
was human and conditioned by the history of th e

time i n the utterances and the teachings o f the b ib l i
cal authors was i n a l l places so clear that the faith
, ,
i n the infallibility an d di rect divine inspiration of

the words of the B ible coul d no longer be main
ta i n ed F inally the view widened f rom the biblica l
.
,
fi eld to th at of the whole h isto r y o f religion Here .
the most remark able parallels between b ibli cal an d

heathen legends soon became apparent — pa r allels ,
wh ich partly seemed to poi nt to a de pe ndence o f

the former on the latter F o r instance the similari
.
,
ties existing between the biblical and the Babylon

C r eation and F loo d sto r ies bet w een the laws o f
,
M oses and those of Hammurabi between t h e ,
55
R e l igi on an d H i stor i c Fai t h s
Jewis h and the Persia n doctrines o f angels an d

devils o f resu r r ection and wo r ld j udgment b e
,
-
,
tween the evangelic and the Buddh istic mi racle

legends The r e w ith the critical analysi s of the
.
t r aditional doct r ines o f faith w h ich had begun with

,
exte r nals ( creation and world — picture ) finally ar ,
rived at the central poin t: even the doct r ines o f

Christ and of salvation we r e q uestioned d is r obed at ,
least of thei r unique m i r aculous character i n place ,
o f which h e r e too conditioning by time and h is

, ,
to ry were substituted So the fight between modern

.
science and ancient doct r ines of faith was taken up

along the whole line ; and with greatest vigor it i s ,
stil l being fought We are standing i n the m ids t

.
Of i t H ow w ill i t end ? Wi ll they prove to be i n

.
the right who see the end of religion i n the victory

o f science ? O r will the rigi d defenders of the tra
di ti on a l faith prove right i n thei r conviction that
faith w ill emerge from the present crisi s unharmed
and unchanged ? O r w ill neither combatant main
,
tain h is ground ?
This much i s certain : Church rulersh ip over -
science to day o r in the futu r e i s out of the ques

-
, ,
tion Such rule r ship w a s possible only as long as

.
the Church ruled the enti re S pi r itual l ife o f s oci ety ,
and as i n the M iddle Ages an inde p endent tem

, ,
p o r al science had not yet arisen Later r elations .

,
we r e reversed ; i n the age o f enlighten m ent when

the human spi r i t became conscious o f i ts rights an d
i ts ca p acity for i ndependent thought untrammeled
56
R e l igi o n an d Sci en ce
by aut h ority then science m ade the bold claim to

,
rule o v er religion E m ancipated reason arranged

.
its natura l religion m a de up of abst ract concep ,
tions and whatever o f historical religion did not fi t

,
into th is free construction of r eflection was simply

thrown aside as meaningless and worthless Thi s .
was the e q ually one si ded companion piece to th e

- - -
religion of authori ty preceding and for that reaso n ,
i t could not be permanent I t i s clear that science .

,
as little as art can make religion for both are a h is

, ,
tor i cal ly given and sel f developing l i fe wh i ch can

- -
,
no more be created than i t can be dest r oyed by

argumentation An d the pu rp ose of r eligion as o f
.
,
art lies as l ittle i n the i ncrease o f our knowledge o f

,
the world ; but religion see k s to put our hearts int o

right relation to G od and therewith to give us th e ,
right vie w point for j udg m ent o f the world and o f

-
l i fe according to its relation to our emotion an d

v ol ition F o r that reason the intellectualism o f th e
.
age of enlightenment was mistaken Against the .
enlightenment such men as Rousseau Hamann , ,
H erder Schleiermacher and othe r s rose up ; thi s

,
was the n ew tendency wh ich i s gene r ally te r med

”
“
Romanticism a passionate p r otest against th e
,
supremacy of the understanding i n favor o f the

righ ts o f the heart and the fantasy the emotions , ,
the notions and th e moods o f men Acco r ding to .

'
Schleiermacher religion i s a feel in g o f the infinite

,
i n the fi nite o r a feel in g o f absolute dependence ;

,
e ac h religion i s e q ually t r ue in s o far as i t i s a mat
57
ter of the feelings but with the t r uth o f science i t
,
has nothi ng w hatsoever to do .
It i s thi s not ion which gove r ns in the New roman -
ti ci s m of to day -
Religion and science s o men sa y
.
, ,
should stand peaceably one alo n gside the other and

su ff er each to go its way i n peace one not ca r ing ,
about the other Science S hould confi n e itsel f to

.
the kno w ledge o f the causal connection o f finite

things and events w hile r eligion has nothing to do
,
w ith knowledge eithe r o f God o r the wo r ld but ,
only wi th the expe r ie n ces of the spi r it our inner ,
l i fe which a re co m pletely inde pe ndent o f the t r uth s

,
o f science and have thei r value i n themselves in ,
the benevolent and consolato r y feeli n gs which give

us an inner satisfaction i r r espective o f al l that may
”
be sai d about its truth “
.
N o w adays that see m s a welcome way o f escape

f or many an easy peac e proposition i n the bitter
,
-
st r uggl e between religion and science Pity i t i s .

,
that w i th this d ivision o f unde r sta n ding and hea r t ,
the opposition i s not reduced but S imply hidden and ,
lai d over Let us be honest and try to make clear

.
to ourselves the actual condition of things What .
does science w ant ? Si m ply to kno w ce r tain sep

arate relations h e r e and there in the di ffe r ent realms ?
Will scie n ce ever give up the attempt to move f r om
single relations to othe r s u n ti l i t has completed a
wo r ld pictu r e w hich S hall e m b r ace all ? Ce r tainly
-
not But suppose science a r r i ves at a mechanical

.
,
mate r ialism as the expla n ation of the wo r ld w hich

58
R e l igi o n an d Sci e n ce
robs the f aith in God o f all meaning except such as

i s contained i n F eue rbach s i llusion theory Can ’
.
religion rest satisfied w ith that ? Can the rel igious

feelings maintain thei r value i f they a re di r ected to
w ard a n obj ect which has been r ecognized as a s ub
j ec t i v e c r eation o f i llusion ? In fact the r e can be ,
no doubt all religion w oul d then be at an end ; its

,
expe r iences and e m otions would soon cease i f th e

fundamental the t r uth of the i dea o f G od were
, ,
withdrawn and they were left sus p ended i n the a i r ,
s o to S peak . Then rel igion cannot peacefully stand

alongside a scientific vie w o f the wo r ld which i s
atheistic ; religion could not su ffe r i t without giving
itself up B ut let us take another vie w of the
.
matter .
The nai ve mode of religious thin k ing pre f e r s to

attach i ts pious feelings to the wonder legends an d -
therefo r e demands that fo r the sake o f the va lue of

, ,
those feeli n gs the mi r acle should have the v al idity

,
o f truth , and science S houl d ackno w ledge i t to be

such Will science for the sake o f s w eet peace
.
, ,
quietly sub m it to such a dem and ? I t i s w ell kno w n

that science r efuses to do s o and rega r ded f r om th e ,
standpoi n t o f science j ustifiably s o fo r this demand

, ,
i s nothing S ho r t o f a co m ma n d to give up the co m

p l e te la w fulness o f all becom ing i n time and space ,
wh ich i s the fundamental p r esupp osition th e con d i ti o ,
s i n e q ua n on o f al l scientific thinking and kno w

,
i ng i n the world Scie n ce cannot yield thi s ground

.
,
cannot make this concession to the r el igious w ay o f

59
R e l igi o n and H i s to ri c Fa i t h s
thinking w ithout yielding itsel f up I n t r uth the
, .
,
matte r stands thus : The co m p r o m ise between re

l i gi o n and science on the basis of a m utual ignoring
,
and i n dulgence i s deceptive and untenable however

, ,
acceptable i t m ay see m to the supe r ficial eye S uch .
cheap subte r fuges will not stand p e r manently ; they

a r e me r ely pillo w s upon w hich the ease loving and -
lazy thinking seek to rest hence they a r e not fitting

-
fo r an earnest a n d honest science o f r eligion The .
latte r ca n not thrust aside the task o f seeking a posi

tive mediation bet w een rel igion and science a rela ,
tion of honest mutual recognition respect and ,
fu r therance .
The God idea i tsel f i s the gua r antee that i t mus t:

-
be possible to find such a relation bet w een the tw o ,
i n s o fa r as that i dea involves the unity of w o r ld

cause and w orld pu r pose the final o f all knowing
-
,
and w illing Just as that i dea fo r morals contain s

.
th e deepest foundation and perfection o f duty an d

right volition s o for science i t contains the fi n al
, ,
g round a n d the fi n i shi n g goal o f all kno w ledge o f

the w o r ld That i s the decisive point concerning
.
,
wh ich the r e must be no m isunde r standing A S has .
bee n said the p r esupposition o f science i s th e un

,
deviati n g la w ful n ess o f all the w o r l d pheno m ena

a n d the steady evo l ution o f all l i fe in natu r e and
h isto ry Upon what i s th i s presupposition o f law

.
ful n es s based ? O n p r oofs o f any so r t ? Not at all ;

i t i s the basis of all th e p roofs of inductive r esearch
a nd,
therefore cannot itself be proved I ts fi rst
,
.
60
beginning i s a hypothesis o f faith a postulate o f ,
reason wh ich would know the wo r l d i n logically

ordered thin k ing and therefore must necessari ly
, ,
assume that the world i s a reasonably ordered

whole a lawful connection o f being and becoming
,
.
What else i s involved i n thi s assumption o f faith

which reason necessarily makes ? I f the wo r ld i s
a law abi ding arrangement of interacting fi nite
-
forces the q uestion ari ses at once : Whence co m es

,
th is orde r ? Inasmuch as i t governs the m ul ti tud i

nous number o f fin ite beings and powers or j oins ,
them into a unity or cosmos i t cannot possibly have ,
i ts origin in the many an d the fi nite ; it must rather

be the product of a uniform cause w hich the multi
p l i ci ty p resupposes on e prime power underlying all
,
fi nite powers as the i nfinite source o f power or

omnipotence ; yet at the same time i t must be a
, ,
reasonable principle otherw ise the r e could not possi

,
bly be a reasonable order in its activity in the single

powe r s : hence underlying the reasonable orde r ed
, ,
multiplicity the r e will b e an omnipotent c r eati ve

, ,
reason which is the unity the world p r inciple o r ,

-
G od O r i f i n stead o f sta r ting f rom the ob j ect

.
,
o f thought we begi n with the thinking subj ect h im

,
sel f we arrive at the same result A re the logical

, .
'
laws of our reason invented or made by ourselves ?

F ound yes that i s raised into consciousness and s et
, , ,
i n conceptual fo r m ul ae they have been by th inking

, ,
men by philosophe r s like A r i stotle o r Ka n t m en

, ,
w ho h ave though t sea r chingly concerning human

61
thinki ng itself ; but ce rt ainly the logical laws of
the hu m an r eason w e r e n ot m ade by these thinke r s ,
j ust a s l ittle as the a r ith m etical and geo m et r ical laws

w e r e m ade by the m athe m aticians or the physical ,
laws by the physicists who fi r st discove red and ,
fo r m ulated them The laws o f our th inking a re

.
not p r oducts o f our th inking but they a re the p r e ,
suppositio n s which alone make our thinking possi

ble ; as Ka n t says they a re the p reviously give n
,
-
or a pr i or i Whence then o r iginates th is co r e o f

.
, ,
human thi n ki ng co m m on to us all and p r eviously

,
given to all ? A non thinking cause would not -
explain i t and therefo r e the r e r em ains but the one

, , ,
assu m ption that i t o r igi n ates in a th inking w hich i s

p resupposed by all hu m an thinking and which i s
su pe r hu m an that sa m e c r eative reason o f G od i n
,
which the la w ful o rder o f the external world o f

na tu r e found i ts basis
, .
Conce r n i ng the thought o f evolution wh ich gov

e rn s the n atu ral and h istorical sciences o f to day it -
,
must be sai d that it does not stand in conflict w ith

the rel igious bel ief i n God w hen i t beco m es clear ,
w hat the conception o f evolution really includes It .
i s no t me r ely a casually conditioned consequence o f

-
va r ious ci r cu m stances ( as for exa m ple o f the , ,
weather o r of th e su r face of the earth or of a di s ,
integ r at i ng o rganism —o f these no one uses the ,
te r m evolution
“
but i t i s such a continuous
alte r ation o f the conditio n s of one s living that i s ’
,
governed from the begi n n i ng by a permanent i m

62
pu lse striving to w a r d the final goal of the enti r e

,
process All evolution st r ives to attai n o ne goal

.
and this its pu rpose which i s o n e finally with the

, ,
p henomenon as A r istotle
,
even said i s f r om the b e ,
ginning the d r iving po w e r and the gove r ning l aw o f

the enti r e p r ocess N o w m ode r n science has taught
.
uS to regard the total of li fe in natu r e in its man i ,
fold fo r ms and stages as a co nn ected and uni fo r m ,
evolution Good That only j ustifies us the m o r e

. .
i n asking after the pu rpose of th is all e m b racing -
evolution of li fe in natu re and of finding i t i n m a n , ,
who is the Obj ective poi n t a n d highest p eak being a

-
ch ild of natu r e and yet mo r e than natu r e because

, ,
he i s a thinking being a bei n g w ith reason N o w , .
we are re m i n ded natu r ally that the beginning of

, ,
humanity i s not to be thought o f as a subli m e

S pi r ituality but r athe r as a very lo w ani m al like
,
-
natu r alness ; that i s ve r y likely fo r even to day ,

-
every ch ild o f m an m ust co m m ence w ith a si m ilar

modest begi n n i ng But the co n clusion the r ef r o m
.
is only this that the natu r al m a n i s not the fin a l

,
purpose ; the evolution o f li fe does not r est w ith

h im as such but goes on no longe r as a p r ocess
, ,
of nature but as a histo r ical p rocess o f cultu r e

, .
B ut w hat is the pu r pose o f the eve r to b e sought - - -
and partially ach ieved goal o f histo r ic a l cultu r e ? It

-
is the develop m ent o f the r eason te n dency o f m a n -
into a r eal r easo n i n g m o r al pe r sonality ; i t is the

,
beco m ing of the spi r itual m a n w h o co nque r s natu r e , ,
of and about h imsel f m aking i t se r ve as a means o f

,
63
R e l igi o n an d H i st o r i c Fa i t h s
the f r ee spi r it If the last goal o f all natural and
.
histo r i cal develop m ent i s spi r it i n the fo rm al and ,
the r eal sense Of the wo r d must we not presuppose , ,
that th e cause o f the en ti r e develop m ent was S pi r it ,
c r eative spi r i t setting a n d r ealizing its purpose

,
?
O r i s i t thi n kable that at the end the r e S hould be

found so m ething i n the result which had not been
p r esent i n so m e fashion i n the cause ? Can spi r it
a ise o t of spi itless atter That would be the
r u r m ?
g reatest of the wo r ld r i ddles Hence i t may prop

-
.
,
e r ly be said that the l a w abiding order and de

,
-
v e l op m en t o f nature and h istory thi s funda m ental ,
thought of science does not exclude the belief in

,
God but rather de m ands it fo r its own foundation

,
.
Thus i s the ha rmonization o f science and religion

m ade ce r tain .
But a pe ace compact between the m i s not all that

-
i s possible ; they can and they should mutually help

o n e a n other Religion contains a regulative fo r
.
science i n s o fa r as i t p r otests against one sided

,
-
w o r ld vie w s
-
such as mate r ialis m positivism nihil
, , ,
i s m and i llusionis m in w h ch the facts o f the spirit

,
ual pa r ticula r ly o f the m oral r eligious l ife a re

,
-
,
dep r ived of pa r t of thei r r ights Conversely scie n ce .

,
se r ves a s a r e g ulative fo r religion ; for w ith that

w h ich scie n ce has r ecogn ized to be undoubted t r uth
conce rn ing natu re o r h i sto r y the r eligious vi e w o f ,
the w o r l d m ust place itself in ha rmony a n d w hat ,
ever the r ein co n t r adicts the t r aditi onal i deas can

not r etain validity a s actual obj ective t r uth A .
64
double natu r ed truth i s an impossibility ; that would

be a sel f contradiction o f reason and a deni al of the
-
unity of God who i s the on e cause of all truth

,
.
Religion therefo r e must abandon such traditional

, ,
i deas as cont r adict the ve r ified scienti fi c k no w ledge

o f truth In the cou r se of its h isto r y thi s has been
.
done often enough even though i t was regretfully

,
and reluctantly done In the end however i t was

.
, ,
always mani fest that religion lost nothing o f its

actual value by such concessions b ut rather gained ,
i n S pi ritual depth and pu r ity F or those ideas w ere

.
no more than the i m pu r ities left ove r fro m the chi ld

hoo d period o i the race ; the se n sual fo r ms and th e
wrappings wh ich su r vive from the nature religion
a r e bei n g consu m ed i n the fi r e o f scientific criticis m ,
s o that their spi r itual content r emains inc r easingly
pu r e and religion app r oaches mo r e and m ore closely

,
to the ideal — the w orship of God in spi r i t and in

t r uth Thi s end i s served particularly by the w iden
.
ing of the a n gle o f vision s o tha t i t includes not

,
merely a single po sitive r eligion but the w hole h i s

to ry o f religion N atu rally a nai ve piety at fi r st
.
,
i s pai n ed and distu r bed even by that as w e had ,
occasion to s ee recently i n the Babel B ible con -
tr o v e r s y .
But i t i s a fact that only he really knows o ne

rel igion w h o knows mo r e than o n e religion Not .
only does the study o f co m pa r ative religions mak e us

tole r ant in o ur attitude to w a r d othe r r eligio n s b e ,
cause i t demonst rates that the divine logos d i s

65
R e l igi o n an d Hi s to r i c Fa i t h s
tributed the seed co r ns of the t rue and the good
-
th r oughout the wo r ld among m en but it also teaches ,
us to u n de r stand o ur o w n r eligion better because o f

the clea r e r d iff e r entiation bet w een the ess ential and
the accidental the pe r m ane n t and the te m po ra ry
,
.
The question i s asked : B ut what beco m es o f

r evelation in all o f thi s ? Well it i s appa rent that ,
w e shall have to relinquish the notion o f a unique
revelation and of a S i n gle infallible revelation ; but , ,
in the end that too i s no ha rm but a benefit F o r

, , , , .
not unti l then do we lea r n to kno w revelation in its

full b r eadth and greatness and i n i ts divine human -
n ature ,
as the o ne divi n e light w h ich th r ough the , ,
mediu m o f hu m an spi r its b r eaks into mani fold r ays

,
and colo r s N 0 longer i s i t na r ro w ed to one l ittle

.
co r ner o f the ea r th called Palestine o r to a time ,
long since past but i n all lands a n d i n all ages God

,
has made H i m self kno w n and has pe r m itted pu r e

souls to find H i m w hen they sought H i m w ith
,
ea rnestness and r eve r ence If the r eby Ch r istian .

, ,
i ty i s r obbed o f i ts title to being the only religion i t ,
does not alte r the fact that i t i s the highest and the
best O ur valuation of o ur o w n religion no longe r
.
r e m ains an u n tested faith but by co m parison w ith

,
other h istorical religions becomes knowledge tried

and tested .
Thus we ach ieve the result that instead of de

, ,
st r oying religion science h a s f r om O f old per

, , ,
fo rm ed the most valuable se r vices for religion and

wil l continue to pe r fo rm the m But science can .
66
only do this i f r eligion does not assume guardian

,
ship over i t gr anti n g the fullest freedo m to re

,
sea r ch and even more regarding science as a

, ,
servant o f t ruth that i s of G od The m ore the

, , .
l ight o f kno w ledge unites w ith the w armth of the

heart and with the st r ength o f faith love and hope
, ,
so m uch the more wi ll man become the temple of the

THE B EG I N N I N G S OF R EL I G I O N
W H A T do we k now the beginni gs of rel igion

of n ?
Accurately speaking noth ing F o r all h isto r ical

,
.
testi m ony does not carry us bac k to the fi rst begin

n i n s of religion any m o r e than i t does to those
g ,
o f language . I f we w ish to be honest we must ,
con fess that we kno w noth ing of the conditions

w hich obtained at the beginning o f man in gene r al ,
and that w e never w ill have ce r tain kno w ledge con

ce r ni n g the m Suppositions only can be o ffered
.
,
suppositions w h ich m ay have m o r e or less p r ob ab il

ity as far as they rest on reasoning back w ard by
a n alogy f r o m things k n o w n to thi ngs u nkno w n ;
,
but they a re al w ays to be di ffe r entiated ca r efully

f r om ce r tain kno w ledge ; none o f these hypotheses
ca n be ve r ified hence th ere need be no controve r sy
,
r a rd in
g g the m .
Such suppositions a r e above al l based o n analo

gies w ith the p r esent p r i m itive ( w ild ) people con ,
ce rn ing who m i t may be accepted that they a r e

co m pa r atively nea r est to the begi nnings o f the
human race In the r eligions o f the cultured there
.
,
are to be found eve ry w he r e ce r tain elements w hich

.
68
T he B e gi n n i n g s o f R e l igi o n
do n ot harmonize with the high state of culture oh

taining w ith th e ave r age plane of the intellectual
,
and m o r al cultu r e hence they m ay be r ega r ded as

,
su r vivals o f some p r evious plane If these s ur .
v i v a l s cor r espond o r a r e closely r elated to the co m
mon funda m entals o f the r eligion o f the p r i m itives

the supposition see m s not w ithout j ustification that ,
traces of the beginnings of r eligion may have been

preserved i n them Ca r e must be had i n such r ea
.
soni n g backward for i t cannot be asse rted at th e

,
outset that the religion of th e wild m an i s really a

p etrified beginning o f all hu m an r el igion ; the possi
b i l i ty o f reg r ess a degene r ation f r om higher begin
,
n i ng s ,
i s not to be dis r egarded the less s o S i n ce , ,
many S ign s tend to the demonst r ation o f such a

f act.
We must also guard against the f r equent con fu

sion of the oldest theo r etical basis o f r el igion with r e
l i g i on itsel f The pri m itive wo r ld vie w o r childish
.
-
,
folk metaphysics wh ich m ay be r eco g n ized eve r y

,
whe r e with astonish ing regula r ity a s the co m m o n

, ,
”
basis o f the most va r ied r eligions i s A n i m ism , ,
wh i ch i s to b e unde r stood a s a bel ief in souls o r

S piri ts in the broadest sense Th is bel ief compasses
.
a diversity o f th ings and th erefore cannot b e

, , ,
explained by a s i n gle psychological root but r e ,
qui r es a number o f them The fi rst i s asc r ibing

.
soul to natu r e as we may obse r ve i t to day un

,
— ,
consciously done by ch ildren and consciously done

by poets T h is ex plains itsel f ; the natu r al tendency
.
69
R e ligi o n an d H i s to r i c F ai t h s
of man conceives exte r n al obj ects as analogous to
h is o w n i n n e r conditions ca r rying ove r to them ,
h is o w n e m otions and passions especially r egard

ing all the e ffects a r ising f r om the obj ects after
the a n alogy o f h i s o w n activities he n ce looking ,
upon the m as volu n ta ry actions w hich p r edicate ,
a f r ie n dly o r ini m ical inte n tion on the pa r t of th e

obj ect acti n g So the child st r ikes the foo t of the
.
table against w hich h e st r uck himsel f because h e

, ,
rega r ds the u n pleasant e ffect as a consequence o f

the ini m ical pu r po se of the table upon w h ich he ,
then seeks to r eve n ge hi m sel f S o deeply rooted i s .
th is tendency to pe r sonification or p s y ch ification o f

th ings that civilized man occasionally grows angry
,
”
at the pe r ve r sity o f things as fo r i n stance when , , ,
the pen r efuses to w r ite Why S houl d we wonder .
then at p r i m itive man w hen he ascribes to all the

,
things i n nature the i m m ovable and more espe

,
c i a l ly the movable th i n gs a manl ike soul with ,
f r iendly o r i n i m ical pu rposes ? At fi r st thi s soul i s ,
i n no w ay dissociated f r o m the mate r ial thing ; it i s

n oth i n g othe r than the thing i tself co n ceived as a
bei n g w ith e m otions and w ill hence ve r y di ff e r ent ,
f r o m the f r ee gods H ow might these latter have

.
become possible ? Seve r al psychological motives

may have cont r ibuted thereto .
F o r emost the expe r iences o f the d r eam —

, phenom
ena : When i n a d r ea m w e expe r ience the p resence
, ,
o f people who l ive at a great distance or o f friends
long since dead and they seem to live again wit h

.
,
70
T he B e gi n n i n g s o f R e l igi o n
us or when w e j ou r ney to distant lands and ex pe r i

,
ence wonderful th ings then w e kno w that our fan

,
tasy has conj ured up these pictu r es but the p r i m itive ,
man does not kno w that and therefore considers

such phenomena to be j ust a s real as those of h i s
waking hou r s ; yet h is understanding tells h i m that
,
i t was not possible for h i s b ody to make such long

j ourneys i n the few sho r t hou r s of the night and ,
th at distant o r dead f r iends could not have entered

bodily th rough the closed doors and v isited him .
O ne explanation remains for h i m : for the ti m e h is

soul w ande r ed out of hi s body into distant S pace ,
and the souls o f h is f r iends visited him i n the night .
Thi s soul i s regarded as th e exact double o f the

b o dily man only that i t consists of an ai r l ike
,
-
mate r ial and the r efore i t i s far more mobile than

, , ,
h is coarse m ate r ial body to w hich as its o r dinary

-
,
dwelling place the soul i s usually bound but i t can

-
, ,
leave him at ti m es and wander about f r eely That .
the soul can fo r sake its body per m a n e n tly primitive ,
man beco m es convinced at the sight o f the dying

he sees the change of the body a mo m ent ago i t ,
moved w ith st r en gt h now a quiet man l ies the r e

,
and he can explain th i s change o n ly by saying that

the soul has fo r saken th is body wi th the last b r eath ,
i t r ode away ; th e r efo re h e concludes i t i s identical

, ,
with a breat h a wind ; or i t escaped w ith th e st r eam

,
ing blood hence i t resides i n the blood i t i s i ts

, ,
wa r mth i ts vapor That the soul should cease to

, .
b e at the death o f the body i s a thought enti rely

7x
R e l igi o n an d .
H i s to r i c Fa i t h s
fo r eign to the p r i m itive ; i t has me r ely wandered
O ff
,
but i t does ce r tainly l ive on as a b r eath o r a
shado w and th is i s the mo r e ce r tain for i t appears
, ,
agai n often in dreams o r hallucinations The de .
pa r ted soul can retu r n and enter into a ne w body

a s a d w elling place either into a human body
-
, into ,
so m e n ew born g r andch ild as the Indians believe

-
and thus explain ata v ism or into an animal ,
body pa r ticula r ly o f bi rds and snakes wh ich a re

, ,
f r e q uently rega r ded as the embodi m ent of an

cesto r s souls These ancestors souls di ffer f r om
’
.
’
the souls o f the things o f natu r e spoken of above

by their decided h u m an i ndividuality and thei r
f r eedo m f r om bodily li m itations thei r independent ,
f r eedom of motion ; as against that these souls must ,
do w ithout the po we r f ul an d constant enduring

mode o f action w h ich pe r tains to the g r eater o f the
th ings natu r e endowed with soul A fusion o f .
these tw o conceptions o f souls coul d not be far

f r o m thei r thoughts an d therein the i dea o f god
,
bei n gs w a s included .
Mean w h ile a thi r d form o f spi r i t m ust be added ,
w h ich i s to a ce r tain extent rooted i n p r imitive

, ,
logic— spi r its based on abst r act i deas w hich have ,
been made independent and personified When S in .
gle trees o r sp r ings o f water st r ike the p rimitive

m a n he may w ell worsh ip the po w e r ful and b en efi
,
cent soul therei n a s a deity ; but when th e same man

sees many t r ees gathe r ed together as a wo od h e ,
gro ups the many single specimens into a unit o f the

72
T he B e gi nn i n g s of R e l igi o n
kind and thinks of thi s uni t again as an independent

spi r i t being w hich bea r s to each S i ngle t r ee the
-
relation of p r ototype and c r eato r o f i ts pa r ti cula r

l i fe —the fo r est god In like fashion the r e eme r ges
-
.
,
from the single sp r ings a ge n e r al wate r god above -

,
single fi r es a fi r e god ; above the w inds the w i n d

,
-
,
g o d— everywhe r e the idea of the species made i n
dependent as th e c r eative po w er o f the single

phenomena So too ani m al a n d plant species a re
.
, ,
t r aced back to on e typical original as the divine

c r eator and prese r ver o f each i ndividual s pe ci m en .
F inally eve r y h um an social grou p—races gene r a

, ,
tions and fa m ilies — i s t r aced back to a single

divine ancesto r which i s scarcely the spi r i t of an
,
ind ividual p r ogenitor but rather a S pi r it bei n g

,
-
gro w ing o ut o f the i dea o f the unity o f the g roup

and then made independent I n th is same category .
of pe r so n ification o f abst r act ideas belong the gods

of activities and conditions such as gro w th fe rtility , , ,
bi r th and death disease and health war and peace

, ,
and eve ry othe r fo r m o f cultu r al activity possible ,
as well as vi r tues and v ices and the l ike Lately .

,
thi s sort o f deities o f activity have been design ated

”
as m omentary deities because they only make
“
,
the m selves mani fest at times and they a r e r e ,
ga r ded as the o r iginal fo r ms o ut o f w hich in th e , ,
course o f time th e pe rm anent g r eat gods de

, ,
v el op ed ; such a theo r y i s not susceptible o f p r oof .
In gene r al i t see m s to me to be a useless dispute

,
as to which of these di ff erent k inds o f souls or

73
S pi r its have been the ea r lier and which th e
m ay ,
later ; enough that they a r e to be found i n all o f

the oldest r eligio n s kno w n to us and that w e are ,
able to explain thei r psychological origin I f we .
cast a glance at the hi sto r ical r eligions i n which ,
that w hich w as pr i m al has been compa r atively best

p r eserved such as the Chi n ese and E gyptian the
, ,
p roxi m ate supposition see m s to be that the be ing i n ,
w h ich a particular co m munal group fa m i ly or clan ,
o r race or people fou n d its deity o riginated in a ,
combination o f the collective ancestral spi rits of the

g r oup w ith a pe r sonified nature power either o f -
,
heaven ( China ) or of the s un ( Japan Peru E gypt

, , , ,
Ra ) o r o f earth and ea r thly spi r its of f r uitfulness

,
( Isis —O si ri s Magna Mate r ) or o f a ce r tain species

, ,
o f ani m al ( the sac r ed ani m als o f the Egyptian p r ov
i n ces and other totemistic t r ibes ) Why i n p arti cu .

,
l a r cases this th at o r the other being in nature was

, , , ,
deified we can n ot explain and i t i s n ot essential ;

, ,
the m ain fact r e m ains that each o f these groups ,
w o r ships i n its god the power by w hich thei r com
m o n li fe as me m be r s th e r eo f and thei r natu r e en -
v i r o n m en t w a s caused and preserved ; for each o f
h i s w o r shippe r s the god i s the creating and p r e

,
serving po w er o f li fe making the group collectively

,
pe r man ent F r o m all of this it m ight seem as

.
though the god w e r e the deified person of some h is

to r i ca l ancestor — th e w ell kno w n theo ry of Eu~
,
-
h em ero s r ecen tly taken up again by Herbert Speu

,
cer a nd others But this theory i s erroneous ; i t i s

.
74
T he B e gi n n i ngs o f R e l igi o n
re f uted by the indisputable f act that the tribe god -
o f the O ldest religions is not thought o f as a man ,
but as a l iving natu r e being o f heavenly or earthly

-
k ind Hence i t has been correctly sai d by E

.
, .
Cai r d that he was not worshipped as a god because

he was an ancestor but because he was worshipped
,
as a god he was held to be the ancestor the race ,
f ather of his worshippers .
Naturally for us it i s an idea scarce conceivable

, ,
that a sensual ob j ect o f natu r e such as heaven o r ,
s un o r earth o r a mountain a t r ee a river an ani

, , , ,
mal should have produced men ; but we must not

,
perm it the di fficulty involved to lead us to a nega

tion o f this i dea whi ch r ecurs every w here in the
,
oldest religions and unde r lies countless myths n or ,
must we perm it ourselves to weaken i t to a

mere imagi native sym bolis m In the earliest period .
there i s no such thing as symbol ism in the sense

o f conscious pictu r e language ; at that time every
-
thing had actual bodily m eaning Besi des the r e

, .
,
are two things w hich must be taken into con

sideration here : fi rst that th e d i ffi culty i nvolved
,
herei n for us was not a diffi culty for ea r ly men ;

and for thi s reason they did not have o ur sha r p
d i fferentiation between various species of beings ,
between men animals plants bet w een th ings l iving

, , ,
and things w ithout l i fe They w e r e far r emoved.
f r om such an i dea and s o too as i t did not seem

, , ,
unnatural to the m that the o n e should go Over o r be
trans f ormed into the other s o i t did not seem i m ,
75
possible to them that the o ne S hould b e born of the
other .
Ho w ever let us not ove r look th e f act that in

,
th is idea which seems s o incredible to us the r e i s ,
h idden a co r e o f reason In the idea o f the tribal

.
god ea r ly man united two things into one the

, ,
supe rhu m an myste r ious permanent powe r which

, ,
i s exp r essed in h is nature side and the close rela -

,
ti o n s h i p w ith m en which he maintains i n hi s capac

,
i ty a s the father of the tribe ; a relationship which

causes mutual connection that of protecting rule r ,
ship On the one side and of vene r ation on the othe r .
I f he we r e not a nature being then he would not -

,
possess that supe r ior pe r ma n ent p o w er w hich i s

,
not sepa r able f r o m the god idea ; i f he were no t -
at the sa m e time the father ( or the mothe r ) o f the

t r ibe the sou r ce o f th e co m mon l i fe o f the gene r a
,
tions the fi r m bond uni ting h i m w ith men the point

, ,
o f co n tact o f the religious r elation would be miss ,
ing So y o u see that that i dea w hich at fi r st

.
gl a nce see m ed to us s o pa r adoxical even g rotesque , ,
that i dea o f god i n p r i m itive r eligion i s only the ,
nai ve and fo r the childish S pi r it the only possible

, ,
fo r m o f exp r essio n o f that reasonable thought o f

G o d as the u n ity o f the supe rhuman and i nner
,
h um an bei n g o f natu r e and S pi r i t

, .
F r om the beginning this idea of G od served not

,
only to fu r n i sh the othe r pa r t o f a religious alliance ,
but i t w a s also the m o r al bo n d o f co m m u n ity fo r

the worshippers o f the sa m e god O riginally the r e .
,
76
T he B e gi nn i n gs o f R e l igi o n
was no other moral tie for man than th is religious

o n e ; the me m be r s o f the tribe in thei r common a t
,
ta ch m en t to thei r divine c r eator p r eserver and ,
protector felt themselves bound into a solidarity

,
w ith on e another F r om the begi n ning the t e

.
,
l ig i o us and the social co m munity w e r e o n e and the

sa m e ; the latte r could not extend beyond the fo r
mer hence th e na r r o w co n fines o f the cult com
,
-
mun ity and the realm o f the god Yet however .

,
na r row i ts li m its i t was some sort o f a co m munity

, ,
i n whi ch a religious faith was che r ished and cere

m on i a lly made active The opinion that r eligion
.
began as a matter o f the individual and w ith the ,
wo r sh ip of divine beings w h ich belonged to the

i ndividuals i s a co m plete e r r or E ve ry w he r e i n
, .
human h isto ry the natural com m u n ity based on

blood r elationship was the fi r st ; i n th is sol ida r ity
-
the i ndividual was me rged without r ega r d ; and

only g r adually an d ve r y slo w ly ca m e the thought
o f the peculia r right and j ustification o f the indi
vidual Thus i t was i n all the r eal m s o f cultu r e

.
and not least i n the r eal m o f r eligion He r e .

,
too the begi n ni n g w a s the co m m o n w o rship by

,
a -
r —
the blood el ted g oup the ind ividual had n o
r ,
other gods a n d wo r shipped no othe r gods th a n

those o f his t r ibe I f he was expelled f r o m the
.
t r ibe o r excluded f r o m the cult he felt h im ,
self thereby separated f ro m h is god and a p rey ,
to st range gods f rom w hom nothing good w a s to

.
be expe cted ; that was w hy the man o f ancient

77
R e l igi o n an d H i stori c F ai th s
days d r eaded expulsion f rom his native place and

the cult of h i s h o m e .
Conce rni n g the oldest form of worsh ip o f G od ,
sca r cely anything can be sai d w ithout running the

r isk of ca r r yi n g later custo m s back to the begin
n in g s .Appeals to the god and sacrifices were prob

a bly al w ays a p art of w orship ; but it is a di fficul t
thing to say w hat the o r iginal meaning o f the sacri

fi ce w a s It is not at all certain that i t was a tribute
.
to the god f r o m the beginning ; many signs seem to

point i n favor o f the vi e w o f Robertson Smith the ,
learned and keen research worker in rel igion who -

,
holds that the sacrifice was o r iginally nothing else

”
than a holy communion whether i t be taken i n
“
,
the sense of a co m m on meal to wh ich the gods

we r e i nvited as guests and received thei r portion
o f the food and d r ink or pe rhaps in the older
, , ,
sense that the l i fe of the god itself was thought

,
to d w ell i n the li fe of the m an or beast sacrificed

and by the enj oy m ent o f thi s raw meat and blood
, ,
possession o f the divi n e l i fe was entered into Ac .
co r ding to this the later customs o f the mysteries

, ,
w h ich w ithout doubt

, had so m e such unde r lying
,
thought w ould be but refined forms o f the oldest

,
s acr i fi ce w o r sh ip
-
This sa m e purpose of union w ith
.
the god i s se r ved by the o r giastic dances in wh ich ,
the pa r ticipants usually enveloped themselves in the

ga r m ents and the masks of the gods : they thought
that thus they exchanged thei r nature for that of
the god and the ecstatic ravings ap pear then as the , ,
78
T he B e gi n n i ng s o f R e l igi o n
ef fect ofthe entrance and possession O f them by th e

g o d ( enthusiasm ) In r emotest anti q uity
. there ,
are also found those customs generally designated

“
Analogy magic — ”
activities which imitate a d i
-
vine activity such as f r ucti fying the earth rain and

, ,
like p r ocesses o f natu r e i n o r de r to hasten or p ro ,
duce such processes The term Analogy magi c .

-
i s l ikely to be m isleading fo r o r iginally those acts , , ,
w e r e not me r ely put fo rth as analogies o r pictures ,
but as actual and e ffective coOpe ra ti on w ith the

w orkings o f the g o d and were thus r ega r ded as a ,
r eal means to a desired e ffect Late r w hen thi s .

,
o r iginal sense w a s no longer u n de r sto od the ,
activity degenerated into a me r e ceremony and a

magi c e ffect w as ascribed to i t So gene r ally th e .
, ,
initial nai ve religious ceremonies o f w o r ship migh t

,
-
be the sou r ce and o r igin o f w hat w a s late r actual

”
magic and the r efo r e the latter i s not a begin
, , ,
n ing but a degene r ation o f r eligion ; fo r in it m a n

,
does not act in the se r vi ce o f the g o d and fo r hi s

pu r poses but w ithout the god and against h i m man
, ,
desi r es to ach ieve hi s o w n pu r poses by m yste r ious

means .
A l ike reasoning holds of fetish ism w hich w ith , .
o ut any mo r e right than in the case o f ma g ic .
has been decla r ed to be a beginning o f r eligion .
The wo r d fetish means an a rbit r a ry n atu r al o r

“
artificial thing serving as a ce r emonial m eans o f

,
w o r ship i n s o far a s the r e attaches to i t the i dea

,
o f the p resence and eff ective power o f a god Such .
79
sacramental signs of the pra es ens n um en are found
i n all cults because they satisfy the natu r al need
,
for a vi sible rep r esentation o f the divine But .
nowhere a re they S i m ply identical with the god no ,
whe r e a re th ey the adequate exp r ession o f i ts

nature The Japanese considers the mi r r or i n the
.
temple o f the goddess of the s un as a S ign of the

p r esence of the goddess but i t never occurs to h im
,
to consider i t as the divine s un itsel f How would .
i t be possible to explain psychologically that men

had looked upon dead things a s thei r gods when ,
they had not seen any activities on thei r part ? I t

i s only after the idea of God had be en won i n the
manner al r eady desc r ibed that a rbitrary th ings could
be placed i n such relation to the g o d and then serve
as a m eans by w hich the p r esence of the g od at the
’
se r vice w as achieved N aturally the supe r stitious

.
,
i dea might easily g r o w out o f th is as though the ,
sac r ed th ing i n itself aside f r om its ceremonial t e

,
lation to the g od possessed a supernatural wonder

,
w o r king po w e r w hich the individual m ight employ
i n the p r oduction of such magical eff ects as h e

desi r ed Thus what w a s o r igi n ally a means of w o r
.
,
ship beco m es a mea n s o f magic ; what was o r igi

n a lly a pious rep r esentation o f the god forces itself
i n to its place a n d beco m es a substitute for the god .
F etish is m i s the apt name fo r this superstitious de

gene r ation o f r eligio n ; hence the p r actice o f calling
,
feti shism the o r iginal religion o f men ought finally , ,
to cease .
80
T he B e gi n n i n gs o f R e l igi o n
If y ou wish to have a fi xed name for the original

religion such as our reasoning backward from
,
what is k nown p r oves to have been the most

,
probable then I would p r opose to cal l i t nai v e

,
p a tr i ar ch a l H en oth ei s m N atu r ally the diffe r e n ce

.
,
between that and universal ethical monotheism must

be well kept i n mind The latter the belief i n o n e .
,
all gove r ning God di d not develop unti l thousands

-
o f years had elapsed ; while the pat r ia r chal heno
theism i s the nai ve belief o f each t r ibe in its ow n

particular tribe god and t r ibe father w hich i s for
- -
,
all the me m be r s of the tribe the on e highest and , ,
i n a ce r tain sense that o f producer the one actual

, , ,
d ivine po w er to who m and t h ro ugh whom all th e

, , ,
me m bers of the t r ibe feel themselves bound ab s o

l utely . But this part icular t r ibal god o f each sepa
rate t r ibe does not i n any w ay exclude the tribal
gods of other t r ibes but r ather p r esupposes them ; ,
he stands to them i n exactly the sa m e r elationsh ip

o f rival r y and nea r ly always o f decided enmity as
, ,
in the ea r ly ages on e t r ibe st ood to w a r d its

neighboring t r ibes Again th is henotheism i s not
.
,
yet a spi r itual mo ral th eism fo r thi s t r ibal god i s

-
, ,
as we have seen enti r ely an obj ect o f natu r e and

, ,
hi s relation to h i s worsh ippers i s a natu ralistic one ,
based enti r ely upon physical descent .
Yet we wi ll be pe rmitted to s ay that despite its

childlike S impl icity thi s initial faith contains the
,
germs o f all h ighe r r el igious develop m ent E ven .
here the i dea o f G od releases the fundamental re

,
81
l i gi ous e m otion —veneration—i n w hich depe ndence
and f r eedom fea r and confidence a r e united ; it
,
matte r s not that no w one and no w the other gains , ,
g r eate r st r en gt h especially the fea r o f the i nca lcul

,
able m oods of the natu r e gods w hich play s o la rge -
a pa r t And i t i s not to be gainsaid that even this

.
faith has its m oral i m po r tance By uniting the .
co m r ades of one t r ibe in a com m on w o r sh ip he ,
elevates the tie of blood r elationship to an absolute -
obl igatio n of r ecip r ocal solida r ity an d i m p r esses o n ,
each individual the elementa r y mo r al duty o f s ur

r ende r to the co m m on w el fa r e It i s natu r al that .
the na r r o w ness of the r eligious co m m un ity holds

as to th e m o r al obligation ; those w h o do not b e
long to the t r ibe a re st r ange r s and ene m ies to w a r d ,
who m this ea r ly stage r ecogn izes no such th ing as

a m o r al obl igation Rathe r it i s accounted a re
.
,
l i g i o us duty to r evenge the blood o f a me m be r o f

the t r ibe w hen a st r anger h a s spilled it ; this duty
o f blood r eve n ge
-
w ith the endless feuds r esulting
,
the r ef r o m w a s a great Obst r uctio n to cultu r e eve ry

,
w he r e . Thus the n a r r o w t r ibal r eligion acted

,
w i t hin as a disciplina r y a n d cultivating p o w e r ; w hile
w ithout it w a s a po w e r w h ich made m e n nea r er to

,
th e beast a n d opposed civili zation .
P r og r ess f r o m the henotheistic r el igion o f the

t r ibe led n e a rly al w ays to the pol y theistic r el igion
o f the people Polythei s m o r th e belief in a n um
.
,
b e r o f gods o n e alongside the othe r is neve r the

, ,
o r i g inal r eli g ion but th e r esult of hi stori cal d evel

.
82
T he B e gi nn i n g s o f R e l igi o n
o p m en t .When eithe r by r eason of t r eaties o r

,
by m ilita r y subj ection o f o n e unde r the othe r ,
va r ious t r ibes unite togethe r to fo r m a la r ge r peo

ple th ey r etai n thei r o r igi n al gods but sepa r ation
, ,
o f the on e f r o m the othe r no longe r can be main
ta i n ed . With the union of the people the need o f ,
placing the pa r ticular gods in so m e o r de r ed r ela

tion to on e a n othe r appea r s Eithe r the gods a r e
.
ge n ealogically a rr anged by m aking so m e ch ild r en

and g r a n dchild r e n o f othe r s o r feudally a r r anged
,
by gradatio n o f r a n k unde r o n e ove r lo r d o n e god -

,
king who is usually the pa r ticula r deity o f the

,
gover n ing people o r o f the capital city of the r ei gn

ing dynasty To w hich must be added that in
.
,
these la r ge r social g r oups cultu r e i s m o r e r ichly

,
developed and di ffe r entiated ; va r ious t r ades begi n ,
the arts the political an d m ilita ry voc ations a n d

, ,
then a special g r oup fo r the r egula r ca r e o f r e

l i g i on the p r iesthood
,
With all o f this the li fe of
. ,
m a n achieves a riche r conte n t and that i n tu r n , , ,
casts its r eflection upon the w o r ld o f th e gods .
N o w the r e i s assign ed to each god hi s pa r ticula r

duties a n d d e p a rt m ent of gove r n m ent Thus each .
,
S ingle god acqui r es an individual cha racte r w h ich ,
he had n o t had as a t r ibal g o d ; n o w they beco m e

a ctual pe r sonalities afte r the i m age o f m e n Natu .
r ally ,
a t th is stage the fo r m e r a n i m al figu r e o f the
,
god m ust give w ay to the hu m an l ikeness Thi s .
w a s mai n ly so in the case o f the G r eek r eligio n
th e r e z oo mo r phis m di sap peared enti r ely Ce r .
83
that was an i m portant step forward ; for not
ta i n ly ,
unti l the god was rep r esented as a man could
h u m an thoughts and f r ee action w ith a conscious
pu rpose be asc r ibed to h im Thi s humanization .
of the o l d nature gods w a s not completely ca r r ied

-
o ut eve ry w here : i n E gypt the p rocess stopped

hal f w ay hence those rema r kable sem i —
-
,
animal
and se m i hu m an representations o f the gods o f
-
the E gyptians A m ong the Greeks the r ecol l ec

'
tion o f the fo r mer animal form is p r eserved only

in the ani m als which acco m pany the gods as
sy m bols though originall y they were more than
,
sy m bols .
With this hu m ani zation and systemization o f th e

gods the r eligious relation undergoes a change ; n o
longer can i t remain the si m ple natu r ali stic rela
tion o f descent for the va r ious families o f a peo
,
ple can no longer be related by blood to al l th e

gods of the whole people So that n ow instead .
,
Of the pat r ia r chal tie the r e appears a political bond :

,
the people see i n the gods thei r celestial lo r ds as the ,
p r i nces a r e thei r ea rthly ones ; in the h ighest god ,
they s ee the heavenly O lympian k ing the p r ototype ,
Of the mu n dane king And he re w ith ente r s the

.
’
most i m po r tant motive i n the bel iefs o f th e peo

—
ples the god o f the peopl e i s held to be the o r igin
ator and gua r dian of th e civi l o r der and the avenger
o f inj ustice w h ich violates that o r de r Justice o n .
earth de r ives i ts po w e r and autho r ity f r om j ustice

i n heaven ; hence the ea r ly belief in the di v ine
84
T he B e gi nn i n g s o f R e l igi o n
N emesis which punishes the blasphemer either

,
here or as the E gyptians early believed i n th e

, , ,
wo r ld beyond B eyond doubt th is belie f i n divi ne

.
,
retribution was o f immeasurable educative impor

tance i n the development o f civi lization among th e
peoples Again i t i s true that w ith the sp r outing
.
, ,
o f human culture the phenomena of natu r e were

,
more openly and obj ectively regarded freer f ro m ,
the needs of the moment ; the regularity o f th e

changes o f the seasons and the movements of th e
heavenly bo d ies are beginning to be observed and ,
i n this order o f the worl d o f natu r e there i s ,
recognized the counte rpart of the moral legal o r der -
o f human society Hence we fi nd thi s double

.
,
si ded o r der f r equently combined into one idea an d ,
i n several rel igions o f the older period i t i s p ar ,
ti a l l y personified and partly r egarded as an imper

sonal po w er ; thus a m ong the E gyptians it i s Maat
, , ,
the daughter o f Ra ; a m ong the Indians R ita ; ,
among the Persians Asha v ah i s ta ; among th e Ch i ,
n ese Tao ; a m o n g the G reeks Dike and Ne m esis

, , .
E very w he r e the r e i s u n de r stood by i t a uni form

,
wo r ld o r de r which includes the order o f natu r e

-
, ,
the civil o rder o f l a w the rel igious order o f wor ,
ship O f cou r se i t does not di ffer essentially f r o m

.
,
the w ill o f th e god but is r ather th e exp ression o f

,
h is co n stant w o r ld o r de r ing gove r nment There

-
.
with the m oodi n ess a n d the a rbit r a r iness cha racter

,
i s ti c of th e natu r e gods disappear and re g ula r ity

-
, ,
righteousness w isdom a n d even so m ething o f th e

, , ,
8S
R e ligi o n an d Hi s to r i c F ai t h s
cha r acter of g oodness find a place in the character
,
of the god .
Upon this plane w e find fo r the fi r st ti m e moral

, , ,
c ha r act e r istics connected w ith the idea of God ; i t
begins to be an ethical and spi r itual idea Natur .
a lly
,
this m o r al ideali zatio n of the natu r e — gods i s
n o t acco m plished easily n o r all at once for both ,
the natu r alistic cha r acte r o f the gods of the people ,
m o r e o r less c r ystallized in myths as w ell as w hat ,
has bee n sai d above a r e h ind rances A s natu r e

, .
bei ngs the gods a r e m o rally i n di ffe rent and act

,
upon mood and natu ral desi re ; as bea r e r s of the

legal o r de r they m ust assu m e the attitude of o r der
,
— the tw o are ha r d to reco n cile He n ce those r e .

,
m a r kable co n t r adictions in the pictu r es fo r ex ,
a m ple O f Zeus Apollo a n d He r a in Ho m e r ; along

, ,
side the f r i volous m yths i n w hich w ickedness and ,
i m m o rality of eve ry ki n d a r e told co n ce r ning the

gods the r e r uns an ideal t r ait of mo ral elevation
, .
In so m e m easure on e might say that i n thei r o ffi cial

, ,
li fe as r ege n ts o f the w o r ld they a r e m o r al ideals ;,
w hi le i n thei r m yth ic a l p r ivate li fe they a r e filled ,
w i t h hu m a n w eak n ess a n d passions .
The p r og r ess o f the hi sto r y of r el igion moved

m ai nly alo n g the l ine o f th is st r uggle b e t w een th e
o l d natu r al i s m a n d the h ighe r m o r al ideal The .
se r ious th i n ke r s a n d p r ophets st r uggled o n the S ide

of the m o ral ideal eve ry w he r e but they w e r e r a r ely ,
successful ; the mass ge n e r ally stopped at unce r tain

”
com p romises that l i m ping to both S ides
,
“
of ,
86
T he B e gi n n i n gs o f R e l igi o n
which Zarathustra had no les s occasion to com p lain

than E lij ah Ha n d in ha n d w ith this st r uggle
.
went the othe r bet w een the multiplicity of the gods

and the unity o f the divine w o r ld gove r n m ent -
.
Progress beyond the polytheism of the popular r e

l i g i on went fo r w a r d in tw o w ays : the one led
through p h i IOS Op h i c reflectio n to the di si n teg ration
o f the va r ious gods into a single all god w hich as
-
, ,
the w o r ld soul o r the w o r ld S pi r it fills all v i v i fies

- -
,
i t and se r ves as the r oot of all the cha n ge of b ecom

ing and dissolving by being i ts pe r ma n e n t cause .
Th is pantheis m was possible w ith polytheis m ,
w h ile the single gods w e r e r egarded as fo r ms o f
man ifestation o r emanations o f the all god as was -

,
the case i n the exote r ic Brah m anis m an d Stoicis m

but w ith a r igi d acceptance of the all one god the
,
-
,
sepa r ate g od s disappea r a s does the mani fold of

,
existence in gene r al to a me r e vain semblance

, ,
.
The othe r path sta r ts o ut f rom the r eligious de m and

fo r a uni fo r m moral w orld gove r n m ent and elevates
-
the highest god of the peopl e to the position o f sole

bea r er of the gove r n m ent h igh above all the othe r
gods lo w e r ing the latte r s o fa r in value and po w e r
, ,
that they finally lose thei r divine cha r acte r and the ,
h ighest god r e m ain s finally th e only on e That i s .
m onotheis m o r the bel ief in the sole r ule r sh ip of o n e

God as the lo r d of the enti r e unive r se F i r st ste p s
.
to thi s double sided develop m ent a r e to be fou n d

-
among the Egyptians and Chinese ; fi r st steps

to monotheism a r e found among the P ersians ,
87
Babylonians and I srael ites but the last named alone ,
-
fully developed i t Pantheistic unity w a s completed

.
by the Indians i n B r ah m anism and in a ce rtain ,
sense in Buddhism ( w hich has also been te r m ed

,
atheism ) ; w hile among the G r eeks i t r e m ained ,
me r ely th e philosophi c teaching o f single schools

( El eatics He raclitus Stoics ) Ch r istianity may be
, , .
i n te rp r eted as the h igher unity of the J e w ish and

the Gree k ideas of G od .
F inally a word about the divi sion

, the h isto r y of
o f r eligion According to thei r exte n t the r eligions

'
.
,
m a y be divided i n to t r ibal national and uni ve r ,
sal ( world rel igions According to thei r inner .
natu r e they fall into two m ain gr oups : natu r e

,
rel igions and histo r ical or mo ral or personal ( p r o

p h eti c ) religions ; the fi r st of these g r oups may be
s ub divided into henotheistic ( tribal ) and po l y th e
-
i s ti c ( national ) religions ; the second main g r oup

m a y be s ub divided into r eligions o f law and of
-
r ede m ption Little as may be u rged against this

.
d ivisio n in theo ry its practical application th r ough

,
o ut i s di fficult because i t i s not possible w i thout

,
f r eque n t v iolent dis ruption o f h isto r ical connections .
He nce in the p r esentation of the h isto r y of r eligion

, ,
I p refe r a m o r e m odest d ivision eithe r the e th no ,
logi c a l ( a c co r di n g to r aces a n d peoples ) o r the

ch ro n ologic a l ; natu r ally even w ith thi s d ivision a
, ,
ce r tain latitude m ust be r etained fo r the sake o f

fi tness .
88
THE CH I N ESE R ELIGI O N
WE begin ith thi s r eligion because i t occupies

w ,
a po sition peculi a r ly i solated The ancie n t Chi n ese

.
state reli gion i s n o t actually a polytheistic national

-
r eligion for i t lacks all mythology as w ell as an

,
o r ganized p r iesthood It m ight be te r m ed belief

.
i n S pi r its syste m atized to exact co r r es po n dence w ith

the political o r ganization o f the real m whe rein ,
th e highe r gods resulted from a fusion o f the

ancest r al spi r its o f the ruling fam ilies with the
h ighe r natu r e— spi r its At the head stands heaven
.
”
( Tien ) o r the highest
“
lord ( Sha n g ti ) As -
.
Tiele aptly says i n h im the h ighest obj ect of the

, ,
wo r ship of the dead ( the species S pi r i t of the i m -
pe r ial ancesto r s ) has abso rbed the h ighest natu r e

god The questio n as to w hethe r thi s h ighest god
.
i s th e vi sible heaven itsel f o r a divine pe r son sta n d

i n g over and gove r ni n g i t can n ot be ans w e r ed
,
f rom the standpoi n t o f th e popular r el igion a ny

m o r e than the analogous question in the case o f the
Japa n ese goddes s of th e s un ; fo r the popul a r r e
l i g i on th e visible heaven ( i n Jap a n the shi n i n g
, ,
s un ) is the h ighest w o r ld g o ve r n i n g po w e r
-
w h i ch ,
i s at the same ti m e a spi r itual bei n g acting w ith

, , ,
89
R e l igi o n an d H i stori c Fa i t h s
understanding and w ill the upper Empe ror who
, ,
o r de r s and r ules the wo r ld of natu r e a n d of m e n .
The Chi n ese s ay that heaven does not speak to

the individual man but r eveals itself in r egula r
,
unchangeable o r de r of n atu r e and in the consta n t

o r de r of states w h ich bea r th e r elation o f exact
,
co r r espo n dence to on e a n othe r The r efo r e dis .

,
tur b a n ces o f n atu r e such a s lasting d r ought and

,
bar re n ness poi n t to co r r espondi ng m istakes in the

,
national gove r n m ent Just as the o r de r o f natu r e

.
holds as p r ototype and fo r m fo r m o ral action s o ,
the a r r angements of state a re conside r ed to be la w s

of natu r e Ho w eve r t r ue the thought contai n ed
.
he r ein m ay be that li fe in natu r e as in m an has

,
i n God its co m m on g r ou n d a n d o r de r i n g p r inci

,
ple yet i t does bet r ay a natu r alistic li m itation that

, ,
the di ffe r ence bet w een natu r al eventuation and the

f r ee mo r al action of men has not yet ente r ed i n to
conscious n ess ; w hat i s m issi ng i s the conception
o f the pe r sonal spi r it w hich d ete r m ines itsel f and
fo r m s i ts o w n social ideals out of its o w n th i n king .
The China m an does n o t r ega r d hi s gove r n m ent as

a p r oduct o f the n ational w ill w hose develop m ent,
i s depende n t upo n f r ee actio n but as a p r oduct of

,
natu r e as n ecessa ry a n d as u n cha n ge a ble as let us ,
say the state of the bees So i n h is co n side r ation

, .
,
of h isto r y eve ry teleological vie w poi n t i s lacking

,
and w ith it eve ry thought o f a p r og ressive de

v e l o p m e n t w hich shall r ealize ideals ; h i s gla n ce i s
e ver tu rned upon the past i n w h i ch h e fi nds the
90
T h e C h i n es e R e l igi o n
mod el s fo r the p r esent and the confirmato r y e x

a m ples fo r the si m ila r ele m e n ta ry la w s of human
,
li fe pa r ticula r ly fo r the inevitable concatenation of

,
guilt and fate The advantage o f such a m ode of

.
thinking for the p r ese r vation of w hat i s i s j ust as

, ,
clea r a s the disadvantage the hind r ance to indi ,
vidual sel f activity and f r ee p r og r ess o f cultu r e

-
.
A S the va r ious highe r a n d lo w er O fficials of the

Chinese E m pi r e stand unde r th e ea r thly E m pe r o r ,
s o unde r the heaven spi r it r ange the spi rits of the

-
s un the m oo n a n d th e sta r s the ea r th a n d the fou r

, ,
wo r ld qua rte r s the fo r ests a n d the h ills the S p r i n gs

-
, ,
a n d the r ive r s w hich n o w as spi r its o f a species

, , ,
r ule ove r an e n ti r e real m a n d agai n as si n gle spi r its

,
a re bound to ce r tai n places and phe n omena .
F i n ally the r e a r e the ancest r al spi r its o f single

,
f a m ilies w hich a r e agai n r a n ked into those o f the

,
highe r and o f the lo w e r o r de r s of the people A s .
w ith the highest heaven S pi r it s o the spi r its o f the

-
.
n oble f a m ilies have fused w ith n atu r e spi r its and -

,
they w ith ce r tai n r eal m s o f natu r e w ithin thei r

p r ovi n ces .
Thi s h ie r a r chy i n the spi r it w o r ld cor r esponds to -
a r igidly r egul a ted o rde r of w o r sh ip Co m m o n to

-
.
the m all i s the w o r ship o f ancesto r s by f a m ilies

w h ich i s celeb r ated in eve r y house o n all festiv e
occasions o f the fa m ily l ife ; in the hall o f th e a n

ce s to r s b e fo r e the tablets bea r i n g the n a mes of th e
,
ancesto r s fathe r a n d m othe r pe r fo r m the r ites co n

, ,
sistin g o f p raye r s a n d off e r i n gs of flo w e r s follo w e d ,
1
9
R e l igi o n an d Hi st ori c Fa i t h s
by a com m on m eal to w hich in confo rm ity w ith
, ,
ancient custo m the spirits a re i n vited O ften thei r

, .
u n seen p r esence i s r e n de red visible by selecting on e

o f the boys of the house d r essing him in the clothes
,
o f h is dead g r andfather and placing h i m in the seat

”
of ho n o r at the table s o that he the dead b oy
, ,
“
,
r ep r esents the w hole spi r i t host of the a n cesto r s of

-
the house and se r ves at the sa m e ti m e as the visi

, ,
ble gua ra n tee o f thei r g r acious p r esence and thei r

blessed pa r ticipation i n the fortunes of the house .
Each o n e has the f r ee r ight to p r ay to the higher

spi r its o f heaven and ea r th and the four qua r te r s
state to pe r fo r m the festival rites i n wo r sh ip o f
the m At the feasts of the sp r ing and the autum n
.
,
the E m pe ror makes sacrifice i n the open ai r to the

S pi r its of heaven and ea r th and the four qua r te r s
o f the heaven and i n like fashion the gove rnors
, ,
o f p r ovi n ces w o r ship the pa r ticula r spi rits of thei r
p rovinces . The h ighest festival i s the festival of

th e r oyal ancesto r s at wh ich the E m pe ror s ur
, ,
r ou n ded by the highest d ign ita r ies o f the r ealm ,
makes va r ious sac r ifices to the ancesto r s of h i s

house and to all o f h is p r edecesso r s upon the th rone ,
w he r eupon the spi r its a r e invited by m usic and the
si nging o f so n gs to pa rticipate i n the sac r ificial

”
meal He r e too th e dead boy appears ; it i s
.
, ,
“
on e o f the i m pe r ial g r a n dsons who rep r esents i n

, ,
h i s pe r son the h ighest ancest r al host o f th e r ealm

,
.
This i s the festival w hi ch m a r ks the h ighest point

o f Chinese worship a n d i s typical in cha r acter ; no
,
92
T h e C h i n es e R e l igi o n
priesthood functions as mediato r of su pe r mundane

powe r s or for the winning of supe r mundane bene
fits but civi c autho r ities r ep r esenting the Chinese
, ,
nation celebrate by thanksgiving and p raye r the

,
continuance of the state i n ext r icably bound up w ith ,
the wi ll o f the god ; i t is a state r eligion in s o -
peculiar a deg r ee as can be found o n ly a m ong the ,
Romans whe r e the state w a s also not only th e

,
subj ect but at botto m the obj ect of r eligion

, , , ,
represented in Jupite r Cap i to l i n us and late r in the

C ae sars That thi s lack o f p r iesthood chu r ch and
.
,
theology th is i m mediate oneness o f r eligion an d

,
political state was ve ry useful i n political r egard i s

,
best sho w n by the h isto r y o f China w h ich o w es the ,
fi ve thousand year du ration o f i ts gove rn m ent to

that fi r m basi s B ut the other side o f th is political
.
usefulness i s the lack o f depth and hea r tiness i n the

religion a lack o f content o f ideas which satisfy
,
spi r it and soul ; the Chinese religion lacks not only

pri ests but p r ophets— the inspi red bea r e r s o f ete rnal
i deals The stability o f state a n d r eligion w a s p ur
.
chased a t th e p r ice of enchain m ent to uncha ngeable

popular fo rms a nd ce r e m o n ies at the p r ice of the ,
supp r ession o f personal f r eedom and o f histo r ical

p r og ress .
N evertheless C hina d id not lac k w ise teache r s

, ,
who exe r cised a d eep influence upon the though t

o f the p eople Ch ief among them were La o ts z e and
.
-
C onfucius both of the sixth centu r y

, Lao ts z e -
,
born 604 B C i n the province o f T h s u w as an o ffi

. .
, ,
93
R e l igi o n an d H i s tori c F ai th s
ci a l in th e i m p er i a l hous e o f T s h eu ; at a rip e Old
‘
age howeve r disgusted by the condition o f public

, ,
a ffai r s he w ent into voluntary exile but not until

, ,
”
he had left h i s w o r k Tao te King w i th his dis ,
- -
,
c i p le This Book of Tao contains many a

“
s .
puzzle for the learned men o f o ur o w n day What .
does Tao mean ? Really w ay but it also means ,
much mo r e It has been compared to the I ndian

.
B r ah m a and to th e He r acl itean Stoic logos ; only -
r ecently G ui m et the wel l kno w n Pa r i sian student

, ,
-
o f religious research attempted to prove in a lec , ,
tu r e delivered at the Cong r ess of the H isto r ians of

Religion at Basle ( September that La o ts z e s ,
-
’
Tao doctrine o r igi nated i n India and that i n T ao

a r e gathered up the conceptions o f Brahma ( wo r ld
spi r it ) Ka r ma ( la w o f causation ) Dharma ( l aw

. ,
of moral conduct ) and B odd h i ( highest wisdom ,
and sanctity ) I am not going to take up the ques

.
tion w hether this hypo thesis can be proved o r not ;

instead o f disputing about it I hold i t more to th e ,
pu r po se to i m pa r t to you some lite r al ext r acts f r om

t h is myste r ious book itsel f ; you w i ll certainly gain
the i m p ression that the author was a deep and noble
th inke r pe rhaps too deep to fi nd t r ue unde r stand
,
ing a m ong the Chinese people I quote from the .
t r anslation o f the lea r ned student of Chinese

language and literatu r e Rei nhold von Plaenkner ,
( Leipzi g ,
‘
Th e e does ex i st all fi l l i g com p letely p e fect be i g
r an -
n , r n ,
w h i c h ex i sted b f o e h eave e d ea t h
r I t ex i sts i ubl i m
n an r . n s e
94
T h e C h i n ese R e l igi o n
s t ill e i t i ete al d u ch a g eable d p e m eates

n ss . s rn an n n an r
u h i de e d eve y h e e O m igh t loo k u p o i t as t h

n n r r w r . ne n e
c eato of th o ld I do t k o i ts am e but I l ik e best

r r e w r . no n w n ,
to call i t T ao ; if I e e to gi ve i t att i bute i t ould be w r an r , w
t h at f h igh est subl i m i t y Y subl im e i s t h at be i g about

O . es , n ,
w h i c h m oves th all d all i all ; as suc h i t m ust be ete al

e an n , rn ,
an d as i t i s ete al i t m ust co se q ue tly be o m ip ese t

rn , , n n , n r n .
Y es , T ao i subl i m e subl i m e i s h eave subl i m e th ea t h

s n, e r ,
subl im e too i s th I deal o f m

, , T h us t h e e ef ou b en . r a re r su
l im e be i g s i th u i ve se d i t h out doubt t h i deal o f

n n e n r , an w , e
m an is o f t h e m F m o igi ates f o m ea t h th
one . or an r n r r , e
ea th f om h eave th h eave o igi ated i T ao d T ao

r r n, e n r n n , an ,
w i th out q uest i o f ou d i ts o i gi i i tsel f T h h ole f

n, n r n n . e w O
c eate d atu e all i ts do i g d i ts o k i g i s but e m a a

r n r n an w r n an n
t i o of T ao—T ao m ak i g i tsel f v i s i ble A lt h ou gh t h i s be i g

, ,
n n . n
i s al l s p i i t d r m atte an yet does i t co m p ass all t h i g s

no r, n
v i s i bl e d al l be i g s i i t I co ce i vable d i v i s i ble
an n a re n . n n an n ,
h o eve w t h e e d ells i i t a subl i m e s pi i t T h i s S pi i t i s

r, r w n r . r
th h ig h est
e d m ost p e f ect be i g f
an i it t ut h f a i t h r n , or n a re r , ,
t ust F o m ete i ty u to ete i ty i ts g lo y i ll eve

r . r rn n rn , r w n r
cease f i i t i s th u i o o f t h t ue th g ood d t h
, or n e n n e r , e an e
b aut if ul i th h igh est de g ee o f p e f ect i o B ut h

e n e r r n . ow ca n
I k o t h at ? I k o i t f o m i tsel f f o m T ao ( O
n w n w r , r . ur co n
i
s c o us n es s o f God t h e i s th i e evelat i o o f th sam e n e nn r r n e
di v i e s p i i t h i ch eveals i tsel f i th exte al o ld as th

n r , w r n e rn w r e
b as i s o f all easo able o de d h a m o y ) F t h ou gh

r n r r an r n . or r
t h i s sp i i t th i com p lete ach i eves co m p let i o p e f ect i o

r , e n n, r n,
f ul fi llm e t ; h i m h i s b o ed do i t a i ses u p i t st e gt h
n w o w w n, r , r n
ens th eak co ects th i m p e f ect as i t gi ves

e w , rr l i f e to e r , n ew
b a e val es
rr n l if e d f esh ess to u i s T h e e
, n ew an r n r n . r a re,
n atu ally o ly f
r , h n u de sta d t h at m ost m
a . ew w o n r n , en a re
bl i de d by e o B ut th i se m g as p s T ao com p asses
n rr r . e w an r ,
i t i i ts total i t y d p laces i t be fo e t h o ld as a lu m i ous

n an r e w r n
m od el F . eve t h ou gh i t be t see i t sh i es clea ly

or , n no n, n r
to a d us eve y h e e ; d th ou gh i t sta d t be fo e
w r r w r an n no r our
e ye i tse lf i t doth m a k e i tsel f k o t h ou gh i ts evela

s as , n w n r r
t i o s Th ou gh i t does t p a i se i tsel f f i ts o k s y et i t
n . no r or w r , s
w o k s do p a i se i t Th ou gh i t does t Sh o i tself i i ts
r r . no w n
su b li m i t y y et i ts sublim i ty su p asses al l t hi gs H coul d

, r n , ow
95
t h e e be y des i e to di s p ute co ce i g i t T h o ds
r an r n rn n ? e w r
h i c h t h ose o f old h d al eady S p o k e T h at h i c h i s i m p e “

w a r n w r
f eet h W i ll p e f ect t h ey
, e t va i ro ds N o ,
’
i ll a re n o n w r .
, w e w
i t ut h
n r p e f ect i o i l i gh t h e
s ee r e te i to d et n n , w n w e n r n an r ur n
to h i m .
”
That the kn ow ledge of truth i s medi ated by the

dialecti c of cont r aries that deep thought w hich , ,
gove rn ed the philosophy o f He r acl itus the con ,
te m pora r y o f L a o ts z e i s expressed i n the follo w ing -
sentences which I o ffe r acco r ding to G ui m et s

,
’
t r anslation : What was i t wh ich m ade all recog

n ize the beauti ful as beauti ful i t w as the ugly ; that ,
they kne w the g ood to be good i t w a s the bad ; thus ,
being and not being the mate r ial and the non -
m aterial the ligh t and the heavy the high and the
, ,
l o w mutually produce o n e the other

, Therefo r e .
w ill the wise man make both the non mate r ial as ,
-
w ell as the mate r ial the obj ect o f h is thinking ,
”
k n o w ledge .
And n ow so m ething about the moral principles

, ,
w h ich L ao ts z e logically deduced f r om h is Tao

-
speculation
all th at you do obey th T ao t h e i ll th T ao be so
In , e ,
n w e
one W i t h you as v i tue i th th v i tuous H

, ould i t be
r w e r . ow w
p oss i ble to see t h T ao d yet be bad to go f o a d i o e s

e an ,
rw r n n
’
k o led g e d g o bac k a d i o e s m o als

n w an co ve sely w r n n
’
r ? or n r ,
h ow a m des pi se th T ao d be g ood d igh teous

ca n an e an an r ?
T ue by i dust y
r , p otect o esel f a g a i st p ove ty
n r , o n e ca n r n n r ,
by e q ua i m i ty co q ue th eve yday h ap p e i g s o f l i f e ;
n , n r e r n n
but p u i ty d cla i ty o f S pi i t
r eeded i o de to k o
an r r are n n r r n w
th e righ t t h g ood d th p e fect i th o ld d to act

, e an e r n e w r , an
in acc da ce i th t h at k o led g e d to be exem p la

or n w n w an an r
96
of th e di g n i ty o f m n H e w h kn o w s m n i s c l eve r b ut
a . o e ,
he w h o kn o s h i m sel f i s e l ig h te n ed
w H e h o co n q ue s n . w r
ot h e s h a h e o s m igh t but h h co q ue s h im self h

r as r
’
, e w o n r as
st e gth o f soul H e h u de sta ds h to be co te ted

r n . w o n r n ow n n ,
h i e i ch d h h acts e e g et i cally h h
s r , an e w i ll p o e o n r , e as w -
w r .
H e h does t lose h i E g o co t i ues p e m a e tly h

w o no s , n n r n n , e
d i es but h i s t ext i g u i sh e d h he no ete al l i f e n , e as w on rn .
W h at i s o f g eate co ce to us r e p utat i o r E go n rn ,
o ur r n o r o ur ?
W h i c h h g eate value ealt h

as r E go A r t th , w or ? re no e co n
se q ue ces f t h S i s h i ch co m m i t eas i ly i th p u su i t
n o e n , w w e n e r
o f ea t h ly g oods m uch o se f t h salvat i o o f

r , soul w r or e n o ur
t h a th loss o f all g at h e ed t easu es T h h ea t o f th

n e r r r ? e r e
w i se m beats e q ually f all h u m a i ty T o a d h i m h

an or n . w r w o
i s good d oble I m S i m i la ly i cl i ed says th i se m

an n , a r n n , e w an,
an d to a d h i m w h stu m bles
r d f alls ou g h t I
w t also to
o an , no
be good ? T o a d h i m h i s t u p igh t d h o est w r w o no r an n ,
ou gh t I to act f a i th lessly d d i sh o estly ? N o S ee th at an n .

,
( be i g g oo d
n d f a i t h f ul eve to t h stu m ble
an d th d is n e r an e s
h o est ) i s t ue g ood ess o f h ea t

n r d t ue u p ig h t ess n d r an r r n an
loyalty h i ch e m a ates f o m h eave ly v i tue T h i se

,
w n r n r . e w
m an r e g a ds d t eats h um a be i g s as h i ve y
r an r ch il n n s r ow n
d e H e h th ee t easu es h ose soul i s fi lled i t h T ao ;

r n . as r r r , w w
t h ey love h i ch i s st e g th o f soul d co te te d ess

are , w r n , an n n n ,
w h i c h i s g eat ess o f soul ; r d h u m i l i ty

n h i c h eve u g es an , w n r r
i tsel f to th fo e T h ose h figh t i t h t h ea p o s o f love

e r . w o w e w n ,
t h ey w i t h g eatest v i cto y th v i cto y ove t h em selves

n e r r , e r r
t h e eby t h ey
r p otected f o m all m i sf o tu e d sh i elded
are r r r n an
f o m all ev i l h e ce t h ey h ave ete al l if e A ate h i c h

r , n rn . S w r, w
i s t h m ost y i eld i g d m ost m ovable ove com es t h at h i c h

e n an , r w
i s fi m d st o g
r an says t h i se m t h at h i c h i s ea k
r n , SO , e w an , w w
an d y i eld i g ove co m es t h atn h i c h i s u be d i gr d ha d w n n n an r .
Th i se m ca i es t h dust o f t h ea th d yet h i s called

e w an rr e e r an e
t h m aste o f all m aste s h

e r bea s th so o s o f t h o ld r , e r e rr w e w r
an d yet h i s calle d th ki g o f th h ole o ld A s t h

e e n e w w r . e
p o e f ul i ve s s ay all because t h e y desce d i to eve y

w r r r w n n r
t h i g th i se m
n , SO i f h i sh es to sta d ove all th
e w an : e w n r e
p eo p le h m ust g o do am o g t h e m i th o d d teach
, e w n n w w r an
i g ; if h
n i sh es to be a g u i d i g l igh t f t h em by i sdo m
e w n or w
an d st e gt h o f S pi i t t h e t h best m et h od i s to p lace h i
r n r , n e s
97
R e l igi o n an d H i s tor i c F a i ths
ow n p e so i t h backg ou d Wh oeve i sh es to m a i
r n n e r n . r w n
ta i h su p e i o i ty ove th p eo p le m ust eve let t h em

n is r r r e , n r
f eel y k i d o f p essu e m ust eve i j u e e slave t h em

an n r r , n r n r or n ,
but m ust do all m a e o f g ood to t h em T h e i ll th nn r . n w e
w o ld accla i m h m love d h o o h i m d S i ce h h
r i , an n r , an , n e as
gi ve n no occas i o f d i sco te t d q ua el t h o ld i ll
n or n n an rr , e w r w
l i ve i p eace d t h e e i ll t be co m bat di sco te t y

n an r w no or n n an
w he er ea t h
on r .
I have sai d that the teaching of L a o ts ze was too -
”
h igh too ideal fo r the com m on sense o f th e “
,
Chi n ese wh ich w as di r ected only to what was use

ful L a o —
. ts z e found but a small ci r cle of adhe r ents
and what i s w o r se w ithi n thi s circle there was so , ,
l ittle understanding o f hi s depth that in the cou r se , ,
of ti m e it beca m e perve r ted into the nonsense of a

,
S pi r itless supe r stitio n and crude witchc r aft s o that ,
the Tao sect to day is the least respected of any -
a m ong cultu r ed Chinese .
L ao ts z e s younge r contemporary Confuci us had

’
-
, ,
much better fo r tu n e Bo r n 55 1 B C in the p r ov . . .

,
ince o f Lu h e began hi s teaching as a young m a n

,
o f t w enty — tw o He led an u n settled l i fe now pat

.
,
r o n i z e d by the duke of h i s provi n ce even acting a s ,
his m i n ister at on e ti m e then falli n g f r om favo r , ,
b e cause o f h is loyalty to h i s convictions he w as ,
exiled a n d w ande r ed about ho m elessly for ma n y

yea rs living o n th e benevolence of h is f r iends
, .
F inally at the end o f h i s lo ng l i fe he w as recalled

, ,
w ith honors but accepted no n ew o ffice living

, ,
enti r ely fo r h i s studies until h i s death in 4 7 8 .
Confuci us desired to teach n othing new but only to ,
98
transmi t the p ure and uncurtailed traditions of the

ancients which are uncha n geable because o f thei r
, ,
heavenly origin He was mo r e a teacher o f morals

.
and statecraft more a writer and a historian than

,
a prophet or founder of a religion Religiously .
cold even to Sk epticism h e had no h igh regard for

, ,
p r ayer and d i d not meddle with t r anscendental

questions N evertheless he was a noble ethical
.
,
thinker who i n so m e respects re m inds us o f our

, , ,
ow n Kant both in that w hich he sai d and in that

,
which he left unsaid He never exp r essed himsel f .
pole m ically against the beliefs or the customs of h is

people ; his natu r e was fa r too conse r vative for that .
H i s heart ho w ever w as not w ith the religious tr a

, ,
d i ti on s ; h i s interest was l imited to the moral

p rinciples .
Concerning spi r its he sai d : Honor them with ,
a sense o f piety but hold you r self aloof f r om ,
”
the m . When he was asked w hether they should
be worsh ipped with sac r ifices and w hether they ,
knew o f o r b enefi tted by the sacrifices he an ,
s w e r ed : Hono r the S pi r its o f thy ancestors and ,
act as though they we r e the ever p r esent w itnesses -
o f thy actions but seek to know nothing fu rther

,
”
concerni n g them When asked conce r ning th ings
.
afte r death he gave thi s opinion : As long as y o u

,
do not know l i fe h o w can you kno w anything con ,
”
cerning death ? With all that he w a s not m e r ely ,
a m o r alist but h i s ethi cs w a s based upo n a r el igious

,
f oundation somewhat in the sense Of F i ch te s f ait h

,
’
99
i n the moral world order Hu m an li fe Confuci us
-
.
,
taught should be regulated acco r ding to the un

,
changeable fixed o r de r o f natu r al and social ex

,
i s ten ce lai d do w n by heaven ; thi s decree of “
heaven w hich appo r tions to each hi s duties and hi s

,
fate should be r es p ected by the w i se man ; obedi

,
ently and hu m bly he should submi t thereto and

,
never mu r m ur against heaven Confucius believed .
i n a gove r ning righteousness i n the wo r ld course -

,
w h ich ,
even i f not without exceptions in the cases
o f individuals does in the main re w ard the goo d
,
an d punish the evi l Whether that providence was

.
to be thought a pe r sonal o ne or not he leaves un ,
deci ded ; he h imsel f p r efe r r ed the i m pe r sonal ex

p r ession Tien ( heaven ) to the personal one ,
Shang ti — ”
. A S a t r ue son o f h i s nation he co n ,
s i d er e d respectful sub m ission to pa r e n ts ancestors ,
a n d r ule r s in all th e ci r cu m stances o f l i fe to be the ,
h igh es t vi r tue Yet h e demanded of th e r ule r s that

.
they s et the example o f vi r tue that they w i n th e ,
confidence o f thei r people and n ot burden them

unduly that they seek to better them mo r e by i n
,
struction than by punishment As the conception

'
O f w hat i s mo r ally r ight he desi g nated the golden

r ule o f recip r ocity : What you do not wish that
“
”
another do unto y ou do n ot unto othe r s ,
He .
ac kn o w ledged humbly that there were four things

which h e had neve r achieved entirely : to se rv e hi s
father as he w ould have h is son se r ve h im ; to se r ve
the p rince as h e would have h is mini ster serv e him ;
1 00
to serve h is Older brother as h e would have h is

younger brother serve h i m ; and to t r eat h i s f r iend
as he would have hi s f r iend t r eat him In addition .
r —
to the p inciple o f L a o ts z e that wrongdoing S houl d ,
he retu r ned by good Confucius thought : Whe r e

,
with S hall the n good be repai d ? Rather return

, , ,
j ustice for inj ustice and good for good,

.
I t i s conceivable that soon after h is death C on ,
fuci us was worshipped by the Chinese as thei r high

es t authori ty as the s um total of wisdom and the
,
-
good genius of thei r count r y F ive classical w or k s .

,
wh ich fo r m the pe r manent basis o f Ch inese sci ence

and wo r ld vie w i n part he collected an d edited
-
, , ,
and in pa r t h e wrote They a r e Yih king th e .

,
-
,
book of w isdom ; Shu king the book o f h istory -

, ,
” ”
“
Shi king th e book o f songs ; L e ke the book of
-
,
-
”
rel igious and wo r ldly custo m s an d Chun T s ew , ,
the boo k of the annals of the Lu di st r ict Th is .
last w o r k i s about h i s ow n native place and w as ,
w r itten by h imself It can no longe r be sai d how

.
fa r he alte r ed the t r aditional m ate r ial o r of h o w ,
much of i t he made us e ; this much i s certain that ,
th e classical books in the fo r m in w h ich he left them

, ,
a r e the exp r ession of th e Chinese i deal in some ,
m easu r e a s i t was handed do w n to h i m a n d mo r e

,
clea r ly defined by h im and that h e i m p r essed it s o

,
tho r oughly upon his peopl e that thei r thought and

action to day i s gove rned by i t The most i m
-
.
po r tant o f h i s successors was Mengts e ( 3 7 1—2 8 8

who applied the teach ings o f Con fucius to
1 01
R el igi o n an d H i s to r i c F ai t h s
practical governmental l ife w ith cleverness and
g r eat cou r age .
F i n ally i t m ust be noted that i n the year 6 5 A D

,
. .
,
unde r the E m pe r or Mi ng ti Buddhism was brought ,
to China by Indian mi ssionaries ; bet w een the fourth

and the sixth centu r ies i t gained the controlling
,
position but i n such fash ion that Taoism and

,
Confucianis m r emained alongside o f it and forced ,
B uddhis m to acco m m odate i tself i n a measure to , ,
the m In China these th r ee religions are not

.
,
st r ictly di ffe r e n tiated ; a Chinaman can belong to

all th r ee at the same ti m e and in fact he actually
, , ,
does s o by follo w ing the p r inciples of Confuci us i n

,
the acts of h i s daily li fe by employing the magic

,
means of Taois m i n extraordinary cases wh ile ,
for things co n ce r ning death and the beyond he ,
tu r ns to a p r iest o f on e o f the ten B uddhistic sect s

for its co n solations Such religious tolerati on
.
m a y be ad m i r ed but on e may be perm itted to as k

,
the question w hethe r that very tole r ation does not

bet ray the unsati sfacto r iness of each o f these re
l ig i on s ? A n d w hethe r they are not destined to
,
be s et aside for a higher religion ?
1 02
T H E E G Y P TI AN R ELIGI O N
'
As FAR back as the ancients E gy pt w as the land ,
o f riddles and i t has re m ained s o to th i s day The .
civilization o f the E gyptians i s of so re m a r kabl e

a nature that i t i s not easy for us to unde r stand
it ; i t unites see m ingly without mediation di r ect
, ,
opposites Alongside o f one another we find th e

.
,
a w kward h ie r oglyphi c pictu r e si gns and a per -
fected alphabet script ; i n the c r afts th e m ost a n ,
ti q ua ted appa r atus of the Stone Age alongside of

h ighly developed metal w o rk So too the E gy p
- -
.
, ,
tian r eligion i s a wond r ous mi xtu r e o f c r ude ,
antique lege n ds and custo m s w ith h igh th ou gh t

al m ost touch ing m onotheism Eve ry w he r e w e find
.
a tenacious conse r vatism alo n gside o f a hea r ty ,
prog r essive develop m ent of civilization F or this .
reason the E g yp tian i s a pa r ticula r ly inst ructi ve

,
example o f the evolution o f religion i n its ea r ly

stages .
Before anyth ing else due rega r d must be had

,
for the wo r ship of a n imals a fact w hich st r u ck

,
the ancients as a pe culia r ity o f th is r eli gi on E ve ry .
district had its ow n pecul iar sac r ed a n i m al eve r y :
a n imal o f th e s pe cies w a s sacred for the i nh ab i
103
tants of the dist r ict and one specimen w as ca r ed for
i n the temple and w o r shipped The hul l Apis at .
,
M e m ph is a s the inca r nation of the local g od Ptah ,
th e bull Mnevi s at Heliopolis ( loc al cult o f the -
s un god Ra )
-
and the r am at M endes e n j oyed the
,
disti n ction o f gene r al w o r sh ip ; th ese cults o r igin ,
ally local beca m e gene r al i n the unified e m pi r e

,
.
In othe r places the following ani m als w e r e w o r

shipped a s sac r ed : ca t dog monkey crocod ile
, , , ,
r a nn y, S par r o w ha w k ibis snake f r og sca r ab

-
, , , ,
( beetle ) a n d the like The temple

. insc r iptions of the
m iddle epoch o f the e m pi r e gi ve no inform ation
a bout th i s w o r s hip of ani m als ; th is fact gave rise
to the conclusion that the Egyptian w o r sh ip of

a n i m als was n o t o r i gi nal but a result of the degen
c r ation o f the r eligion i n a later pe r iod But .
Manetho the hi sto r ian exp r essly testi fi es to its

, ,
existence at the ti m e o f th e Second Dyn asty ( about

3 000 D .C ) a n d the co m plete o r se m i Z o o m o r ph i c
.
-
r ep r esentation o f the gods th r oughout co r r obo r ate
h i m ; thus Ho r us w a s so m eti m es a spa r r o w ha w k

,
-
,
a n d so m eti m es a m a n w ith the head of a spa rr o w
ha w k ; Hatho r w as a w o m an w ith a co w s head ’
and ho r n s ; O si r is a m an w ith the head o f a bull

,
o r ibis ; Khe m a n d A m e n w ith a r am s head

’
.
The co m plete z oOm o r ph ic rep r esentation w as the

older of the tw o fo r the semi humani zation did
,
-
n O t begin u n ti l the T w el fth Dynasty Hence i t may .

,
safely be concluded that the Egyptian gods w e r e

,
o r iginally rep r esented as animals But that can .
104
T h e E gy p t i a n R e l igi o n
no t possibly be explained as some p r i estly specula

tion which S i m ply r ega r ded the a n i m als as s y m
”
bols of the nature po w e r s and pa n thei stic fo r m s
-
,
of the man ifestation o f the o r iginal god We .
ought never to fo rget that symbolis m i s neve r a

facto r in the oldest r el igions but that the r e eve r y
,
thing was meant most r eally ; not unti l a much

late r stage o f r ationalistic r eflection does the s y m
b ol i cal interpretation of custo m s appea r and then ,
they have eithe r lost sa n ction or thei r o r iginal

meaning is no longer u n de r stood .
What a r e w e to r ega r d a s the o r igi n al se n se o f

the Egyptian ani m al gods ? The si m plest ans w er
-
to th is questio n i s w ithout doubt a co m pa r iso n to

, ,
th e totemis m o f m a n y I n d ian and n eg r o t r ibes ,
that i s w ith the w idesp read custo m acco r d i n g to

,
w hich single social g r oups believed thei r pecul i a r ity
and d i ffe r ence f r o m othe r s to have been estab

l i s h ed by descent f r om a ce r tain spe cies o f a n i m a l ,
and that species spi r it they w o r sh ipped as thei r

-
t r ibal god ( t h ei r tote m

-
“
In Egypt als o ani . ,
m a l wo r sh ip belonged at fi r st to si ngl e d ist r i cts o f

-
, ,
the count ry wh ich even after pol itical a lliance

, . ,
th r ough th e unifi cation o f th e e m pi r e m ai nt a ined ,
thei r rel igious sep a r ation o n e f ro m th e othe r by

, ,
their attitude to th e s a m e a n i m al s o th a t the a n i m al

,
held sacred i n on e district w ould be rega r ded a s

profane i n the adjacent dist r ict and vice ve r sa I n .
later times i t w as not a r a r e occu r r ence that the

,
inj uring of th e sacred animal o f o ne d ist r ict by th e ,
105
p eople o f the next dist ict led to bloody combat r ,
.
H ow ould such a state of aff ai r s be thinkable i f

w
th e w hole vie w w e r e nothing mo r e than the sym
b o l i c po etizing o f p r iestly speculation ? The only

explanation is that of a su r vival of ea r ly totemistic
fa i th .
But these an im a l g od s w h ich we m ay rega r d as

~
,
the oldest sta n d alongside the h igher g r eat gods o f

,
that phase o f the Egyptian r eligion w ith w hich we

a r e acquainted a n d co n ce r ning w hich the temple
,
i n sc r iptions give us i n fo r mation In the fi r st i n .
stance these gods w e r e pe r so n ified natu re po w ers

,
-
gods o f the sun and the moon o f heaven ea r th , , ,
the unde r w o r ld and the N ile ; to these m ust then be

,
added the genies of f ruitfulness a n d o f g r o w th o f ,
o r der r ighteousness t r uth k n o w ledge and the like

, , , , .
I have said that these deities w e r e rep r esented as

half ani m als i n the w o r ship pictu r es ; but on the
- -
,
other ha n d i t must be re m e m be r ed as i s clea r ly

, ,
sho w n by the myths and the hymns that they a re ,
thought o f as hu m an acting pe r so n s ; so i t seems

,
as though this w o r sh ip o f gods pa r allels the ani m al

wo r sh ip as though they w e r e tw o religions diff er
, ,
i n g enti r ely in thei r natu r e and thei r o r igin an d ,
n eithe r O ne to be explained by the other Mean .
w hile th e question a r i ses : Must the r e not have been

,
so m e so r t o f connection bet w een them w hich we do ,
not kno w me r ely because i t took place in some pre

,
histo r ic pe r iod ? We must leave that p roblem to

later research students -
.
I o6
T h e E gy p ti a n R e l igi o n
In any event the high gods were originally

,
local gods too and by the alliance of the single

,
di stricts into a united e m pi r e they w e r e brought into

relation to one anothe r The oft r ecu r r ing con .
-
n ecti o n o f three gods into the fa m ily g r oup father , ,
mother and s o n i s ve r y ancie n t ; such g r oups a r e

,
O siris Isis and Ho r us at Abydos ; Ptah Sechet

, , ,
and I m hotep at M e m ph is ; A m en Maut and , ,
C ho n s u at Thebes Then too va r ious gods f rom

.
, ,
di ffe rent local ities w e r e fused into o n e and taken

thus into the r el igion o f the r eal m as fo r exa m ple , , ,
Amen Ra R a H a r m ach i s Ptah Soka r O s i r is a n d

,
~
,
- -
othe r s Ra w a s the s un god o f H e liopolis w ho m

.
-
th e kings o f the F ifth Dynasty ( a bout 2 500 B C ) . .
elevated to his cent ral position i n the r eligion o f

the r ealm ; about th is cent ral god by the i nt e r ,
w eaving o f political motives a n d p r iestly specula
tion the r e developed a sun theology w h ich sought

,
-
,
to t ransfo r m m ost of the local gods i n to sun gods -
by g r adual assi m ilation w ith Ra The myths t e ll .
o f Ra that he w a s o r igi n ally a king w h o r uled in
so m e golden age but that w hen he beca m e o ld a n d

,
feeble m en g r e w ove rbea r i n g and re volted agai n st

,
h i m ; th rough the god d ess H a t ho r he m ade bl o o d y ,
havoc o f the r ebels but saved the m f r o m e nti re

,
dest ruction F i nally h e g re w ti r ed o f r ul e r sh i p

.
,
over the thankless and dete r m ined to r eside only in

heaven and establish a n ew wo r ld o r de r -
.
May not this m yth co n t a in a r e m in iscence o f th e

religious histo r ical t ransfo r mation by w hich the
-
,
107
R e l igi o n an d H i s tori c Fa i th s
earthly t r ibal g o d of one of the local ancestor wor
- -
ships had been elevated to the position o f heavenly

s un god at the head of the national pantheon
- ? I
sugges t the questio n me rely and leave the ans w er
, ,
to the h isto ry o f co m pa r ative r eligions ( recall the

s un gods
-
of Jap a n and Pe r u ) Another myth .
.
d e s c r ibes Ra s j o u r n ey ac r oss the heavens in h is

'
s un ba r k
-
hi s co m b a t w ith the d ragon A p ep h is
, ,
d e feat a n d de s cent into the under w o r ld h is r etu r n ,
th rough the land o f d a r kness in w hich the r e a re ,
t w el v e da nge r ous po r tals w h ich must be passed

th r ough i n the t w elve hou r s of the night and h is ,
r etu r n i n t o th e w o r ld of daylight We w ill meet .
thi s m yth a ga i n w he n w e d is cuss the ideas of the
fate o f souls i n the w o r ld beyond .
O si r i s i s usually call e d the s un god o f Abydos -

,
but i n th e s ec o n d volu m e o f the Golde n Bough

,
“
,
”
F r az e r has p r ve d o n satisfyi n g g rounds that it

o , ,
w as no t a s un g d o r igi n ally
-
o but r athe r a god o f
,
vege ta t io n o f t he f ruitful ea rth and of the under

, ,
w o r ld . T h e l eg e n d i s w e ll kno w n in w hich O si ris

i s m u r d e r e d b y h is i n i m ical b r othe r Set o f the ,
plai n t o f his w i fe a nd siste r Isis w h o sought h i s

, ,
co r p s e a n d w he n s h e f o u n d the pieces at last fitted

,
th e m toge t he r givi ng the m n e w li fe w he r eupon

, ,
O si r is b e ca m e the r ule r in the r eal m s o f the dead ,
w hil e ,upo n ea rth h is s o n Ho r us avenged hi s

, , ,
d e a th fi r st by a co m bat w ith Set and then by b r ing

, , ,
i n g t he m att e r befo r e the j udgm e n t seat of the gods ,
w ho ,
afte r a fo rm al t r i a l decla r ed Set to be con
.
108
q uered O si i s to be king of the dead and Ho r us

,
r ,
to be king of the living ; and hi s successo r s became

the kings o f E gypt This myth of the dying and
.
,
r eviving god ,
r eaches back into the fa r thest antiq
ui ty and w a s a co m m on possession of the religions

,
of Asi a M inor G r eece and Egypt ; natu r ally its

, ,
r oot i s the annual expe r ience o f the death of natu r e
in Autu m n and its rebi r th i n the Sp r ing The .
m yth w hich g r e w o ut o f i t p r ese n ts d r a m atically

no t only the change of natu r e li fe but also the -
fate of men w ith i ts opposites of li fe and death j oy ,
and so r r o w fear and hope ; that m yth was r iche r

,
i n soul ful m oti ves a n d p re m onitions tha n othe r s ,
and the r ef o r e in the cou r se o f time i t beca m e the

, , ,
basis of the m yste ry cults w hich pl a yed such a n

-
i m po rt a n t pa r t i n the hist o r y o f r eligion .
The god o f M e m ph is Ptah o w es the gene ral

, ,
w o r shi giv e n to h i m s o l e ly to the political i m

p
po rtance o f Me m phis as the capital of the a n cient
,
empi r e In the late r p r iestly theolo g y he beca m e a

.
,
s un god and w a s elevated to the position o f w o r ld

-
c r eat o r ( the G r eeks co m pa red him to thei r H e

p h re s tus ) but o r i g i n ally he w a s no mo r e th a n a
, ,
g o d of ea r thly f r ui t fuln e ss ; the bull Apis w h o w a s , ,
lodged next to the Pt a h temple w a s lo o k e d upo n

-
,
”
as his son o r seco n d l i fe w hich m eans as m uch
“
,
as to s ay that th e god Ptah w as in the begi nn ing , ,
no mo r e than the tote m istic bull god of Me m phis -

.
A m en the loc a l god of Th ebes in Up pe r Egypt

, ,
w a s o r i g i n a l l v a god o f f r uitfulness of t he ea rth . ,
109
R e l igi o n an d H i s tor i c F ai th s
and of the dead ; that i s he was to Upper Egy p t ,
w hat O si r is w a s to Lower E gypt I n the n ew .
e m pi r e ho w ever whose fi rst dynasties came from

, ,
Thebes A m en w as fused for po l itical reasons with

,
th e fo r me r highest god of the empi r e Ra and they , ,
becam e o ne di vi n e pe r son ; this A m en R a was f r om -
that ti m e on the highest god o f Egypt the sun g od ,

-
p a r excellence w h o w a s extolled as the creator and ,
the p rese r ve r o f the w hole w o r ld In the eleva .
tion o f this god to heavenly kingship the counter ,
pa r t o f the ki n gship on ea r th brought about as ,
m uch by political motives as rel igious speculation ,
Egyptian theology app roaches monotheism Con .
ce r ni n g A m en R a o ne hymn which I take from -

, ,
E rm a n s t r anslation ( Die A egyp tis ch e Religion

’
S . reads as follo w s
He it is ade all th i th m a y h a d
, w ho h a s m , e o ne w n n s .
H e co m m a ded d th g ods ca m e i to be i g : h i s t h
n an e n n e e
f at h e o f t h g od h i t i s h m ade m
r e d c eated t h
s , e , w o en an r e
a i m als M ca m e fo t h out o f h i eye d g ods out o f h i

n . en r s s an s
m out h H e i t i s h c eates p stu e f t h h e ds d th

. ,
w o r a r or e r an e
f u i t t ee f m
r -
r h c eates ou i sh m e t f
or th fi h i
en , w o r n r n or e s n
th i ve d t h b i ds be eat h t h h eave s F h i s k e th
e r r an e r n e n . or s a , e
Ni le co m es d h e h t h m uc h beloved co m es m l i ve
, an w n e, e -
, en .
A d th n h ead o f t h g ods i s f i e dly o f h ea t

e he h is e r n r , w n e
called u p o H e p otects t h t i m i d a g a i st t h bold T h e e

n . r e n e . r
f o e do all t h i g s
r f as t h h eave s d th ea t h exte d
n , as ar e n an e r n ,
love d o sh i p h i m T h g ods b be fo e h i m a j esty d

an w r . e ow r s an
m a g i f y t h e i c eato ; t h ey e j o i c
n he t h e i c eato p
r r r r e w n r r r a
p ro a ch P a i e t h ee says eve y a i m al ;
es . r p a ise t h ee
s , r n r .
s ays eve y des t T h y beauty co q ue s eve y h ea t t h

r er . n r r r , e
love o f t h ee p a aly es a m s d h a d t h h ea t f o g et b
'
r z r an n s . e r r s e
c use th eye l o k f te t h ee H e i s th li i g lam p h i ch

a e o s a r . e v n , w
1 10
r i ses out o f t h h eave ly ocea e n n . In h i m . do th o pp essed set e r
t h e i t ust f h th V m
r r , or e 15 e er, w ho w i ll t fi h i m self
no sn er
to be b i bed r .
King A m enophis IV ( 1 4 00 B C ) made one . . .
more step to w a r d co m plete m onotheis m by elevating

Aton to the position o f sole god a n d attempting ,
to supp r ess the w o r ship of all the othe r gods p a r ,
ti cula r l y that o f A m e n R a Aton really m eans the -

.
s un pane but it w as intended m e rely as the fo r m

-
,
in w h ich the l i vi n g pe r so n al god b e hind i t mani

fes ted h imsel f A po w e r ful i m p r ession o f the.
depth and hea r tiness of thi s belief in God i s a ff orded

by the follo w ing hy m n ( E r man S 68 ) , .
uc h t h e e
How m h i c h t h ou h ast m ade rT h ou di dst
18 w .
c eate t h ea t h acco d i g to t h y i s h t h ou alo e i t h m

r e r r n w , n , w en
an d i th all a i m als T h fo e i g la ds o f S i a d E t h i
w n . e r n n y r an
o pi a d t h la d o f E g y pt — eac h
an e n d i dst t h ou set i i ts o ne n
p lace d c eate h at i t h d eed o f eac h

an r w h hi a n ; o ne as s
ow n possess i o d th d u at i o o f h l i fe
n an ec k o ed e r n is w as r n .
T h e i to g ues se p a ated by t h e i la g ua g es d t h e i ex
r n a re r r n an r
t l acco d i g to t h e i colo
e rn a s r D i ff e e t i ato t h ou di dst
n r r : r n r,
d i ffe e t i ate t h p eo ples T h ou d i dst c eate t h N i le i t h

r n e . r e n e
de pt h d dost lead h i m h i t h e at h y p leasu e to gi ve ou

an r t r n r
i hms t to m en T h ou d i dst c eate t h l i fe ou i s h m e t o f

en . r e -
n r n
all d i sta t la ds d d i dst set a

n n i h eave t h at i t m y
an n n a
fl o do to t h e m h fo m s aves u p o t h m ou ta i s l i k e
w w n : e r w n e n n
an ocea d m o i ste s t h e i fi elds

n an l lo beaut i ful n th y r . w a re
dec ees t h ou lo d o f ete i t y l h

r , r o f bea e d i dst t h ou rn .
' ‘
e t n
gi ve ove to th st a ge p eo p les d h a i m als o f t h dese t

r e r n an t e n e r ,
but t h N i le f o m h d e p t h co m es f E g y pt T h ou d i dst
e r t e or .
c eate th seaso s i o d to p ese ve all h c eatu es h

r e n , n r er r r t v r r . t e
w i te to cool t h e m d th g l h at t h e y m y taste t h ee
n r an e ow t a .
Th d i sta t h eave t h ou d i d st c eate i o de to s h m u p o

e n n r n r r o n
i t i o de to see all t h c eatu es alo e d i s i g i h

, n r r v r r . n an r n n t y
l l l
R e l igi o n an d H i sto r i c F a i t h s
fo m l i v i g
r as s h i i g f o t h adi a t dep a t i g d
n s un , n n r , r n , r n an re
tu i g T h ou d i dst c eate t h ea t h f t h e m h i t h ee
rn n . r e r or , w o n
alo e h d t h e i o igi c i t i es d t i bes oads d st ea m s

n a r r n, an r , r an r .
T h eyes o f all see t h ee be f o e t h e m

e h e t h ou t th u r , w n ar e s n
o f day ove t h ea t h r e r .
It i s astoni sh ing to s ee with what freedom the

poet of this hymn r ises above the limitations o f the
popular natio n al religion i n that he r ecogn i zes that
th e o n e god had c r eated the va r ious peoples each ,
w i th its o w n pec ul ia r i ty a n d gove r ns st r ange r s as ,
well as Egyptians w ith like pate rnal ca r e These .
a r e the thoughts o f a king an enlightened S pi r it , ,
w h o sought to bu r st the na r r ow bounds of t r adi
tion of ce r e m onial and of the guardianship o f

, ,
p r iests and sought to f r ee hi m self and his people

,
s o as to enter into a path of f r eer hu m an thinking
a n d habit A m ong those about h i m and even

'
.
,
a m ong the p r i ests he met with some success and ,
gained adhe r ents ; neve r theless h is bold atte m pt at ,
r efo r m ation failed for h i s all ltoo sto rmy ma r ch

,
- -
m e t an i n su r m ountable obstacle i n the obtuseness o f

the m asses and the reaction of the m ighty p r iesthood
o f A m en R a Unde r the successors of A m e n ophi s
-
.
I V these p r iests succeeded in deth r oning the he r e

,
ti cal dynasty and w e r e able to eradicate even the

,
na m e of the hated in n ovato r and o f h i s all one god -

,
Aton s o thoroughly f r om the histori c monu m ents

,
o f the g r eat sanctua r ies that i t w as not unti l the
excavation o f the r uins o f Tel el Ama r na the resi - -

,
dence of the he r eti c in our o w n day that this , ,
1 12
remark able episode i n the h is tory o f t h e E gy p tian

religion came to light again .
Under the kings o f the new dynasty R ameses ,
I I and I I I ( 1 3 th centu r y the kings sought to

prop their pol itical power by making close alliance
with the r ul ing p r iesthood ; it was at this time
that the national polytheism of Egypt reached i ts
height All over the land th e ol d sanctuaries most
.
,
h ighly rega r ded we r e richly fi nished and s um p tu

o us l y fi tted up .The ecclesiastical r estoration gave
o fficial protection to all of the old popular super
s ti ti on s,
pa r ticula r ly an imal worsh ip and even to ,
the g r eat mass of fo r m ul ae fo r exorcism and magic .
Simultaneously the beginnings o f decay appeared

,
i n a syncretism w hich tended towa r d the disintegra

tion o f the m any popula r gods by un iting them
into one pantheisti c all — deity With all these
.
changes only one thing remained constant—the

,
belief in the divinity o f the kings as the sons o f th e

s un god
-
E ven the P tol m eies the h ighly cultured
.
,
G r eek successo r s to the throne of the Pharaohs ,
di d not disdain to make use of this Attempts .
have been m ade to explain th is faith as Byzantin

i s m but that i s ha r dly correct
, H o w could i t
.
have been rooted s o deeply i n popular conscious

ness and maintained itself s o wel l ? This bel ief
was rathe r a su rvival o f that ea r ly bel ief i n the
d ivine descent o f the rul ing r ace as th e r epresenta
tive o f th e enti r e people a bel ief wh ich we m eet
.
e v erywhe r e i n gray antiquity F or those tribes

.
1 13
a tt r ibuted the m selves u n ive r sally a blood rela
to
t io n s h i p w ith the t r ibal deity The r efo r e what .

,
w a s o r iginally conside r ed to b e t r ue of the t r ibe
c o llecti vely w a s late r na r r o w ed i n to the bel ief o f the
special divinity o f the kings and finally of the ,
Ro m an E m pe ro r a s the last hei r of the ancient

n ational r eligions .
F i n ally the r e i s the thi r d point i n w hich the

,
Egyptia n r eligion i s disti n g uished the wo r ship ,

-
o f the dead A nu m be r of di ffe r i ng vie w s a re met

.
he re o n e alongside the othe r a nd at the outset w e

, .
m ust fo r ego eve r y atte m pt eithe r to m ediate o r to

ha rmonize one w ith the othe r Acco r di n g to the .
oldest vie w the soul of the deceased pe r petually

,
r emains a ttached to the body hence the Egyptian ,
ca r e fo r the p r ese r vation of the co rpse by e m bal m

i n g a n d the p r otectio n of the sa m e i n a safe to m b
, .
”
The d w elli ngs fo r ete r nity as the to m bs w e r e
“
,
called fo r m ed exte n ded cities o f the dead usually

, ,
located to the w est o f the cities o f the livi n g The .
ki n gs used a s thei r bu r ial places the colossal py r a

, ,
mids w hile the n obles a n d the w ealthy used rock

,
caverns In eve r y insta n ce the r e w as a secu r ely

.
,
locked g r ave cha m be r befo r e w hich the r e w as a n

ante r oo m w i t h a sac r ificial table fo r the w o r shi p
-
of the dead The to m b equipm ent fo r the use of

.
the soul beyond co n si sted of w ater j ugs chai r s , ,
a r ms books on m agic a little b oat w ith a c r e w

, , ,
and statuettes o f m al e a n d f em al e se r vants ; m any

p i ctures and inscriptions conce rning the deeds of
1 14
T h e E g y p t i a n R e l igi o n
the dead adorned the to m bs o f the kings and t hes e ,
a r e the pri n cipal sou r ce of o ur kno w ledge of the
history of Egypt It w a s the duty o f the l iving to

.
b r i n g gifts fo r the soul to the g rave and to r epeat ,
fo r mul ae on all feast days ; the m agic po w e r of the

fo r mul ae was supposed to b r ing the j oys o f ea r th
to the soul i n the w o r ld beyond The r e we r e also .
payments m ade fo r the r egula r sayi ng o f m asses

for the dead by the p r iests This w a s custo m a r y .
a m ong the uppe r classes All of thi s i s based o n.
the p r esuppositio n that the spi r it o f the deceased ,
hi s K a lives on i n the g r ave the house o f the K a

, , ,
a n d depe nds o n the p r ese r vation of h i s body w hi ch ,
r equi r es such nou r ishm ent a s sac r ificial gifts and
magic fo r mul ae .
The r e i s anothe r vie w that the soul Ba m oves

, , ,
like a bi rd f r ee f ro m the body w hich it visits f ro m

,
ti m e to ti m e in t he g r ave but i t can also soa r to

,
heaven above a n d cha n ge into va r ious beings a t

pleasu r e So fo r exa m ple th e soul m ay e m body
.
, ,
itsel f in snakes o r plants— this i s the ani m istic basi s

o f all the theo r ies of the t r ansmig r ation of the
soul .
Diff e r e nt again i s the vie w o f the j ou r ney of the

, ,
soul to the w o r ld bey o nd w hich it unde r takes w i t h

the s un god Ra in h i s n ight —
-
, sh ip th rough the n u
,
d e r w o r ld This i s d ivided i n to t w elve stations

.
,
o ne fo r each o f the t w elve hou r s o f t he night and ,
each of these i s gua rded by a fea r ful mo n ste r

s uch as the w icked dragon A pep ( A pophis ) By .
i ts
magi c fo rmul ae alone are th ese monsters rende r ed
harmless and this pu r pose i s served by the books
,
o f m a i c which are al w ays bu r ied w ith the dead

g .
The w o r ld beyond i s looked upon th roughout as a

d a r k land to the w est which f r om ti m e to time
, ,
du r ing the noctu rnal j ou r ney o f Ra b eco m es ,
i llumined for the r ef r eshment o f the soul Mo r e .
pleasant i s the notion of the pa r adise ( Ea r n o r

A a l u ) o f O si r is w h ich l ies in the no r th o r th e east
, ,
and i s like the blissful fields o f the Greek Elysium .
The r e the souls lead a pleasant li fe a continuation

, ,
o f thei r ea r thly occupations and j oys But beyond .
th is r ises religious hope to the thought o f a bl issful

l i fe for the tran s figu red soul w hich havi ng become ,
o ne w i th O si ris w ill pa r ticipate in h is divine bei n g

,
o r shine as a star i n heaven As ce r tainly as “

.
O si r i s l ives he too w ill l ive As certainly as O si r is

, .
”
w ill not be dest r oyed he too w ill not be dest r oyed
, .
The gods call o ut to the soul : Thy tr an s fig ured

spi r it and thy po w e r come to thee a s to the g o d the ,
r ep r esentative of O si r is Thy soul i s i n th ee and

.
thy po w e r b ehind thee Li ft thysel f up and a r ise

. .
To h im who i s thus a w akened they st r etch out a ,
ladder for the asce n t to heaven : The gate o f

h eaven i s open fo r thee and the m assive bolts shot
back Thou fi nd es t R a sta n di n g the r e he takes
.
,
thee by the hand and leads thee to the th r one of

O si r is so that thou m ayest r ule over the trans fig
,
u r ed. The se r va n ts o f the god stand befo r e thee

and ca ll out Co m e thou g o d co m e thou possessor
, , , ,
1 16
of the th rone of O si r i s N ow stande s t thou the r e .
protected equip ped as a god clothed w ith the for m

, ,
of O si r is and thou dost w hat he did do a m ong the

,
”
tra n s fig ured and the indest r uctible ( E rman .
,
p .
This bliss ho w ever i s pa r ticipated in by those

, ,
alone w h o have passed through the j udgm ent o f the

dead befo r e the j udgment th r o n e o f O si r is The .
j udgment scene h as been p r ese r ved fo r us in a pic

tu r e : the goddess of t r uth leads a w o m an into th e
hall of j udgm e n t at the othe r end of w hich O si r is
,
sits upon h is th r o n e as j udge of the dead ; above i n ,
the background a re the fo r ty tw o witnesses o f th e

,
-
t r ial ; in the cent r e a great scale on on e pan the ,
heart o f the deceased and on the other the t r uth ,
symboli zed as a feather The gods Horus and .

,
Anubis make the test w hethe r the heart w ill not

, ,
be found too l ight befo r e t r uth And the cle r k .
god Thoth stands beh ind w ith all h i s w r i ti n g

, , ,
mate r ial to take do w n the r esult and ca r ry h is r e

,
po r t to the j udge The 1 2 5 th chapter o f the Boo k .
o f the Dead that oldest manual o f confessions

, ,
w h ich at the sa m e time contains a catech is m of

Egyptian mo r als r eco r ds fo r us w hat the soul h as,
to say and acco r di ng to Erman ( p 104

, , it .
i s essentially as follo w s
“
a i sed be t h ou g eat god lo d o f b t h t t h s I h ave
Pr , r , r o ru ,
com e to th ee t h at I m y b h old t h y beauty I k o t h a e . n w ee
an d I k o th n a m es o f th fo ty t g ods h
w e n it h e r -
w o w o a re w
t h ee i th h all o f bot h t t h s h feed u p o t h e m t h at do

n e r u , w o n
w i ck edl y d h d i k t h e i blood t h d y o f ec k o i g
an w o r n r on e a r n n :
1 17
I com e to t h ee b i g t h t ut h d d i ve ff i I h ave
a nd r n e r an r o s n .
co m m i tted a g a i st m
no S i n d I h ave do e ot h i g n h i ch en a n n n n w
i s h ate f ul to t h g ods I h ave t s p o k e ev i lly o f y m

e . no n an an
to h su p e i o I h ave su ff e ed
is r r . to h u g e I h ave r no one n r,
caused to ee p e i t h e h ave I co m m i tted m u de

no o ne w , n r r r nor
co m m a ded ot h e s to m u de I h ave caused p a i to

n r r r . n no
m an .I h ave t lesse ed t h f ood i t h te m p les e i t h e

no n e n e , n r
h ave I stole h b ead o f t h g ods

n t e t h f ood o f t h t a s
r e nor e e r n
fig u re d I h ave t p act i sed u c h ast i ty

. no th p u e p lace
r n on e r
o f m y at i ve g od I h ave t f I fi d t h m easu e o f co
n . no a Si e e r rn ,
no r th m easu e o f le gt h
e rth fi eld m easu e th
n , n or e r , nor e
w e i g h t o f t h scales I h ave t stole t h m i l k f om t h

e . no n e r e
m out h o f t h i fa t h ave I stole

e n th
n cattle f o m t h
, nor n e r e
p astu e r h ave I cau g h t t h b i ds

, nor d fi s h es o f t h g ods e r an e .
Th e w ate s o f t h i u dat i o h ave I t h e m m ed I h ave

r e n n n no .
no t i te f e ed
n i t h t h te m p le i co m e o f t h g od I h ave
r r w e n e .
no t bee eavesd o ppi g I h ave t co m m i tted adulte y

n r n . no r .
I w as t dea f to
no o ds o f t ut h I h ave t eate u p m y
w r r . no n
h ea t r it h fil t i
w I h ave t bee d i sda i f ul
a ic on . h ave I no n n n or
m ade m a o ds I h ave t blasp h em ed t h ki g

ny w r . no e n nor
h ave I des pi sed t h g od B e h old I com e to you i t h out i

e . , w s n .
I h ave do e t h at h i c h m say i s sat i s f acto y to th g ods

n w en r e .
I h ave gi ve b ead to t h h u g y d i k to t h t h i sty

n r e n r , r n e r , rai
m e t to t h
n a k ed d f e i a g e to h m i t h out a boat I
e n , an rr i w .
h ave bee a f at h e to t h o p h a a h usba d to t h i do

n r e r n, n e w w ,
a sh elte to th f ee i g I mr e rh ( o ly ) hz n spoke . a o ne w o n as n
an d a ated g ood
n rr I h ave g a i ed m y p ossess i o s by i g h t
. n n r e
ous m ea s I h ave gi ve sac i fi ces to h g ods d gi fts to

n . n r t e an
th e t fig
ra n s d dead S ave m p otect m
ure Y i ll t
. e, r e . e w no
accuse m be fo e t h g eat g od I m
e r o f a clea m out h
e r . a one n
an d o f clea h a ds to n h o m t h osen h ,
h im y l w w o see sa w e
com e .
Th us the Book of the Dead pi ctu r es in the fo r m

, ,
of a confession of the soul befo r e the seat o f di vi n e

j udgm ent the m o r al ideal of a n E g yptian w h o has
,
honestly fulfilled hi s duti es to w a r d the gods and

m en We must not be su rp r ised that ritu al and
.
1 18
T h e E g y p t i a n R e l igi o n
moral duti es are indisc r i m inat ely mixed together

’
—
in the p r iests la w books o f all r eligions it i s not ,
othe r w i se— thi n k o f the la w s of Moses the Indian

,
l a w o f Ma n n the Pe r sian Avesta and the othe r s

, ,
.
In any event w e may fo r m thi s j udgm ent that in

, , ,
consideration of i ts g r eat antiquity th e mo r al ideal

,
contained i n the Egyptian Book of the Dead i s one

dese r ving of o ur highest r espect Thus f r o m thi s
.
,
side too w e fi nd co n fi r mation o f the fact that th e

, ,
E gyptian r eligion w a s not poor in n oble seeds o f

t r uth ; natu r ally they could not co m e to pu r e an d
,
po w e r ful develop m ent because the all too co n se r va

- -
ti ve cha r acter o f the people eve r held tenaciously

to the o ld natu r alistic n otions and customs despite
, ,
the atte m pts at bette r ment ; and the double p r essu r e

o f p r iestly h ie r a r chy and political despoti s m made
the elevation to f r ee hu m an cultu r e and ci vi li zatio n

most di ffi cult .
1 19
T H E B A B YL O N I AN R E L I G I O N
T H I S rel igion may be followed back even further

than the Egyptian I ts oldest h isto r ical documents
.
extend back to the beginning o f the fou r th m il

Acco r ding to the opinion o f the learned
'
l e n i um B C . .
Assyriologist Bezold i t would be ar r ogant at the

, , ,
p r esent day to atte m pt to tel l the h isto r y of this

,
religion M uch as we have to be thankful to the

.
industry and keenness o f those learned men wh o

have busied the m selves for more than a half cen -
tu ry with th e decipherment of cuneiform i n s cr ip

tions and valuable as a r e the fi nds which have
,
r esulted f r o m the excavations i n the ruins o f the
ci ties of Mesopotami a and are eve r being made ,
w e a r e still fa r f r o m any positive kno w ledge con
ce r ning the o r igins of the Babylonian religion i n

p e Se m itic and Semiti c r oots and i ts changes i n
r
-
the cou r se o f ti m e Thi s m uch ho w ever may be

.
, ,
accepted as ce r tain : in the Babylonian as i n th e ,
E gyptian r eligion a wo r ship of va r ious local deities

,
o f si n gle dist r icts and citi es o f the valley o f th e
Euph r ates and the Tig r is w a s fu n da m e n tal Th e

,
.
combination of these deities into on e polythei sti c

120
T he B a b yl o n i a n R e l igi on
system i s not at the beginning but i s the wor k o f ,
schools of p r iests which had been begun i n the ol d

monarchy an d completed later pa r ticula r ly after ,
the union o f upper and lowe r Babylon i nto the one

kingdo m ruled by Ham m u r abi ( about 2 2 50
In this religion o f a r eal m again w e meet at th e , ,
outset as i n Egypt seve r al t r iads The highest of

, , .
these Anu B el and Hoa had been syste m ati zed i n

, , , ,
the old mona r chy o f Ur s o that Anu r uled over

heaven Bel ove r th e ea r th and Hoa over th e s ea
, ,
.
That was an a r tificial division fo r o r iginally the ,
th r ee exi sted i ndepende n tly alongside o f one ah

other each one being th e sup r eme po w e r w ith in the
,
boundaries o f h i s worsh ip Hoa as the local deity .

,
o f E r ib u was p r obably a tote m isti c fi s h god th e

,
-
,
O annes of Be r osus w h o later beca m e the god of

,
depth then o f deep w isdo m o f oracles and for m ul re

, ,
of exo r cism Anothe r t r iad w a s S in the moon

.
,
god w ith h i s tw o child r en Sha m ash the s un an d

, , , ,
Istar the g r eat mother o f al l livi n g th e goddess o f

, ,
fe r til ity and of love and also o f death and w a r

,
( pa r ticula r ly the latte r i n Assy r i a ) Late r I will .

,
speak of the m yth w hich tells o f h er j ou r ney to

hell I wish to r ema r k he r e that instead o f Ista r
.
, , ,
Ramman i s also mentioned as the thi r d me m be r o f

this t r i ad He i s the light n ing and r ai n g od n ative
.
in Assy r i a wh o w a s late r b rought i n to con n ection

,
w ith the sun in H a m m ur a b i s religion o f the r eal m

'
I t m ust be r e m a r ked fu rthe r that th e Babylo n ian

wisdom of th e priests a r ti fically combined the exist
12 1
in g popula r dei ti es with the sta r s a combination ,
w hich ce r tai n ly w a s st r ange to the popular con
sc i o u s n es s — for w hat people i s eve r w ell versed

i n astronomy ? I t i s a g r oss error the r efore to , ,
think that Istar w a s really the planet Venus and ,
that the m yth of her descent to hell w a s r elated to

the disap p ea r a n ce and appea r ance o f the even ing
and the mo r ni n g star Such po eti c inte rp r etations
. ,
whether they be ol d o r n e w do not cor r espond to ,
the o r iginal sense and deep se r iousness o f earl iest

r eligious beliefs The fact i s r ather that the
.
, ,
ast r ological w i sdo m o f the p r iests establ ished a

m ystical r elation not closely definable bet w een the
five planets a n d the popular deities ; these beca m e
hal f w ay identical s o that the god o f w a r and of
-
death Ne rgal w as the r eddish planet Ma r s ; N abu

, , , ,
the g od o f r evelation and of p r i ests was the planet , ,
M e r cu r y ; Ma r duk the king s god w a s the i m pe r ial

,
’
planet Jupite r ; Istar the goddess o f love w a s the

, , ,
lovely eve n i n g star Ve n us and finally N inib the

, , , , ,
god of sto r m s and o f w a r w a s the planet Satu rn , .
These five pla n eta r y deities togethe r w ith the s un ,
a n d the m oon r uled the seven days of the w eek

, ,
w hich the Ro m a n s took ove r f r o m the Babylonians
and t r ans m itted to th e O ccident .
F rom the ti m e o f the fou n ding o f the e m pi r e by

Ha m m u r abi Ma r duk the local deity o f Babel cap
, , ,
i tal ci ty o f the r eal m w a s elevated to the dignity of

,
the highest god of the r ealm j ust as Amen R a had -
been elevated in the new E gyptian em p ire Thi s .
12 2
T h e B ab yl oni an R e l igi on
p rimacy of Marduk resting p r imarily

,
on a p olitical
basis was ecclesiastically sanctioned by the priest
,
hood o f Babel in that they conve r ted the sp r ing n ew -
y ear festival ,
Z a l m uku into a festival o f victory of
,
Marduk ; the spring hymn singing the annual vic

,
tory o f the s un over the storm season and w inte r

r ains,
was developed into an epi c of c r eation in
wh ich the p r incipal r o le o f c r eator and victo r over
chaos was assigned to Ma r duk the god o f Babel
, .
This c r eation epic h as an especial inte r est for us ,
inas m uch as the r e a r e certai n points o f contact b e

t w een i t and the sto r y of creation told in the fi r st
chapter o f the B ible The myth begins : In the b e
.
ginning there w a s neither heaven nor ea r th n o r a

single g od but only the w ate r s of the ocean and
,
Tia m at the d r agon o f chaos ( the biblical T eh om )

,
by a combination o f them the fi r st god pai r s and -

,
then the g r eat gods and Ma r duk ca m e into being .
Now Tia m at w h o s a w her po w er j eopardi zed by

,
the m challenged these gods to co m bat a n d then

,
began the decisive st r uggle bet w een the divine gov

e r n m en t o f the w o r ld a n d th e ele m ental chaos si m i
lar to the st r uggle bet w een titans a n d giants against

the O lympians in G r eek m ythology But o ne afte r
.
the othe r of the olde r gods atte m pted in vain to

resist the fea r ful m onste r ; in thei r di r e n eed they
,
concluded to select Ma r duk a s thei r cha m pion a n d

conveyed to h im thei r combined po w e r . Hence
for w ard be thy po w er u nbounded ; in thy hand be it
to lift u p and to m ake l o w : nothing can resist thy
1 23
R e l igi o n an d H i sto r i c F ai t h s
command ; among the gods not one can w ithdraw
from thy rulership Upon this condition Marduk
.
,
accep ts the decision o f the gods a r ms hi m self w ith ,
a sword a spear and a net creates a dest r uctive

, ,
w ind which he blows into the mouth of Tiamat who ,
had opened i t i n order to get ai r ; then M arduk

pierces her body and divides i t into two halves o ne ,
o f which he converts into the vault o f heaven as a ,
receptacle for the upper waters and locks i t tight ,
with bolts Thereupon he sets bounds for the lower

.
,
waters and st r ides through the heavens as a v i ctor i

o us ruler I n the heavens he mar k s the stations o f
.
,
the single gods ( the stars ) while he ma k es the moon ,
the night light to designate the days ( of the month ) .
F inally h e creates men but h ow they were created

, ,
ca n not be seen f r o m the epic The epi c closes with .
th is warning : The fear o f g od produces be h evo

lence Sacri fi ce lengthens li fe and p rayer wipes
.
,
away s i n —practically the essence o f the Marduk

”
,
faith ( After Jastrow di e B aby "und A ssyr R e

.
, . .
l i g i on Cap X X I )
, . .
While the po ints o f contact between this epic and

the biblical sto r y o f creation cannot be overlooked ,
e q ually certain i s i t that the di fference between them

i s greater than thei r relationship so that a di rect ,
bor r o w ing can scarcely be accepted ; much more

p r obable is the hypothesis o f common Semitic sagas
“
o ut o f wh ich the Babylonian priests on the one ,
hand created their polytheisti c epi c o f the struggle

,
and the v ictory of the gods while on the ot h er h and , ,
1 24
T he B a b yl on i a n R e l igi on
the Hebrew poet com posed the sublime picture of a
st r uggle free c r eation by one all powerful creating
- -
god M uch close r is the relationship o f the Baby

.
lonian and the bibl ical legends wh ich tell the story
o f the Deluge ; i n the Babylonian version the hero s
’
name i s S it N ap i s ti m ( X i s uth ros ) The god Hoa

-
.
confides to h im that the other gods angered by ,
men s sins had decided upon their destruction by a

’
deluge o f waters Acting upon the advice o f h i s

.
p r otecting dei ty he builds the a rk and loads i t with

,
all hi s possessions and w ith animals o f every kind .
The deluge comes simultaneously f r om heaven and

f rom the s ea The gods themselves in anxiety and
.
,
terror fl ee befo r e i ts rage After seven days th e

,
.
,
a r k rests securely on M t N isi r F i rst S it Nap i s ti m

. .
-
sends forth a d o ve whi ch returns ; then a swallo w ,
but s h e too fi nds no dry ground and retu r ns ; fi nally

a raven wh ich returns nevermore S it Nap i s ti m
, .
-
then abandons h is ship an d on the summi t of th e

mountain o ffers up a sacri fi ce o f thanksgiving u pon ,
which the gods fall l ike fl ies O ld Bel alone i s .

, ,
angry that all men have not been destroyed wh il e ,
I star mourns that s o many l iving beings h ave died ;

excited quar r els occur at all the meetings o f the
gods unti l E a succeeds in paci fying the combatants
, .
The r eupon they a r e reconci led to the human beings

that have been saved an d transport S it N ap i s tim to -
the paradise o f the blest .
Thi s conclusion of the B abylonian legend i s

reminis cent o f the biblical t r anslation of p ious
125
R e l igi o n an d H i stori c F ai t h s
E noch ; it see m s the refo r e ,

though i n the Baby
, as
l o n i a n sto r y S it N a p i s ti m co m bines i n o n e single

-
figu r e the tw o he r oes Noah a n d Enoch of old , ,
Se m itic sto ry .
The bibli cal sto ry o f pa radise in a m easu r e r e , ,
calls the m yth o f the he r o Adapa that s on o f Hoa , , .
w h o had b r oke n the w ings of the south w i n d and
the r eby b r ought upon h i m self the anger of the god

Am i . The latte r o r de r s th is he r o to appea r befo r e
h is th rone an d ans w e r the cha r ge o f a r r ogant inva
sion o f the d ivi n e r ule r ship o f the w o r ld Hoa d i s .
m isses h i s s o n w ith th e advice that he do not

pa r take o f the food o r d r ink that w ill be o ffe r ed to
hi m in the hall of the gods fo r it i s his death m eal ,
-
.
Adapa depa r ts clad i n th e ga rb o f mou rning and by ,
the m ediation o f the othe r gods succeeds in paci fy ,
i n g the ang r y Anu Inas m uch ho w eve r a s he has

.
, ,
see n sec r ets of heaven neve r sho w n to mo r tals th e ,
gods deci d e to o ffe r h i m the b r ead of li fe and th e

d r ink o f li fe an d to m ake h i m o ne o f the m selves
, .
But Adapa r e m e m be r i n g the pate r n al advice r efuses

, ,
th e p r o ff e r ed food w he r eupon Anu looks on h i m i n

,
so o w
r r a n d asks Wh y dost thou thus N ow
:
“
?
thou canst n o t l i ve " fo r eve r " Thus Adapa h a s

lost th e p o s s ib i l i tv o f i m mo r tal l i fe w ith the gods
th r ough h i s inc r edulity and must r etu r n to ea r th
. .
He r e then as in th e biblical sto ry i m m o r tal ity

, , ,
d epends upon t h e eati n g of the food of li fe and ,
he re as the r e i t i s lost by th e fat e ful obedience to

, .
bad co unsel In the Bible it i s the demonic counsel

. .
1 26
T he B a b yl o n i a n R e l igi o n
of the snak e w hich causes the doubt and d i sob ed i
ence o f the divine com m and while i n the Baby ,
lonian legend i t i s the deceptive counsel of the g o d

,
himself wh ich seals the fate of the obedient man .
Thus we s ee again how co m mon Sem itic legends a r e

worked out in enti r ely d i ffe r e n t senses on two sides .
F inally the myth of Is tar s j ourney to hel l pe en

,
’
liar to the Babylonians must be m entioned In ,

.
order to fetch the w ate r of l i fe fo r th e r ev i v i fica ti on

o f her dead love r Tam m uz the goddess descends
, ,
”
into the nether wo r ld the land without retu rn ,
“
.
Through seven doors all locked and gua r ded s h e , ,
must pass At the fi r st s h e demands ad m ission i n

.
,
commanding tones th r eatening to dest r oy the por

,
tals o f the nether w o r ld and lead up all the dead .
The gua r dian announces this to the mistress of the

unde r w o r ld w h o commands that Istar be pe r mitted
,
to pass but only according to the la w s of the nether

,
world Acco r di n gly at each gate o ne piece o f

.
, ,
j e w el r y o r on e ga rment a fter the other i s t ak en

from h er Naked s h e appea r s befo r e the goddess
.
,
o f death and the latter c o m mands h e r de m ons to
in fl ict upon Istar all of thei r d iseases The d i s a p .
p ea ra n ce o f the goddess o f love f r om ea r th has thi s

consequence : all conception and rep r oduction o f
men and cattle seems about to cease and a gene ra l ,
dying o ff i s i m m inent Then the h igher gods m ust

-
.
b r ing thei r help They se n d thei r m e ssenger

.
,
A s s us un a m i r to the queen o f the nethe r w o r ld w ith

,
the strict command that Ista r be su ff e r ed to depa r t

1 27
un h urt Reluctantly the mistress o f death bows
.
,
before the command o f the gods and p erm its the

si ck goddess to be sprayed with the waters of l i fe ;
thus hea led s h e begins her return j ourney recovers
, ,
h er garments and her j ewelry at each of the seven

gates and eme r ges into the upper w orld with al l
,
her ol d time glory Thereupon s h e brings her lover

-
.
,
Ta m muz b ack to li fe w ith the waters o f l ife A

, .
gene r al festival o f j oy with musi c and song fol , ,
lo w s : the counte r part of the spring festival o f

Adon is and Astarte in Syria o f the O si ri s and Isis ,
festival i n E gypt and o f the Demeter and Kore ,
f estival in G r eece .
Better even than all these myths the hymns and ,
penitential psal m s wh ich have become known to us

through the decipherment o f the cunei form i n s cr i p
tions serve to characterize the Babylonian religion .
I will give you a few o f these as they have been

t ranslated by Jastrow and Z immern A p rayer of .
King N ebuchadnezza r to Marduk

0 , E te r n al
u e lo d of all g a t th at th am e o f th
R l r, r , r n e n e
k i g h om t h ou lovest h ose am e t h ou h ast am e d ( called

n w , w n n
to th t h o e ) m y fl ou i sh as i t seem s g oo d to t h ee L ea d
e r n a r .
h i m alo g t h n igh t p ath I m th ule h obeys t h ee

e r . a e r r w o ,
the c eat i o of th y h a d Th ou h ast c eated m

r n n d h ast. r e an
e t usted m i th th ule sh i p ove m

n r e w A cco d i g to
e r r r en . r n
t h y m e cy h i c h t h ou g autest to all 0 L o d let m

r , w love r , r , e
t h y h ig h est l P la t i m y h ea t t h f ea o f th y d i v i i ty
aw . n n r e r n .
G a t m all t h at m y see m g ood to t h ee f t h ou t h h

r n
'
e a , or ar e w o
g ua ds m y l ife }"
r
A prayer to Istar
128
T he B a b yl o n i an R e l igi on
I t i s g oo d to p a y to t h ee
t h ou t i cl i e d to l i ste r , for ar n n n .
T h y g la ce i s a h ea i g o f p aye t h y utte a ce l ig h t
n H ave r n r r, r n .
m e cy u p o
r m I sta p ocla i m m y el f a e F a i t h f ully loo k
n e, r, r w r .
u p o m H ea k e to m y beseech i g I f I f oll o th y foot

n e . r n n . w
ste p s be m y p o g ess su e I f I se i e th y co d m y I p ossess

,
r r r . z r , a
j oyous ess I f I h th y y o k e el i eve m o f m y bu de s

n . ear , r e r n .
I f I h ave e g a d to th y g la ce m y m y p aye be h ea d d
r r n , a r r r an
g a ted I f I see k th y ule sh i p m y l if e d salvat i o be

r n . r r , a an n
m y po t io M ay th g ood p otect i g s p i i t h i ch sta ds

r n . e r n r w n
befo e t h ee b e m i e m y I ach i eve th p os p e i ty h i ch

r n , a e r r , w
sta d to th y igh t h a d d to th y left S p ea k t h ou t h at

n r n an .
m y s p eech be h ea d I h ealt h d j oyous ess lead m r . n an n e
da i ly M ak e m y days lo g gi ve m l if e M ay I be h ealt h y
. n , e .
an d u i j u e d t h at I m y
n n o sh ip th y di v i i t y A s I i sh
r , a w r n . w ,
m y I ach i eve
a T h h eave s e j o i ce i t h ee t h d ee p s o f t h
. e n r n , e e
w ate s sh out i th j oy to t h ee M ay th go d s o f all e de

r w . e r n r
h om a g e to t h ee M ay th g eat g ods e j o i ce th y h ea t 3
’
. e r r r .
A penitential prayer to I star ,

w it h i ncidental
words of the mediating priest :
slave f ull o f s igh s y to th ee A ccep t t h ou th
I , th y , , cr . e
f e ve t p aye o f h i m h h s i ed W h e t h ou loo k est

r n r r w o as nn . n
w i t h m e cy u p o m t h at m l i ves 0 al m igh ty m i st ess

r n an, an .
, r
of m m e c if ul tu
an , i g i g ood ess to a d t h em h
r , rn n n n w r , s e
h ea k e s to su pp l i cat i o s p i est says H i s g od ’

Th
‘
r n n . e r :
an d h i g oddess s a g y at h im t h e efo e h calls u p o are n r , r r e n
t h ee T u th y cou te a ce to a d h im T a k e h i m by h i
. rn n n n w r . s
ha d n O uts i de o f t h ee t h e e i s
. g od to t a i gh t Th r no se r .
’
e
p e i te t says L oo k u p o m t uly acce p t m y su pp l i cat i o

n n : n e r , n .
H ow lo g yet y n t h y s pi i t i ll be m i lde H lo g
, sa , er e r w r . ow n
yet m y m i st ess i ll th y cou te a ce be tu ed a ay I

, r , w n n n rn w .
coo l ik e a dove i t h s igh s m I fi lle d Th p i est says

.
, w a .
’
e r :
‘
W i th d m ou i g i s h i soul f ull o f s ig h s tea s h
w oe an rn n s ,
r e
w eep s d b eak s fo t h i lam e tat i o s

an r r n n n .
’
A penitential prayer for any god

O L or d. , my si s n a y g eat m y t a sg ess i o s
are m n , r a re r n r n .
I kn o w n ot th e s in w h i ch I h ave co m m i tted do I k o th , nor n w e
1 29
t a s g ess i o T h g od h o m I k o h o m I do t k o
r n r n . e w n w , w no n w ,
h at h o pp essed m ; t h g oddess
r h om I k o e h o m I do e w n w , w
no t k o nh at h caused m p a i
w , W h e I sou g h t h el p e n . n , no o n e
too k m by t h h a d W h e I e p t
e e ca m e to m y s i de
n . n w , no o n e .
H ow lo g m y god m y g oddess i ll th y a g e t cease d

n , , , w n r no an
t h y u f i e dly h ea t
n r t fi d est
n 0 L d des pi s r t th y
no n r ? or , e no
slave Cast i to t h ate s o f th m a sh ta k e h i m by t h

. n e w r e r , e
ha d n Tu th
. h i c h I h ave co m m i tted to g ood
rn e Si n d
w an
m ak e th W i d to ca y ff m y t a sg e s i o D i s obe m
e n rr o r n r s n . r e
o f m y m a y t es p asses as o f a g a m e t M y god m y g oddess

n r r n . , ,
t h ou g h m y m be seve t i m es seve fo gi ve m y m F
s s n n, r s s . or
g i ve t h e m d I i ll b do be f o e t h ee Let t h y h ea t
, an w ow w n r . r
co m e to est as t h h ea t o f th m ot h e h bo e m of th
r e r e r w o r e, e
f at h e h be g ot m
r w o e .
”
Recently these penitential psalms have been some

,
w hat ove r r ated because they have been r ega r ded as ,
fully equal to those of the Bible At botto m they .

,
contain nothing m o r e than the lively desi r e to be

f reed f r o m the evil w hich has befallen the one p r ay
i ng That th is evil is b r ought into con n ection w ith
.
a guilt w hich has excited the anger of the god does
sho w a m ove m ent o f the m o ral conscience in co m bi

nation w ith the rel igious feeling of dependence but ,
i t is nev e r actually a matte r o f salvation f ro m the

s i n itsel f but o n ly f r o m its evil consequences ; the r e
.
i s no t ra ce o f mo ral sel f sea r ching o r self j udgm ent - -

,
o f a d e m and fo r inner bette r m ent and pu r ification .
S o it m i g ht be said that these pe n itential p r aye r s d o

not esse n tially go beyo n d the r eal m o f polytheisti c
n atu r e r eligio n -
This j udg m ent i s the m o r e j usti
.
fi e d w h e n w e r ecall h o w closely these p r aye r s a re

r elated to a n d go ove r into the m a i c i a l fo r mul ae
g
o f e xorcis m which play a la r ger part i n the Baby
1 30
T he B a b yl o n i a n R e l igi o n
lonian religion than any w he r e else because they ,
stan d in closest r elation to the ast r ological bel ief i n

fate systematized by the p r iests In all othe r r e
,
.
l ig i on s natu r ally the supe r stitious belief in o m ens

, ,
and magic means i s to be found but only as a pop

,
ular s ub —structu r e of the o ff i cial r eligion w hich f r o m

,
i ts higher standpoint r ej ects such natu r alistic s ur

v i v a l s o f a crude past However the supe r stitious
.
,
belief in soothsaying and magic was an essential

part o f the p r iestly religion itsel f a m o n g the Baby
l on i an s and the main obstacle to its elevation to
,
higher ideals .
The Babylonian p r iests had busied the m selves

ea r ly w ith ast r ological studies but they h a d never
,
achieved such extent of ast r onomical kno w ledge as

i s to be found a m o n g the G r eek natu r al ph ilosophe r s .
Instead of obse r vi ng the move m ents of the heavenl y

bodies i n the inte rest o f pu r e kno w ledge they used ,
thei r obse r vations in o r d e r to make an a rbit r a r y

connection with the fates o f m en and s o they b e .
came the discove re r s of that ast rologic a l pseudo

science the delusion w h ich w eighed hu m anity do w n
,
for s o long a ti m e In their o ffi cial r e po r ts the r e a r e

.
,
capital exa m ples o f the a rbit r a ry fashion i n w hich

the ast r ologe r s made o r acles o ut o f the phe n o m e na
of th e heave n s O nce w e read : Because s un a n d
.
m oon a r e visible at the sa m e ti m e on such a n d such a

day the gods w ill be favo r ably i n cli n ed to the la n d
, .
the people peaceable the a r m y obed ient a nd th e

, .
cattle safe i n thei r pastu re : another time exactly the .
13 1
same position of s un and moon leads to the conclu
sion that a gloo m y period awaits the land a strong ,
enemy w ill destroy i t and th e k ing will be fo r ced

,
into subjection An eclipse o f th e moon on such

.
and such a day of the month portends the death of

an inimical king O n another day i t means an
.
,
i m m inent war ; on a th ird day an inundation ; on a ,
fourth famine ; on a fifth m iscar r iages and the like

, ,
.
The ast r ological calendar determined accu r ately fo r

each day o f the month on the basis o f the position
,
o f the planets w ith r ega r d to one another and to
other stars fo r what action pa r ticula r ly o f the

, ,
k ing i t was favo r able o r unfavo r able It i s ap

, .
pa r ent what a n im m ense po w er the p r iesthood was

able to exe r cise by the supposed kno w ledge of the
decisions of heaven conce r ning ea r thly li fe govern ,
mental a n d p r ivate Was not Paul r ight w hen h e

.
cha r acte r ized heathenism as the slave ry under the “
”
poor and w eak w o r ld ele m ents ? But the other
side of th is spi r itual unf r eedom w a s the false f r ee
dom o f ma g ic which seeks to fo r ce the spi r itual
,
p o w e r s i n to the se r vice o f human discretion by

m eans of exo r cistic fo r mulae .
Pe r haps one may s ay that i t is j ust th is double

supe r stition o n the one side fate determ ined by
,
sign s in heaven and on ea r th o n the other the , ,
w itchc r aft serv ed by m yste r ious po w ers w h ich i s ,
cha racte r isti c o f the w eakness o f natu r e religion -
gene r ally O n th e o ne hand man remains caught

.
,
in slavish f ear of fate s dark decree and on the

'
’
1 32
T h e B a b yl o n i a n R e l igi o n
other hand he thinks that he i s able to elevate h is

,
o w n wi ld cap r i ce an d a r bitra r iness to be m ist r ess
over the wo r ld N o w bold n o w hu m ble h i s hea r t i s

.
, ,
never at rest as it can only be i n the f r ee su rr ender

,
to the divi ne will of the good M an had to tear .
h imself loose f r om the bonds of natu r e and magi c ;

he had to lea r n that the revelation o f G od w a s to be
sought not only outside o f himself i n natu r e but ,
also and especially within h imself In thy b r east “
are the sta r s o f thy fate When man began to.
turn h is gaze inwa r d he found in the voice of hi s

, ,
o w n conscience i n the feeli n g o f h is o w n hea r t for

,
a noble hu m an ideal that r evelation o f G o d w hich

,
i s more than a me r e natu r e po w e r w hich i s the holy ,
will o f the goo d and which w ill elevate m a n th r ough

obedience to the f r eedo m o f the individual spi r it .
The re w ith we stand befo r e the decisive tu r n i n the

,
h isto ry of religion the tu r n f r o m natu r e to spi r it

, .
Thi s change howeve r could only be b r ought about

, ,
every w he r e by single enlightened spi r its w h o felt

the god in thei r o w n b r east st r o nge r and r eco gn i zed
i t m o r e clea r ly than the masses about them They .
were the see r s th r ough whose seeing and the ,
p r ophets and the w ise men th r ough w hose teach

ings the n e w be g i nnings of a h igher ethical stage
,
o f development of religion w ent fo r th F r om this .
ti m e on our discussion w ill deal w ith these p r0 p h eti c

,
o r h isto r ical r eligions and w e wi ll begi n with that

,
o f Zarath ust r a .
I 33
T H E RELIG I O N OF Z ARA T H U S T RA AN D T H E
M IT H RA C U L T
A s I N the cases of other r el i gi ous heroes the l ife ,
o f Za r athust r a i s richly e m bellished by legends .
Befo r e h i s bi r th the futu r e g reatness of her s on was

revealed to h is m other i n d r eams Im m ediately .
afte r h i s bi rth i t i s said he laughed—cha r acte r isti c

, ,
o f h i s later cou r ageous opti m is m A s a child i h .

,
i m i ca l spi r its sought to t r ap h i m but in vain As , .
a youth he w ithd r e w f r om the w o r ld and in h is

, ,
th i r tieth yea r o n a sol ita r y mountain he had hi s

, ,
fi r st vision : h e felt hi m self elevated to a place b e

fo r e the th r on e o f God and f r o m G od h imsel f
hea r d the r evelation of the t r ue r eligion and the call
to be p rophet o f the t r ue God Soon thereafter a .
,
d e m on sought to kill h im but a word o f the p r ophet

,
fo r ced h i m to r eti r e po w e r less Then the h ighest .
of the devils Ah r i m a n app r oached h im w ith te m pt

, ,
ing i n sinuatio n s : F o r s w ea r the good l a w o f God

and by my g r ace I w ill elevate thee to the kingly
, ,
po w e r . But Za rathust r a ans w e r ed : N o I w ill “

,
not fo r s w ea r the l aw of God though my body life

, ,
”
and s pi rit disinteg r ate .
I 34
T h e R e l igi o n o f Z a ra t h us tr a
O n the basi s of the simila r ities be t w ee n these

legends and those told of other he roes the concl u ,
sion has been d r a w n that Za r athust r a w a s not a h i s

to r i ca l pe r son but a mythical figu r e But unce r .
,
tain as the t r aditions a r e — co n ce r ning the pe r iod

,
o f h is appea r ance the suppositions va ry f r om the

,
fourteenth to the seventh centu ry B C — the r e can . .
be scarcely any doubt that Za r athust r a w a s a cha r

acter of hi sto ry In the Cathas the oldest po rtion
.
,
o f the Avesta , the sac r ed w r itings o f the Pe r sians ,
h is pe r son and those about h i m appea r i n clear out

l ines He w a s a p r iest of the r ace of S p i tam and
.
,
stood i n close con n ection with the cou r t of King

V i s ta s p a ; the latter and h i s w i fe and h i s h ighest
o ffice r s w e r e a m o n g the ea r l iest follo w e r s of Zara
th us tr a. O ne of the latter beca m e h i s fathe r i n -
l a w ; we lea r n of his so n s and daughte r s and a w ed ,
d ing song w hich he co m posed fo r the w eddi n g

feast of one of h i s daughte r s i s extant Besides .
these single featu r es the hy m n s o f the Cathas fur

,
nish us w ith a detailed pictu r e o f the civilization o f

the people and conte m po r a r ies of Za r athust r a The .
Indo Germ a n ic t r ibes w h ich l ived in E ast I ran or

-
Bact r ia bet w een the H indu Kush Mou n tains and

,
-
th e Caspi a n Sea w e re at that ti m e m ainly settl e d

, , .
fa r me r s a n d cattle r aise r s ; by dint of ha r d w o r k

-
,
they won thei r nou r ish m ent f rom the r ough soil
and the ra w cli m ate Th ey w e r e eve r in fea r of th e
.
marauding expeditions of thei r nomad ic neighbo r s ,
expeditions wh ich often bu r st in upon the pe aceful

1 35
settle m ent o f these p easants killing the men the, ,
w o m en a n d the child r en and d r agging o ff the cattle
as booty .
Thus we get a gli m pse of a civilization that

i s j ust beginni ng o n e wh ich must defend itsel f
,
agai n st su rr ounding ba rba r ia n s and m aintain its

exi stence w ith di fficulty Under the leade r ship o f
.
”
thei r lyi n g p r iests a n d unde r the p r otection of
“
,
thei r lying gods the Daev as as they a re called

,
”
,
in the Cathas these r obber ho r des unde r took thei r

,
ca m paigns These Dze v as a re the same bei n gs

.
k n o w n to us f r o m the oldest songs of the I ndian

Veda : they a r e pe r sonified natu re po w e r s a m ong -
w ho m the de m on o f intoxication So m a and Indra , ,
that r uffian w ho i s nea r ly al w ays d r unk that pat ron ,
o f th e knights of th e road played the p r incipal r o le

,
—pu r ely n atu ralisti c gods enti r ely unethical beings

, ,
co m pa r able to the Baal i m o f Ca n aan Under the .
p r otection o f such gods the no m adic ho rdes unde r

,
took thei r plunde r i ng expedi tio n s agai n st the peace

ful settle m e n ts o f the peasa n ts of I r an i n w hose
m idst Za r athust r a lived Eve r louder rose the
.
c r ies o f th e opp r essed for help c r i es for a p r otector

,
o n ea r th and i n heaven The ea r thly p rotector

.
ap pe a r ed in the pe r son o f King V i s ta sp a who ,
at th is ti m e p r obably established h is kingly rule

th r ough h i s p r otection o f the peaceful peasants
against the r obbe r bands The p r iest Zarathust r a
.
allied h imself to the king for the opp r ession of h is

,
peop l e struck at his hea r t and his keen eye saw the
1 36
T h e R e l igi o n o f Z ara t h us tr a
m ighty co n t r ast between those im m o ral lying gods ,
of the robbe r s and the t r ue God the sou r ce o f the ,
”
best o r de r the protecto r of r ight and peace a m ong
,
a people i n whose na m e alo n e victo r y i s to be w on

,
and pe rm anent o r der established In the Cathas .

,
the r e i s p r ese r ved fo r us a m ost vivid desc r iption o f

the call of Za r ath ust r a : h ow the cry o f the o p
p r essed peasants pie r ces the heavens ; h o w the
cel ecti a l hosts o f spi r its take counsel at the throne
o f the h ighest god Ahu r a as to who m the mi s , ,
sion of savi ng the people shall be confided ; h ow

Ahu r a then ch ooses Za r athust r a and the latter a c
cep ts the call p r aying that Ahu r a send h i m the good
,
spi r it and give h i m the po w er for the fulfill m e n t o f

h is mission Well he feels his o w n w eakness as
.
agai n st the m agn itude of h is task and w ell h e ,
k n o w s the pain w hich the Opposition o f m en wi ll

b r ing to h im but i n confide n ce and obedience h e
,
bo w s in sub m ission to the d ivi n e w ill

T h at t h ou t h oly O all i se R ule I h ave see h e
ar ,
-
w r, n w n
th e best o f s pi i ts ca m e to m he by t h y o ds I fi s t
r e, w n w r r
w as tau gh t W h oeve gi ves h i m sel f to t h ee i ll su ff e so o

. r w r rr w
at th h a ds o f m but h ateve t h ou sayest i s best t h at

e n en, w r ,
sh all b do e I k o h y i t g oes i ll W i t h m d I m ak e m y
e n . n w w e an
co m pla i t to t h ee L oo k t h ou i to i t 0 L d d gi ve m
n . n , or , an e
j oy such a f i e d o ffe s to a f i e d
, as r n r r n .
And then he goe s and p r eaches to the people the

God who had revealed hi m sel f to h im as the only
t r ue one the holy w ill o f the good ; o f each o ne
, .
he demands a decision bet w een a faith in h is G od ,
1 37
R e l igi o n an d Hi s to r i c Fa i t h s
who alone i s salvation and those lying gods which
,
lead to dest r uction That w as a situation exactly

.
like the one w e know in biblical histo ry when the

.
P rophet Elij ah in the name of Jehovah r ises up

, ,
against the p r iests o f Baal and demands of the peo

ple that they choose bet w een God and the Baalim ,
a n d no longer face both ways He r e as the r e i t .

, ,
w a s a m atte r o f the st r uggle bet w een the natu r alisti c
and the mo r al idea o f God hence a matter o f pe r ,
sonal decision of each individual bet w een the t r ue

and the false faith The r e w ith the faith i s no longer
.
a si m ple t r aditional possession and custom o f the

,
people to w hich each o n e whether he w ill o r no

, , ,
m ust su r rende r si m ply because o f h i s attachment to

the t r ibal g r oup ; here ho w eve r faith beco m es the
, ,
pe r sonal conviction o f the individual who mus t ,
choose bet w een the natu r e gods the pat rons o f -

,
a rbit ra r y an d c r ude po w e r and the t r ue God the

, ,
Lo r d of o r der and r ighteous n ess Such a choice .
is a decision o f the w ill a f r ee d ise n tangle m ent f ro m

,
the evil po w e r s and a sole m n p r o m ise to the good

spi r it a con fe s sio n of attach m e n t to h is bei n g and
,
h is w ill a d ec ision to ente r h i s se r vice and co o pe r ate

,
in the w o r k fo r h i s good cause .
The r el igion o f Za r athust r a gave fi r st expression

to its faith in sole m n fo r m ulm o f confession and ,
these at least in sense i f not l ite r ally m ay be traced

, ,
back to Za r athust r a h i m sel f : I speak m ysel f free “
f r om the evi l spi r it and confess m ysel f to be one of

”
the Mazda faith ful -
The w ill of the Lo rd i s th e
.
1 38
la w of righteousness the re w ard of heaven i s to be

,
hoped for for those w o r ks pe r fo rm ed in the wo r ld

fo r Mazda ; Ahu r a holds him right w h o suppo r ts
l
the Righteousness i s the best possession ;
”
blessed the man w hose r ighteousness i s pe r fect A .
union of the natu r alistic and the mo r al the tw o r e ,
l i g i ous view points ca n never be b r ought about ; b e

-
,
t w een these tw o opposing p r i n ciples the r e can o n ly ,
be pe r petual st r uggle ; the r esolution of the oppo

s i ti o n can o n ly lie in the hoped — fo r fi n al victo r y o f
the good p r i n ciple ove r the bad Thus as in the .
,
case o f Elij ah the p rophet Za rathust r a i s full of

,
the liveliest sense of st r uggle : Hea rke n not to th e

lyi n g p r iests ; h e w the m down with s w ords and
”
utte r ly exte rm inate them .
I think that that i s the o r igin o f the sto ry of Za r a

th us tr a
. It w as the need of h is o w n people st r ug
gli n g at the ve r y beginning of thei r civi c custo m s
against ho r des o f ba rba r ians w h ich b r ought about
in the soul o f o n e p r iest the kno w ledge of a deep
d i ffe r ence bet w een the c r ude natu r e gods a nd th e -
g o d of a mo r al w o r ld o r der Thus Za rathust r a b e

-
.
cam e the p r ophet o f Ahura Mazda that is the all , ,
”
w ise Lo rd , the one c r eator and p r ese r ver o f a l l
good and o f all possession s in the natu ra l a n d the
mo ral worlds ; the god w h o i s f ree f rom all a rbitra r y
notio n s and w hose nature consists in leadi ng th e
reasonable pu r pose o f l i fe the goo d to its victo ry
, ,
.
A s the fi r st o n e p rays Za rathust ra I have

“ “
, ,
r ecogn i zed thee as the sublime in m y spi r it as th e

, ,
1 39
R e l igi o n an d ,
H i s tor i c Fa i t h s
f ather the goo d S pi ri t the true c r eator of the
of ,
”
good the r ule r of the wo r ld and of all action
, .
And Ahu r a ans w ers h im : G uardian am I and

c r eator p r ese rver am I and all kno w ing and I am
,
-
,
the holiest spirit— these are my names .

”
A p r actical monotheism i s he r e attained on e ,
which i s not lo w ered by the fact that hosts o f h ighe r

and lo w er spi r its su rr ound the th r one of th is god ,
w h o like the biblical angels are se r vants o f his w ill

, , .
F ore m ost a m ong these a re the s i x A m es ch a Spenta ,
that i s immortal helpe r s ; on the o ne S ide these a r e

, ,
pe r sonified religious conceptions such as the best ,
” ” ”
order the good thought
,
“
the desired j ustice ,
“
,
”
“
the perfect wisdom the immortal ity at th e
,
“
,
sa m e ti m e they are the genies and patrons o f ea r thly

,
th ings such as ea r th metals cattle and plants In

, , , .
the second ci r cle about Ahura come the Y a z ata s ,
that is the vene r ables ; among them w e fin d the

various o l d popula r gods : th e geni us o f fi re as the ,
speediest o f the sons of G od then M ith r a the o l d , ,
Indo Ge r m an ic god o f l ight who now beca m e th e

-
mediato r bet w een God and man the leader o f souls ,
a n d the j udge i n the w o r ld beyond ; th is latte r a ttr i
bute belongs also to S r a os ch a the ge n ius o f obedi ,
ence Beside these i n th e late r p r iestly system w hich

.
,
a r ranged th is celestial h ie r a r chy altogethe r seve r al ,
spi r its of hi sto r ical he r oes and saints pa r ticula r ly ,
Zarathustra we r e ad m itted F inally a third ci r cle

, .
,
the F rav a s ch i s ; in reality thi s i s the ci r cle of the

souls o f men in gene r al then m e particula r ly the, ,
or
,
14 0
T h e R e l igi o n o f Z a r a t h ustra
protective spi rits of the p ious forming the active ,
army of Ahu r a in his g r eat wo r ld st r uggle A l -

.
though Ahura i s holy omniscient and omnip r esent

, ,
he i s not omnipotent because his power is he m m ed

”
by the inimical spi r it A ng r om a i ny u ( Ah r iman ) .
This Persian devi l i s the spi r i t o f darkness and of

death j ust as Ahu r a Mazda i s that o f light and of
,
l i fe He is called the fool ish and the bli n d w h o acts

.
fi rst and thinks after w ard i n othe r w o r ds he whose

, ,
actions origi n ate i n chance and lack r eason He is .
the personification o f everyth ing i r r ational inj udiei ,
o us,
dest r uctive o f all the evils in natu r e and th e
,
wickedness i n hu m anity He is no c r eature of .
Ahura but he i s not as ete r nal ; he i s not an inde

,
pendent c r eato r but only a destroyer of the go od

,
c r eation of Ahu r a He i s the cause o f all actual

.
,
p resent evi l in the wo r ld but the question w he r ein

,
the cause of him is to be found re m ains unans w e red ,
j ust a s in the case o f the bibl ical devil .
O ne may call th is a d ual istic wo r ld vie w in s o -

,
far a s th e actual w o r ld i s d ivided bet w een the gov

e r n m en t of a good god and o f h is w icked counte r
part but th is dual is m i s n o t absolute fo r as thi s

, ,
evil S pi r i t w as n o t fro m the begi n ning s o he w ill n o t ,
re m ain to ete r n ity The solution of the g r eat w o r ld

.
riddle H o w i s the evil in god s c r eatio n to be

,
’
explained ? i s not sought in theo r etical speculation ,
but rather i s found i n a religi ous teleological con -
cep ti on o f the events in the wo r ld s h isto r y E vi l ’

.
an d S i n a re here they must be reckoned w ith in the

,
14 1
actual wo r ld but they ought not to remain here
, ,
they ought to be st r uggled against unceasingly and ,
they w ill not remain he r e for the great w o r ld strug -
g le w ill one day end w ith the absolute victory of the

g oo d and the utte r rout of the bad The dualis m .
of these two opposing p r inciples holds o n ly o f the

p r esent w o r ld of time but i t had not yet been i n
,
that p rehisto r ical wo r ld o f pu r e spi r its and at the ,
end of the w o r ld pe r iod o f S ix thousa n d yea r s filled ,
w ith that st r uggle w hose central and tu r ning point
i s the r evelation o f Za r athust r a i t w ill not be ,

As .
h i s w o r d o f t r uth i s n o w the victorious weapon of

the champion of God against the powers of false
hood and o f death s o th r ee thousand years a fter
,
h i m the m i r a c ulously bo r n savio r S a os li y a nt o f h is

-
, ,
seed w ill appea r so m e w h a t like h i s retu r n ing alte r

,
ego a n d w aken al l the dead to li fe Then w ill the .
i m m e n se w o r ld —fi r e m elt all the ele m ents and in that ,
he a t w ill all the pious pai n lessly be pu r ified the ,
w i c ked pu n ished by th r ee days of tortu r e but not ,
dest r oyed fo r they too e m e rge f ro m the fi re purified

, ,
w hi le Ah r i m an and h i s de m ons alone w ill i n one ,
last decisiv e st r uggle w i th the heave n ly hosts su ffe r ,
defe a t and be fo r eve r exte rm inated In th is new .
w o r ld , then begins an e n dless blissful l i fe of pu r i

, ,
fie d c r eatu r es u n de r the sole rulership of the good

god Ahu r a Mazda
, .
T r ue thi s desc r iption of the end of all things

,
occu r s in a late r w r ite r the B un deh es ch but the

, ,
unde r lying thought o f a p r esent wo r ld struggle b e -
1 42
T h e R e l igi o n o f Z a r a t h us tra
tween the two opposing po w e r s and of the final ,
victory o f the good god and hi s host dates back , ,
doubtlessly to Za r athust r a hi m sel f That thought

, .
i s the ke rn el o f h i s r eligion w hich begotten itsel f

, ,
by inner a n d oute r st ruggles and needs recogn izes ,
the struggle i n God s cause as the task o f human

’
living ; at the sa m e ti m e i t i s the gua r antee of the

,
hope o f the victo ry of the cou r ageous cha m pions

who believe in the gove rn m ent o f the good G od .
Not only co n ce r ning the end of all thi n gs i n the

w o r ld
, but also conce rning the fate of i n divi dual
souls i n the w o r ld beyond the rel igion of Za r a
,
th us tr a busied itself w ith meani n gful thoughts Ac .
co r di ng to the t w e n ty seco n d Jasht the soul o f th e

-
,
p ious o ne r e m ains in the neighbo rhood o f the body

fo r th r ee days afte r h i s decease but even du r ing th i s
,
ti m e the r e i s the p r em o n ition o f the co m i n g j oys of

pa ra dise Then the soul a r r ives at T sch i m v a t th e
.
,
celestial b r idge w he r e j ud g m ent i s rende r ed The .
ge n ius of r ighteousness holds the scales i n h i s hand

the good deeds and the bad deeds are placed in the
pans a n d w eighed w ithout r espect to persons I f .
the good deeds weigh heavie r the soul may pass .
over the b r idge A w h i ff o f pa radisai c incense

.
g r eets the soul and a bl oo m ing m aiden ap pe a r s s ay ,
ing : I am thy o w n doings the e m bodi m ent o f thy

,
good thoughts w o r ds and wo rks th y pious faith

, , .
Then acco m panied by M ith r a th e soul ente r s i n to

, ,
the th r eefold pa r adise of good thoughts w o r ds a n d , ,
wor k s and fi nally into A h ura s wo r ld of li ght the

,
’
1 43
world o f the good spirits The souls o f the god.
less o n the othe r hand are d r agged by the demon o f

, ,
death into the th r eefold hell and finally into the

gloomy abode o f Ahri m an .
The r e i s n o doubt that here older notions of I nd o

Ge rm anic ani m is m a re unde r lyi ng but in the religion,
of Za r athust r a they have been wo rked over i n the

,
sense o f thei r m o ral funda m ental thought that each ,
i n dividual is r esponsible not only for the righteous

ness of h i s o w n action but also for the truthfulness
,
of h i s speech and for the pu r ity o f h is thought .
Lo oking for a m oment at the eth ics o f the re

l i g i o n o f Za r a thust r a w e m ust distinguish bet w een
,
the o r iginal sound p r i n ciples and the later mutila

tions th rough the m ass o f petty Observances A s .
w a s said befo r e Za rathust r a recogni zed that the

,
task o f m a n consisted in an active alliance with the

good God in o r de r to aid the cause o f the good and
to fight against all the dest r uctive powers o f evil .
I n as m uch as all healthy living g ro w ing and flour ,
i s h i n g in the w o r ld of natu r e and of man belongs

, ,
to the r eal m o f Ahu r a and se r ves hi s cause it i s ,
th e duty of the pious n o t to hem l i fe by ascetic p r ae
tice but to aid it by indust r ious e m ploy m ent o f every

,
po w e r in the w o rk of civili zation The work o f .
raising c a ttle a n d of tilling the soi l w as l ooked upon

as pa r ticul a r ly dese r vi ng r eligious perfo rmance ;
Who so w s co r n so w s hol i n ess for the fruitful
, ,
”
ea rth belongs to Ahu r a a n d the ba r ren earth to th e

demons So too a healthy family life i n w h ic h
.
, ,
144
T h e R e l igi o n o f Z a ra t h us tra
many children a re bo r n and brought up to be tho r

ough men and w o m en was a r eligious obligation ;
,
i llegi ti m ate p r actices w e r e f ro w ned upon and un

natu r al enj oyments we r e sins unfo rgivable t r uly ,
the w o r k o f the devil Alongside of pu r ity o f body

.
and of soul o f tempe r ance and indust r y which make

, ,
pe r sonal li fe sound and tho r ough the social virtues ,
most highly p r aised w e r e t r uth fulness fidel ity and , ,
r ighteousness ,
b en efi cen ce and benevolence The .
p r incipal blasphemies w hich w ere condemned we r e

lying and cheating violation o f oaths cont r action
, ,
o f debts ( because i t could never pass o ff w ithout
lying ) g r eed and ha r d hea r tedness T r uth fulness

,
-
.
a n d fidelity w e r e the tw o qual ities of those Pe r sia n
believe r s i n the Za r athust r a faith which st r uck the

G r eeks as especially p r aise w o r thy Ho w ever thi s .
,
sound ethics w as badly defo r m ed by the ritualistic

l a w code of the p r iests as w e kno w i t i n the Vendi
”
dad the p r iests la w s of the Avesta w h ich bea r s
,
’
the sa m e r elation to the a n cient Cathas that the

p r iestly law in the books of Moses does to th e
p rophets and the psal m s .
Me r ely as an exa m ple I w ill cite some o f th is

,
senseless casuist r y In o rde r that no n e o f the

.
sacred eleme n ts be d efi led th e bu r ial o r the bu r n

,
ing of the dead w as av o ided he n ce the co rps e s w e re

,
ex po sed o n h ills o r to w e r s to be eaten up b y w i ld

an i m als o r bi r d s : this h o r r ible p r a ctice w a s p rob
ably taken over f r o m the Scythi a ns The r itual .
nonsense was mainly elabo r ated by the medi um

14 5
R e l igi o n an d H i sto r i c Fa i t h s
p ri ests the
, magi .There were endless in j une
-
tions as to h ow one must act i n case he or s h e

involunta r i ly became unclean by physical functions
o r conditions o r by contact with an unclean thing
, ,
pa r ticula r ly a dead body ; for eve r y such d efile

ment even o f the most ha r mless kind the r e was a
, ,
ce r emonial process o f pu r i fi cation and atonement ,
w he r eto i t w as necessary to call the p r iests and they
—this being the heart of the matter— we r e to be

w ell paid ; in case o f the refusal of such atonement
a ce r tain number of lashes were substituted and the

numbe r o f these for each o f the di ffe r ent m i s de
m ea n o r s can only be understood as the spa w ning o f
so m e mad p r iestly fantasy E nough of these sign s
.
o f a s a d degene r ation wh ich that o r iginally pure
and sound religion and ethics o f Z arathust r a s uf

fer ed at the hands o f th e O r iental priest schools -
.
I w ill not detai l th e varying fortunes of the

r eligion o f Zarathust r a f r om the time when i t
beca m e the state religion of the Pe r sian realm and
unde r w ent all i ts pol itical changes to the day when ,
i t succu m bed to the assault of Moham m edani sm .
Yet I w ould call your attention to the M ith r a cult ,
w hich g r e w out o f the Pe r sian r eligion and played
a n i m po rta n t r o le as the r ival o f Ch r istianity i n the
fi r st centu ry of our e ra i n the Roman Empi r e As

,
.
far back as the Avesta M ithra the ol d Indo G er

, ,
-
m ani c god o f light was on e of the semi divin e

,
-
Y a z a ta s . He is even called the strongest of them ,
the one whom Ahu r a makes e q ually great as h i m

146
self the one who i s s et up as the preserver o f

’
the whole world With the sp r ead o f the Pe r sian

.
realm to Babylon and also later to h ither Asia , , ,
there arose a m ixture o f religion made up o f old

I r anian beliefs Babylonian myths Sy r ian ob s er
, ,
vances and finally even Hellenisti c speculation ; all

, ,
o f these taken together were the ele m ents o f the
M ithra religion It w as kn ow n to the Romans as

.
early as the days o f Pompey i n Cilici a and i n th e ,
centuri es that follo w ed i t S p r ead over the whole ,
Roman E m pi r e w ith Ro m e as its main seat

, .
The ke r nel of the faith and fo r ms o f worsh ip

was M ithra as the m ediator between h eaven
an d earth Legend tells o f h i s birth out o f a rock
.
an d of the adoration of the S hepherds i n the presen ce

o f the young s un hero Thi s semi i d entifi cati on w ith
-
.
-
the sun god i s indicated by the legend wh ich makes

-
him the vi ctor in a struggle with the s un god w h e r e -

,
upon conqueror and conquered enter into a fi r m alli

ance B est k nown i s the legend o f M ithra s sac r i fice
.
’
o f the myth ical bull visual ized on countless religious

,
reliefs ; out o f the body o f the bull went forth all

herbs and plants especially th e corn for b r ead and
,
w ine —a cosmogoni c myth o f greatest antiquity It .
i s further na r rated that du r ing a drought M ith r a , ,
burst a rock by th e shooting o f an ar r o w and a foun ,
tain of water gushed from the fissu r e a m i r acle si m i ,
lar to that told of Moses in the desert Afte r a last .

'
meal wh ich h e celeb r ates in the co m pany o f Helios

, ,
the sun — god and his other comrades o f battle the

, ,
147
l egend makes the hero ascend i n a fiery chariot to
heaven w here he now d w ells w ith the gods
,
.
Thus M ith ra i s the d ivine messenger and med i

,
ator sp r ung f r om the deity w h o pa r ticipated in th e

,
fo r mation of the world and w h o constantly p r e

serves the wo r ld orde r by hi s co m bat w ith its ene
-
m ies ; h e is the divine prototype an d th e powerful

assistant o f battling hu m anity the p r otector of the,
good he r e and thei r r e w a r der beyond H e aecom .
p a n i es the souls o f h is faithful se r vants upon thei r
dangerous j ourney through the seven heavenly

spaces whose gates open only for those of the sancti
fi ed who kno w the sacred names and for m ulas .
( Th is will r em ind you o f the B abylonian myth o f

Is ta r s j ourney to hell and the E gyptian myth o f
’
the soul s j ou r ney with Ra th r ough the nethe r

’
world ) I n each o f these heaven ly spheres the

.
,
soul lays aside that portion o f its being w hich i t

had received from that pa r ticular planeta ry spi rit ;
fi nally freed f r om all remnants o f the ea r th th e
, ,
pure soul arrives i n the eighth heaven whe r e it i s

w elcomed by the blessed S pi rits as a son who has
retu r ned to hi s father s ho m e after a long j ourney

’
.
At the end o f the wo r ld ho w ever M ith r a ( he r e

, ,
taking the place o f the I r anian S aos ch y ant) will

co m e do w n again and r esur r ect men ; then will he
hol d the gene r al j udgment then w ill the sac r ifice o f
,
the pr imeval bull be repeated ; and of its fat m ixed ,
w ith wine he w ill p r epa r e th e m i r aculous d r aught

,
w h ic h shall give immortal l i fe to th e resurrected

148
T h e R e l igi o n o f Z arathustra
upon the new earth The congregation of th e

.
M ithra faithful had a complete organi zation ; into

-
seven grades o f sancti ty they were divided and

, ,
” ”
these we r e named raven “
gri ffi n , soldier
“
,
“
,
” ” ” ”
“
l ion
,
Persian ,
sun runner -
father The,
“
.
three lowest grades were novices ; thei r position was

on e o f service without the privilege o f participation
in the sacraments which privilege belonged only to

,
the upper grades o f the lions At the head stood .
the fathers and head among them the father o f

, ,
fathers he was the grand master of all the sancti

fied and to h im they all owed respect Among them
,
.
selves the comrades o f the congregation used th e

”
title brother . Acceptance i nto the congre g ati o n
and entrance into the h igher grades were marked by
v arious acts o f sanctifi cation called sacraments “
.
Among these was immersion which ( according to ,
the statement o f Te r tullian the church father ) re p

,
resented a picture of the resurrection there was

also con fi rmation by mar k ing the forehead of the
believer with a mar k ( it i s uncertain whet h er th i s
was anointment or branding ) ; there was also a
s a ncti fi ca ti o n o f hands and tongue by honey ; fi nally ,
the communion of the sacramental meal at wh ich

b r ead and a cup ( uncertain whether fi lled w ith
water o r w ine ) was p r esented and sancti fi ed by the
p r iest through a recital of sacred formul ae Th i s .
holy meal was on e pa r tially commemorating th e

last meal o f M ith r a befo r e h is j ourney to heaven ,
and p artially a means of assuming divine p owers and

1 49
a guarantee of ete rnal li fe In one M ith r a litu r gy
, .
extant the p r ocess o f s anctificatio n w hich b r ings the

,
believe r into co m m u n ity w ith the g od i s r ep r esented

as a sy m bolic mystic dying and re— -
bi r th by w h ich
l i fe i s i m pa r ted a n d salvation co m pleted ; the sa n cti ’
fi ed c alled the m selves rebo r n fo r ete r n ity ( r e ma i ns

“
i n d tcr i m m )
’
Besides w hich the ad m i n ist r ation
.
,
o f the sac r a m e n ts w as acco m panied o r int r oduced
by castigatio n s a n d d r a m ati c scenes o f te rr o r w hich

sy m bolized the st r uggle w ith the da r k po w e r s o f
death w he r eby the cou r age o f the candidate was
,
tested .
The acts of wo r sh ip w e r e the p r iests concern and ’
the p r iests w e r e chosen f r o m the fathe r s The “
fathe r o f fathe r s w a s also the high p r iest and

exe r cised a supe r vision ove r a l l the co m r ades o f the
cult i n a city ; the r e does not see m to have been
a n y u n i fo r m ch u r ch o r ganization taking i n all the
co n g r egations The r egula r se r vice of the p r iests

.
co n sisted in a daily p r aye r th r ice r epeated to the, ,
s un con n ected w ith va r ious sac r ifices a n d o ffe r ings

,
as w ell a s the singing o f hymns w ith m usical a c

co m p a n i m e n t The r e w a s a special se r vice eve r y
.
w eek w h ich took place o n Su n d ay

, the day o f th e ,
s un god
-
The p r i n cip a l festival of the yea r w a s
.
that of the r e n asce n ce o f the unco n quered s un “
god ( the w int e r solstice f r o m w h ich th e s un that ,
i s the day g r o w s agai n ) th is day w a s celeb r ated i n

, ,
eve r y cong r egatio n as a sac r ed festival of j oy .
The att r activeness of the M ith ra cult i s easy to

1 50
T h e R e l igi o n of Z a r a t h us tra
understa nd The co m mu n ity o f b r othe r s gave to

.
each one mo r al suppo r t and st re n gthened h is cou r

age i n the st r uggle for exi ste n ce for di d they not ,
feel themselves all to be co m r ades of the a r m y o f

that god w h o stands for an d aids h i s b r ave cha m
pions and g ua r antees bl issful l i fe i n the w o r ld b e
yond th r ough the m yste r ious r ites ? The mixtu r e
,
o f natu r e m yths with ethical

-
ideas and m ystic a l
rites was of a piece with the pe r iod of sync r etism
and of mysteries ; the manly m a r tial cha r acte r th e ,
he r itage f r om thei r I r anian o r igin ap pe aled espe ,
c i a l ly to the Ro m an legio n s Even the favo r o f

.
the E mpe r o r sensi n g a suppo r t of the Cze s a r cul t

,
the r ein w a s not m issing But th i s ve r y a cco m m o

, .
dation to the m anne r o f th inking and the needs of ,
heathen peoples and thei r r ule r w a s the w eak n ess,
o f th is r eligious mixtu r e a s agai n st Ch r istianity

, ,
w h ich held its m o r al monothei s m pu r e of al l co n
cessions to heathen natu r alism and polytheism : not

a myth ical s un he r o but a divine hu m an ideal figu r e
-
,
-
as savio r w as w o r shipped by Ch r istianity a n d i t ,
opened the po r tals of salvation not only to men .
but to all w ithout di sti n ction even to w o m en and

, ,
ch ild r en Thi s di ffe re n ce alone su fficed to m ake i t

.
appear necessa ry that Ch r istianity S hould w i n th e

victo r y over the Mith r a r el igion w h ich w a s i ts r iv a l
th r ough th ree centu r ies ; fo r h o w could a ny r el igion
which excluded the wo m en eve r have co n que r ed the
wo r ld ?
I will not enter into a close r compa r ison of the
15 1
tw o religions In som details the pa r allel must
. e
have been appa r ent to you It is still a question i n

.
dispute a m ong scholars as to h ow fa r the histo r ical

connections and dependence on the o ne S ide or the
other i s revealed by them and w e S hall do best i f
, ,
w e withhold our j udgm ent for the present Who .
ever desi r es g r eater fa m ilia r ity with detai ls I r efe r ,
to Cum on ts s excellent p r esentation upo n w hich

’
this brief S ketch of the M ithra religion i s based .
1 52
B RA H M AN I S M AND G A U T A M A B UD DH A
T H E I ndians were the closest race — relatives of the

Iranians about whom I spo ke i n the last lectu r e ;
thei r religious development however w a s o f an en
, ,
ti r el y di fferent character . In the beginning du r ing

,
the w ande r ing of the con q ue r ing r aces i n to th e valley

of the Indus the I ndians also w e r e a people loving
,
battle and action loving the world and its pleasu res
, ,
whereof the old songs o f the R ig Veda give clear

-
testimony All thi s changed after they had settled

.
i n the exube r ant hot valley o f the Ganges The .
climate was ene r vating and pa r alyzing in its e ff ect .
O ver th is people w h o once r ej oiced in action the r e

, ,
came a wea r iness an incl ination to rest a n d con

,
tem p l a ti o n to d r ea m ing and b r ooding

, . There w a s
added to th is the inc r easing st r ictness o f the sepa r a
tion of classes into closed castes : the w a r r io r caste
f rom w h ich e m e r ged the s m all ge n e rations o f r ule r s
w h o exe r ted a despotic s w ay : the p r iest caste w h o
i n c r easingly m o n opoli zed the publ ic se r vice o f God ,
d eveloping a co m pl icated and peda n tic r itual o f s a c

r i fi ci a l ce r e m o n ies a n d p r aye r fo r mul ae and by co m
,
bination with the r ul ing nobles exe rted a pa ralyzing

,
1 53
p r essu r e upon the S piritual l i fe o f the people In .
the li fe of the Indian people the r e we r e lacking g r eat

,
co m mon pu r poses a n d higher ideals w hich w ould

have lent a valuable content and powe r ful motives
to thei r acts The r esult of that is al w ays a ten
.
d e n ey to l i fe su r fei t to w o r ld w ea r iness and to p es

-
,
-
s i m i s ti c and n ihilistic j udgment of the wo r ld .
Thus it was w ith th e Indians In many ci r cles .

,
not alone a m ong the p r iests but even in the wa r rio r

caste the r e was much brooding ove r the t r uth in
,
th e popula r beli ef i n G od The question was asked :

.
A r e not these many g od s after all only various , ,
na m es for the divine w h ich i s on e ? To the ques

tion what this one migh t be the philosophe r s a n ,
s w e r e d : We find it in ou r selves w hen we di s r ega r d

,
anything w h ich i s especially pe r sonal Opinion and

w i sh and regard only that being which is universally
,
ho m ogeneous unchangeable and spi r itual Th is

, .
At m an o ur inne r m ost sel f i s one with the sel f of

, ,
the w o rld the w o r ld spi r it But the priests said the

,
-
.
h ighest in the wo rl d can only be B r ah m a for ( a c ,
co r di n g to an ol d Indo Ge r man ic notion ) p r ayer

-
and sac r ifice have the po w e r to m ove even the gods

as w ell as to hold heaven and earth together Then .
both pa rties ag r eed that the power o f p r aye r and

t he w o r ld soul the B rah m a and the Atman we r e
-
, ,
finally o n e a n d the sa m e divi n e o r iginal being .
The p r iests then diffe r entiated bet w een th is i m

pe r sonal B r a h m a a n d the pe r so n al B r ah m a the ,
highest god the pe r so n ification o f p r iestly power

,
1 54
B ra h m a n i s m an d G auta m a B udd h a
and dignity When th e question o f the origin of

.
the world o ut o f thi s divine o r iginal being w as

asked they ans w ered that all particular beings are
,
emanations f r om the o r iginal being and return

again to h im j ust as the spider has its threads go
,
o ut of itself and then d r aws them back into itsel f ,
o r as the sparks fly up out o f the fi r e and fall b ack
into it O the r s ho w ever thought that because the

.
, ,
world spirit was the only t r ue simple and un

-
changeable being the r e could be no real ity to a wo r l d

,
o f the many and the changeable ; such a wo r ld had
merely a seemi n g existence a dream picture wh ich ,

-
the deception of Maya mi r r o r ed to our i gno r ance as

though it were reality That i s the same abst r act
.
monism or pantheism which we fi nd a m ong the

Greek ph ilosophe r s o f the E l eati c school ( X en
op h a n es Parmenides ) ; such speculation naturally
,
could never become popular any w he r e O n the .
other hand the nai ver notion o f the world as an

, ,
e m anation from B rah m a lent itsel f as a connecting

,
l ink w ith the doct r ine of the transmig r ation o f soul s

rooted i n the belief o f the p eople Th is doct r i n e i s
.
connected w ith the ancient and un iversal ani m istic

notion o f the capacity of souls to find n ew em b o d i
ment While the manner o f reinca r nation i s either
.
a rbitrary or acci dental in animistic popula r faiths ,
i n th e B r ahmani c syste m i t i s regulated acco r d ing

,
to the moral law of ret r ibution : eve r y man h a s had a

ce r tain numbe r of l ives before hi s p r esent existence ,
and every thing which he n o w expe r iences either o f ,
I 5S
fortu ne or mi sfo r tune ; i s the fruit of his previous
acts in past existences j ust as h i s present merits o r
,
faults are the seed o ut of whi ch late r the r e wi ll , ,
gro w for h im a better or a worse existence ; for h is

soul wi ll i n the future ente r into a h igher grade of
, ,
living being ( either a more noble caste or a super

h uman being ) or i t will descend to on e of lo w er
grade down to the lowest and vilest o f animals
,
.
Acco r ding to this the whol e o f li fe is spun i n an

,
untearable net of causality the moral l inking o f ,
guilt and fate I nasmuch as this l inking rea ches

.
o ut beyond the p resent l i fe death i tself b r ings n o

,
release ; death leads but from the sorrowful pres

ent existence into a n ew and perhaps still more
so r rowful one Thus arises the q uestion ab out
.
w hich fi nally al l the poetizing and the th inking o f
the world w eary Indian tu r ns : H ow can man tear

-
himsel f loose f r om thi s endless cycle o f births with

i ts endless change o f ever n ew sorr ows ? -
Many sought the solution in ste m asceticism ri p ,
p ing them selves loose fro m all the l i fe of the wo r ld ,
i n a w ithd r a w al to the sol ita r iness of the for

es t he r m it ; by suppression and castigation o f the
body they hoped to ki ll i t and f r ee the S piri t fro m

,
the sensual w o r ld O the r s however thought thi s

.
, ,
an insu fficient means o f salvation beyond wh ich the ,
truly wise man could rise by a kno w ledge o f the

all on e being B rah m a and o f the simple seeming
-
, , ,
the noth ingness o f pa r ticula r existence even o f ,
one s ow n self ; only he w h o has risen to thi s height

’
1 56
B ra h m an i s m an d G autam a B udd h a
ofk no w ledge i s fo r ever released from the cycle o f

world whi r ling
-
.F or him who sea r ching fi nds all
“
beings in his own sel f for him error disappea r s an d

all su ffering i s gone E ven though hi s external
.
l ife does last a little wh ile longer as the potter s ,

’
wheel still rolls on though i t i s no longer driven so ,
”
for him who i s a self conque r or for him who
-
,
has once pierced the deception o f Maya there i s the ,
certainty that after the death of h i s body hi s l ife ,
s p irits can no more go forth to n ew births but h e

”
i s B rahma then and into Brahma is he me r ged
,
.
“
A s st r eams fl o w and disappearing in the ocean
, ,
lose thei r name and form thus saved from name and
,
form the wise man enters into the o n e ete r nal

S pi ri t. That i s the B r ahman salvation achievabl e ,
th rough withdrawal from the w orld and the acquisi

tion o f ph i 105 0p h i c kno w ledge naturally possible
,
only to those few w h o a r e able to ph ilosoph ize .
A mong the I ndi ans who sought salvation du r ing

the sixth centu r y B C w as a young nobleman ( son
. .
o f a prince ? ) of the house o f S aky a s i n K a p i l a v a s tu ;
he w ho thus appea r ed was Ga utama with the s ur ,
name B uddha meaning th e enlightened an d he

, ,
became the founder o f the I ndian r eligio n o f salva

tion Because the story o f h is l i fe i n I ndian t r adition
.
h as such a dense mass o f legends growing about i t ,
recent supposition would have i t that G autama w a s

not a pe r son of h istory but a myth ical s un hero
,
-
( Senart Ke r n ) but that i s an exagge r ated skeptic

,
i sm T h e h istorical character o f G autama i s as

.
I S7
R e l igi o n an d H i stor i c F ai ths
l ittle to be doubted a s t h at o f J esus e ven though ,
naturally in both cases that wh ich i s historical can

, ,
scarcely be di ff erentiated i n d et ai l f rom that whi ch

h as been painted over the original pict ure by pi ous
story telling I wi ll tell you the story o f the l i fe
-
.
o f Gautama as i t ap pe ars i n th e traditional l egenda r y
fo r m and you will be ab le to see f or yourselves h ow

,
much i s h ist o rical and h ow m uch i s S imply legend .
I am going to base i t m ainly on the northe r n B udd

”
h istic biography Lali ta V i s ta r a after th e F rench
,
-
,
t r anslation o f F ouca ux : as early as 6 5 A D thi s . .

,
bo o k had been t r anslated into C hinese and there ,
fore without doubt had b een written before the

, ,
bi r th of Jesus and i n any event before the compila

, ,
tion o f o ur Gospe ls Th is i s to b e n oted because

.
o f the rem arkable points o f contact betwee n the
Buddhistic and the G ospel legends .
The biography o f Gautama begin s be fore h is

bi r th w ith h is heavenly pre existence I t tells h ow -
.
the great m an exi sting in h eaven listened to the

u r gi ng of the gods an d deci ded to bec ome a savi or
o f men ; he would go d own to the world o f earth
and be b o rn o f woman H e chose as hi s mother

.
the pio us " ueen M aya the wi fe o f King S ud dh o

,
dana o f K ap i l av a s tu I t i s further tol d that th is

.
w oman took leave o f her husb and f or a p eri od o f
ti m e and for th e sake o f pi o us practices reti red into

solitude Then i t occurred that while ado r ned
.
,
w ith flowe r s and resting i n a g r otto she dreamed ,
t h at she saw the heavenly B uddha i n th e shape o f

1 58
B rah m ani sm an d G autam a B udd h a
a white elephant enter into her bo dy She told t hi s .
dream to her h usband and he consulted the inter

p r e te r s of dreams concerning i t ; the latter answered
that ei ther a great prince o r a savi or of the worl d
was about to be born Ten months after thi s .
dream the spotless an d unsp otti n g M aya gave bi rth

,
to a son w h o immedi ately after h is bi rth c r ied w ith ,
mighty voice : I am that wh ich i s the most sublim e

and the best i n the world and I will m ake an en d ,
o f all su ffe r ing Then ca m e the h osts o f th e

.
heavenly S pi rits and greeted the n e w born savior ; -
the earth t r embled heavenly lights appeared the

, ,
dea f heard and the blind s a w an d the pangs ceased ,
for those in hell At about the same time the pious

.
,
Asita who dwelt as a herm it i n the H imalayas

, ,
noticed a remarkable S ign in heaven wh i ch denoted ,
that a great k ing had been born as a savior ; he came

down to K ap i l av as tu found the inf ant i n the royal
,
palace an d by the myste r ious S ign reco gn i zed that

,
there had a p peared i n him the great man fro m “
”
heaven Th is seeing h e wept When asked th e
.
, .
reason of h is sorrow h e replied : Thi s on e w ill

,
teach th e l a w wh ich has vi rtue for its beg i nning .
mi ddle and end but I shall not l ive to see h is wo r k

,
”
o f salvation therefore do I weep
, When the b oy .
G autama grew up he put h is teachers to shame by

hi s wonderful kno w ledge ; i n hi s early years he de
voted himself to p ious contemplation O n one occa .
sion at a s pring festival where t h e King was wont

,
to sin k the fir st furrow with a golden p lo w the boy s

’
I 59
nu r se while gazing a t the spectacle forgot about the
, ,
boy and lost h i m f r o m her S ight After a long

,
.
sea r ch h is father found him sitting under a fi g tree

,
w hose shadow remained unmoved from over him
du r ing the enti re day ; round about h im s at the wise

m en wi th whom the boy was discussing spiritual
,
things The father q uestions h im i n surprise and

.
,
Gautama answers My father put aside the ,
plo w ing and seek the higher ( see k higher pos

sessions ) But then the boy d oes return to the city
.
with h i s fathe r accom m odating himself in exte r nals

,
to the customs o f hi s envi ronment he i s inwardly ,
busy wi th the thoughts o f h is future mission of sal

vation O f the fu r ther youth o f G autama only th is
.
i s told : that he took pa r t i n all the j oys o f the

court ; that he was the superior of all his comrades
i n kno w ledge and a r ts and that he w on h is w i fe by
,
a vi cto r y in the games When h is wi fe p resented

.
h i m with a s on he is said to have cried o ut at his

, ,
bi r th : Th is i s a n ew and strong bon d wh ich I shall

”
have to break Even now the r e rested upon h im
.
th e feel i n g o f the vanity o f all th is worldly activity .
The pa r ticular oc casion was sca r cely n ecessary by

w hich acco r ding to the legend his determ ination to
, ,
w i thd r a w f r o m the w orld w a s settled ; the legend

says that while on a pleasure j ourney G autama met
, ,
su ccessively an old and infi r m man a man strick en ,
w i th mo r tal disease a dead man ,and a hermit— at ,
this sight o f hu m anity G autama was overcome by,
the woe o f the w o r ld .
1 60
B ra h m an i s m an d G auta m a B udd h a
With epic breadth and many a pathetic scene the ,
legend goes on to describe hi s execution o f the

great decision o f renunciation Parents and
friends and w i fe labored i n vai n to hold him back ,
but all thei r pleading made no impression I n the .
dead o f night he bade h is sleeping w i fe and ch ild a

,
S i lent farewell Mounted on a horse accompanied

.
,
by only on e servant he left the city secretly S oon

,
.
he sent bac k the horse and the servant and exchanged

h is p r incely garments for a beggar s dress At fi rst ’
.
,
he followed the studies o f two B rahmanic teachers ,
but thei r instruction gave h im no satisfaction After .
tw o years he left them and began an independent

,
l i fe as a penitent ; thereu p on fi ve other penitents ,
j oined with him D uring fi ve years h e lived a li fe of

.
,
strict asceticism an d went s o far i n sel f castigation -
that he was close on to death Then he recogn ized .
that this too was not the right way ; he gave up the
, ,
l i fe o f asceticism he ate and dran k again like other

,
human beings and h is fo r mer comrades and disciples

looked upon him as a renegade and deserted hi m .
Thus he stood enti r ely alone i n the world separated ,
f r om his family f r om h i s teache r s from h is pupils

, , ,
alone and with the burning q uestion i n hi s hea r t

,
How can I become f r ee from the sorrows o f exist

ence ? This condition of a lonesome doubting , ,
seeking and st r uggl ing soul i s vi sualized by the

legend in dramatic scenes o f demonic temptations
M ara the p r ince o f pleasure and of death tries by
, ,
cunning o f every kin d to d ivert the saint f rom h is

16 1
path F i rst he had the f r enzied powers o f the ele
.
,
m ents the stor m w inds and the wate r s the fi r e and

,
-
the r ocks fall do w n upon h im but at the feet of

, ,
Gauta m a thei r w eapons cha n ged into garlands of

,
fl o w e r s . Then the w icked one tried all h is w ea pons

of pleasu r e F i r st he se n t h is voluptuous daughter
.
,
to lead the saint ast r ay by her charms but sha m e , ,
faced l y s h e had to con fess that his vi r tue w as

,
uncon q uerable F inally the greatest tem p tation :

.
,
M ara p r o m ises him the highest ea r thly po w e r and

rule r ship i f in r eturn he gives up h is u n attainable
, ,
spi r itual goal But G auta m a pu s hes h im aside w ith

.
the words Though thou be the lo r d o f pleasure

,
thou a r t not the lord of truth the k nowledge o f ,
w hich I shall attain d espite thee .
Immediately afte r this tem ptation the legend says ,
Gauta m a experienced the decisive hou r of his eu

l i g h ten m ent Un der a fig t r ee lost i n qui et contem
.
,
p l a ti o n,the light of kno w ledge burned w ithin h im .
He recogn ized the four funda m ental t r uths upon

w hich salvation r ests :
( I ) All li fe is su ff ering fo r , ,
i t is a constant desi r e that i s never stilled a seek ,
ing o f w hat n ever can be attained a possession ,
constantly i n fea r of being lost ; The caus e

o f the su ffe r ing does not li e outside of us but ,
w ith in u s in o ur th i r sting fo r pleasure

, for l ife for , ,
po w e r ; Salvation f r o m su ffe r ing consists in th e

supp r ession of this thi r st of the w ill to l ive in self , ,
conquest in the extinction of desi r e N i rvana ;

,
“
and fi nally The w ay to this goal is that holy

,
1 62
B ra h m a n i s m an d G a uta m a B udd h a
path o f eight parts w hose names a re right b el i ev

” ”
ing ,
right dete r min ing the right w ord,
”
the ,
“
” ” ”
right dee d ,
the r ight striving
“
r ight living , ,
”
right r emembe r ing right abstraction we will
,
later s ee what th is means .
Through thi s revelation G autama became th e ,
enlightened the B uddha ; n ow he had the certainty

,
that he had escaped the bl issless cycle of constant

bi rths to sorrowful existence He spent fi fty days .
more on the sac r ed spot w he r e the i llu m ination had

com e to him M uch i n doubt h e weighed care
.
,
fully whether h e S hould hold the saving t r uth fo r

himself alone o r p r oclaim it to all men w hose ,
coa r se sense shrouded in the night o f ea r thly

,
activities would sca r ce be able to s ee the deep m y s

,
ter i ous t r uth Then di d the gods the m selves ap

.
p r oach h im and wa r n h im of little cou r age and o f

much doubt that me r cy for the w oe o f men d e
,
m a n ded that he p r oclaim the saving tru th ; thus

emboldened h e decided to teach befo r e all the p eo
, ,
ple the w ay to salvation

, .
He experienced h i s fi r st success in Benares w he r e

h e found h is five com r ades o f the pe nitential pe r i o d
o f hi s l i fe ; they app r oached hi m w ith di s t r ust even
now but they pe r mitted themselves to become con

,
verted when h e taught t h e m that the li fe o f bodily

castigation was j ust as m istaken as th e l i fe of pleas
ure but that the r ight l i fe w a s the middle path of
,
i nner sel f conquest built upon th e kno w ledge o f

-
t h ose f our cardinal truths Thereupon B uddh a .
163
R el igi o n an d H i s to r i c Fa i t h s
p reached at Benares before all the people and
wande r ed about the enti r e land ( the Province of
Mag ad ha ) preaching Eve rywhe r e he had great suc
.
cess R i ch and poor learned B r ah mans and simple

.
'
p eople f r om a m ong the mass of the w r etched and

the heavy laden hearkened to his preach ing o f sal
-
,
vation and so m e j oined him as disciples wh ile others

,
became his followers After he had gathered sixty

.
disciples about him he sent them out on e by on e

, ,
as wandering preachers : G o forth for the pro fi t of

the many th r ough sympathy for the world preach
, ,
the glorious doctrine of a perfect and a pure li fe .
F rom among h is disciples legend has selected one ,
exemplary pai r called the disciples o f the right an d

o f the left the one superio r i n wisdom and th e
, ,
other i n m i raculous power ; also a favorite discipl e ,
Ananda a relative o f Buddha o f whom it i s sai d

, ,
that h e ha d heard most and best remembered what

h e had heard I n the circle o f th e disciples not
.
-
even Judas was m issing ; i t was D ew a datta whom

the wi ck ed on e used to insinuate h imsel f into the
ci rcle of the disciples and cause the downfall o f
B uddha We learn also o f disp utations with
.
, ,
B rahman and ascetic opponents and once when ,
t h ey challenged B uddha to the pe rformance of m i ra

cles h e made th is reply : I do n ot teach my pupils
th at they S hould pe rform miracles before the people
with supernatural power but I do teach them this
,
"
L ive so t h at ye h ide your good wo rk s and con f ess

”
y our sins H
. owe v er thi s di d n,ot p re v ent th e
1 64
B ra h m anism an d G a uta m a B udd h a
pious poet ry f r om telling o f the most rema rk able

m i racles pe r formed by B uddha in orde r to S hame
his enemies — poetry intended for the ed ificati on o f
,
the faithful but o f no further inte r est for us .
When in h is eightieth year after fo r ty— fi v e yea r s

,
o f activity as a w andering p r ea ch e r ( ab out 4 8 0
Buddha felt that h is end was nea r he gathered h is

disciples about him and ad m onished them : B e
vigilant unceasingly walk ever in holiness deter
, ,
m ined ever and well prepa r ed p r ese r ve you r spirit "

-
,
He who wanders eve r w ithout s w erv ing fai thful to ,
the word o f truth he ma k es h imself f r ee f r om bi r th

,
and death he forces h is way th r ough to th e goal of

,
”
all su ffering H e as k s o f them that they ask h im
.
i f anything i n h is teach ing still be da r k to them .
When all o f them a r e silent and Ananda decla r es

that not one o f them has the slightest doubt about
B uddha s teach ing he speaks h i s last w o r ds : All
’
that i s pe r i shes ; with zeal wo r k your salvation .
The r eupon Gauta m a ente r ed into N i rvana a storm ,
arose and the ea r th shook i n h i s pa r ting hour ,
and when hi s corpse w a s l i fted upon th e deco r ated

fune r al py r e i t caught fi re and burned o f itsel f
-
, .
E ven before Buddha died a great and g rowing ,
congregation had gathe r ed about h im Why this .
g r eat success ? Ans w er : He preached di ffe r ently

from those learned i n the sacred writings and th e
ascetics ; he did not see k the path o f salvation i n
learned speculations conce r ning the world S pi r it -
,
n o r in unnatural sel f castigation but the on e thing

-
,
1 65
needful for all and p o ssible to all he held to be the ,
mo r al self — co n quest and the unselfish benevolence

to w ard all out of w hich th e t r ue kno w ledge co m es
,
o f i tself He did n ot deny the B rahman gods no r

.
give up the doct r ine o f t r ansmig r ation of souls n o r ,
do a w ay w i th the di ff e r ences o f caste but he did ,
r ende r valueless the p r iestly cere m onial service the ,
school lea r ni n g the autho r ity of the Veda and the

,
separating di ffe r ences of the castes by establishi n g ,
as fundamental m o r al pu r ity and goodness Thi s

,
.
building up o f so m eth i n g n ew whe r eby that w hich ,
i s o l d falls o f i tself is the method of all successful

,
prophets .
Although Buddha di d not wish to be a social re

former as has often been thought yet indi r ectly he
, ,
did become on e by making caste r eligiously uni m

po r tant He said : My l a w i s a l a w o f grace for
.
all my l aw makes no di ffe r ence bet w een the high

,
and the low the r i ch and th e p oo r ; as w ate r pu r ifies

,
all and fi r e consu m es all and the heavens have space

for all . Natu r ally Buddha had to expe r ience that
,
a m ong h i s d isciples the r ich we r e but few w hile th e

poor flocked to h i m in hosts Hence h i s saying : .
,
It i s ha r d to be r ich and l earn the w ay ( to salva

The poo r man fills the begga r cup o f
“
-
Buddha w ith a hand ful of flo w e r s while ten thou

san d bushels full f r o m the r ich man cannot fill it ;
th r ough the w hole night the la m p o f th e p oo r woman
burns while the la m ps w h ich the r i ch man gives
,
”
go out . O n one occasi on Ananda h is disciple , ,
1 66
B ra h m a n i sm an d G a uta m a B udd h a
met a girl of the most despi sed class of the Tsch a u
dalas at a well and asked h er for a d r ink of w ate r
,
:
S he i s af r ai d to give i t to h i m fo r fea r a gi ft f r om
h e r hand w ill m ake h i m u n clean but he says : ,
My
sister I as k not afte r thy caste o r thy family ; I beg
,
”
wate r o f thee i f thou canst give i t to m e Sh e .
gives him the water and Ananda takes h er as the

fi r st woman in the new congregation With thi s .
ethical and un ive r sal side to the salvation w a y the -

,
fo r m o f Buddha s p r eaching co r r esponds In pub

’
.
li c places he makes add r esses and holds conve r se

,
with the mob not conce rn i n g theological p r oble m s

,
o r q uestions o f priestly ritual but conce r ning the

,
o n e question which was nea r to all thei r hea r ts

"
How can I beco m e blest ? conce r n ing w hich he spoke

i n si m pl e p r ove rbs a n d i n pictu r es and pa r ables
easily un de r stood by all F or insta n ce he spoke
.
,
o f the healer who i n o r der to heal a poiso n ous

,
wound must give m a n pai n w hen he d r a w s o ut

the a r ro w but then heals th e w ou n ds by cu r a
,
ti ve he rbs ; o r again of the cong regation w hich

, ,
h e l ikens to the s ea w he r ein co stly pea r ls and

g r ueso m e monste r s a r e close togethe r and i n w hich ,
all strea m s disappea r w ithout d istinction Again : .
A S th e fa r mer m ust w ait fo r the sp r outing of his

seed an d can do no mo r e than lead the wate r s o ,
must the disciple w ait in patie n ce for the ti m e o f

pu r e salvation ; mea n w h ile keeping h i s li fe d isci
p n ed and pu r e
l i A s the lotus flo w er r ises i m m a cu
.
late from the waters o f a marsh so can the saint ,
1 67
R e l igi o n an d H i st o r i c Fa i th s
f r om the i m pu r ity of the surrounding w o r ld As .
the deep s ea i s quiet and clear so is the peace o f the ,
”
w ise m a n hea r k eni n g to truth .
In conclusion a few beautiful sayings f r om the ,
Dha m m apada a collection o f sayings compa r able

,
to our Se rm on o n the Mount

g ath e s fl o e s d i cl i es to a d p leasu e as
Ma n r w r an n n w r r :
th e fl oods o f ate p ou ove a v i lla g e i th igh t deat h

w r r r n e n , so
co m es h im d h u i es h i m a ay th dest oye i h i
on an rr w , e r r n s
p o e f o ces h i m o f i sat i able des i e O ut o f j oy so o

w r r n r .
, rr w
an d f ea bo ; out of love so o
r a re rn d f ea bo h , rr w an r are rn : e
w h i s saved f o m e j o i c i g
o d f o m lov i g "
r r t h attac h m e t n an r n e n
to p e i sh able p ossess i o s"f h i m t h e e i s p a i h e ce

r n , or r no n, w n
could f ea co m e T h t easu e t h at i s bu i ed i a dee p

r ? e r r r n
cave m y be lost but t h t easu e t h at th i e f

rn a , steal e r r no ca n
i s g ath e ed t h ou gh love d pi ety te m p e a ce d sel f

r r an , r n an
r est a i t Th f ool c h ases a fte va i ty h i s dece i ved h i le

r n . e r n , e , w
th e i se m h olds se i ous ess to be h i i ch est t easu e

w an r n s r r r .
H ate i s eve ove co m e by h ate t h at i s

n r r ete al ule , an rn r .
W h ateve e e m y does to e em y a spi i t tu ed to a d

r an n an n , r rn w r
do i g ev i l m a k es t h ev i l o ly o se T h ou gh th v i cto i
n e n w r . e r n
battle m y co q ue a t h ousa d t i m es th ousa ds yet i s h

a n r n n , e
th e g eatest v i cto h co q ue s h i m sel f A g e sh ould be

r r w o n r . n r
ove co m e by g ood ess ly i g by t uth

r d to h i m
n ,
h n r ; an w o
be g s so m eth i g sh ould be gi ve o f th l i ttle h i ch

n h n e w one as :
t h us does e te i to co m m u i o i th t h g ods W e
o ne n r n n n w e .
l i ve h a ppi ly f eed f o m h ate i t h m i dst o f h ate s f ee f o m

, r r n e r , r r
attac k i t h m i dst o f th h ea t s i c k f ee f o m ca e am o g
n e e r -
, r r r n
t h a x i ous h a pp y t h ou g h
e n , ca ot call a yt h i g w e nn n n our o w n .
T h us do beco m e l ik e th blessed gods

w e e .
"
F inally a , pole m ical sayings against the ex

fe w
ter n a l i ty o f the B r ahman se r vice of works :
N ot
abst i e ce f o m fi h d m eat t g o i g ak ed
th e n n r s an , no n n
an d cutt i g t h h a i n t ea i g ou gh g a m e ts d t
e r, no w r n r r n , an no
b ri gi g sac ifi ces f Ag i
n n r m ak e h i m p e h i tor n , ca n ur w o s no
1 68
B r a h m an i s m an d G autam a B udd ha
f ee f om s lf decep t i o T h ou fool h at h el p i s th cutt i g

r r e -
n .
, w e n
o f h ai r, th
or g a m e t o f s k i s ? You l des i es
e r n i n r ow r are n
y ou a n d y ou m a k e you outs i de clea H e h s ff e s r n . w o u r re
p ro a ch i th out g u i lt bea s ch a i s d m olestat i o h h

es w r n an n, e w o
p e p a e a st o g a m y f h i m self by p at i e ce o f th m a y
r r s r n r or n e n ,
h it is
e h o m I call a B a h m a
w H e h h ove com e th r n . w o as r e
w i c k ed p ath o f e o h h h fo ced h i y t h ou gh th
rr r, e w o as r s w a r e
w aves d each ed th sh o e i ch i co tem p lat i o f eed

an r e r , r n n n, r
f o m des i e d h e i tat i o h h i s l i be ated f om ex i ste ce

r r an s n, e w o r r n
an d h fou d N i a a h im do I call a t ue B ah m a
as n rv n , r r n .
"
These sayings a re all q uoted afte r the tran s la

tion o f Rhys Dav i ds s Buddhism and O l denb erg s ’ ’
B uddha .
B U DDH I S M
IN my last l ectu r e I followed the legendary tr a

,
dition i n telling o f the li fe of Gautama Buddha a n d ,
by a nu m be r o f examples I t r ied to S how you the

,
popula r m a n ner of h is p r eaching Now we must .
enter a little m o r e in detail i n to the impo r ta n t funda ~
m ental thoughts o f his doct r ine then into the

,
o r ganization o f h i s co n g r egatio n and finally into

,
the ecclesiastical develop m e n t o f the Buddha re

l i g i on i n I n di a and i n othe r la n ds .
The fou r unde r lyi n g t r uths on w h ich Buddha s ’
teach i n g r ests have bee n mentio n ed They a r e .
( I ) Th a t all l i fe i s su ffe r i n g ; ( 2 ) Co n ce r n ing the

cause o f su ffe r i n g ; ( 3 ) Co n ce r n i n g the dissipation
o f su ffe r i n g
. and ( 4 ) Co n ce r n i n g the w ay to the
end of su ffer i n g The fi r st that all l i fe i s su ff e r
.
,
i n g w a s p r actically co n ceded f r om the begin n ing

,
by the w o r ld w ea r y I n dian and i t se r ves as the

-
va r ied the m e of countless sayi n gs and pictu r es .
But w he r ein does the cause o f the su ffe r ing lie ?

P r i ma r ily i n the th i r st fo r pleasu r e po w er li fe
“ ”
, ,
and happi n ess But upon w hat does this insatiable

.
desi re depend ? That i s explained by the teaching

1 70
B udd h i sm
of the causal connection of events The last
l in k i n th is chain i s not kno w i n g namely the
“
-
, ,
w orthlessness o f all li fe and the non —

r eality of the
I o ut o f this not kno w ing o r iginate the desi r es

'
-
”
tendencies of mind Rhys Davids ) o ut o f the m
, ,
consciousness out of that co r po r eity then se n ses

, ,
and obj ects contact and feel ings th i r st and cling

, ,
ing ( to the obj ects ) then ( n e w ) bi r th age and

, ,
death i n one endless retu r n by w ay o f this cycle .
This psychological deduction i s not quite clear ( it

might be compa r ed to Schopenhaue r s teaching ’
that individuation originates in u n co n scious w ill

and the r e w ith the obj ectivation of the w ill in con
s ci o us n es s )
. In any event thi s m uch can be recog
,
n i z ed as the essential sense that the desi r e w hich i s

,
rooted in the not kno w i n g i s the cause of the em

-
bodi m ent of the consciousness in eve r ne w fo r ms o f -
existence whe r e w ith the h ow o f this future b e

,
“
co m ing i s al w ays conditioned by the nature o f the

p r eceding desi r e A n d the r ei n consists th e l a w o f
.
causal ity gove r ning the w orld p r ocess the one uh -

,
conditio n ed thing i n thi s world of all conditioned -
eventuation .
As the B r ahman s aw but the persistent Being in

all B ecoming s o the Buddh ist s a w i n al l seeming
,
being only the constant beco m ing ; i t i s the sa m e

opposition which w e fi nd i n G r eek ph ilosophy o f
the E l eatics ( Parmenides ) to He r acl itus : i n the
fo rmer the being without becoming in th e latte r ,
becoming without being Th i s all gove r ning law

.
-
171
of ca usal ity ho w eve r i s not a personal p r ovidence ;
, ,
the r e i s no such thing he r e fo r Buddha will have ,
none o f th e w o r ld spi r it of the B rah m ans and the

-
popular gods ; though he does not de ny them they ,
have n o m o r e religious i m po r tance fo r h i m than the

gods o f Epicu r us But w e must not think he r e of
.
a bli n d power of fate a Moi r a fo r it i s not an , ,
exte r n al la w not a st r ange po w e r w hich rules ove r

m e n but it i s only the conti n uous po w e r o f man s
’
”
o w n action h is ka r m a Th is necessity acco r d
“
.
, ,
i n g to which each o n e r eaps w hat he has so w n ,
pe rhaps m ay be best co m pa r ed w ith the law of

,
mo r al o r der in the sense o f F i ch te s philosophy ’

.
N atu rally one p r esupposition see m s inevitable that ,
he w h o in a futu r e existence receives th e r e w a r d

for h is deeds eithe r i n the p r esent o r i n previous
,
existe n ces m ust be the same one w h o w a s the doe r

,
o f those fo r m e r deeds ; in other words that the re ,
m ust be ac cepted a continued exi stence of the soul

as the pe r siste n t subj ect o f the doing and the
suff e r i n g i n the va r ious l ives But the existence .
of a pe r sistent subst a n tial soul i n the cha n ge o f

, ,
its co n ditio n s i s the ve ry th i n g m ost e m phati ca lly

,
de n i e d ; w hat w e call soul does not exist in r eality ,
a cco r di n g to Buddhistic teaching w h ich seems to go
back as far a s Gauta m a himsel f But i t i s me r ely .
a se m blance a na m e fo r the tempo r a r y g r oupi n g o f

,
five ele m ents ( Skandhas ) namely co rpo r eity feel , ,
ings i deas desi r es and consciousness Behind

, , , .
thi s group of phenome n a o r condi tions there is no ,
17 2
B udd h i s m
substance no perpetual I Va r ious pictures are used
, .
i n o r de r to visuali ze thi s thought : as w agon i s only

the name for the co m bination of the va r ious parts
w h ich grouped together
,
fo r m a w agon so Soul i s
, ,
only the name for the g r ouping together o f the fi ve

elements j ust named ; again the soul resembles a ,
fla m e w hich see m s to be an existi n g thing but ,
w hich i n reality i s o n ly the continuous process of

, ,
ever new co m bustibles being consumed ; again the

-
,
soul i s l ike a st r eam w hose se m blance o f being

consists i n a pe r petual coming and goi ng o f eve r
n ew waves These t w o pictu r es last mentioned are
.
like those used by He raclitus ( Panta rei ) .
Th is then i s the Buddhi sti c doctrine o f the soul

, ,
w h ich i s exp r essly put fo r ward as o n e o f the

cardinal t r uths th e n ot kno w i n g of w h ich belongs
,
-
to the sup r e m e illusions to be given up upon ente r ,
ing into the path o f salvation E vidently thi s .
question comes Up : I f the r e be no real soul h o w can ,
the e be a t ans ig ation

r r m r o f souls H o w can the
?
next l i fe cou r se be a r et r ibution for the actions in

-
the p r esent li fe cou r se i f i t i s no longe r the sa m e

-
subj ect w h o acted befo r e a n d then r eceives the re

wa r d ? The Buddhists the m selves decla r e th a t to
be an inconceivable myste r y and in fact the r e i s no , , ,
solution not even by the analogy to tw o gene ra

,
tions o f w h ich the second although i t co n sists o f

, ,
enti r ely di ffe r ent sub j ects still ente r s into the h e r ,
i ta g e o f the re w a r ds and punish m ents o f the fi r st .
As a psychological ex planation one could only s ay ,
17 3
that the di ff i culty o r i gi nates in a colli sion o f tw o
di ffe r ent kinds o f motives The one i s the thought
.
o f r et r ibution ,
not i n the exte rnal setting of a
j udicial dist r ibution of r e w a r d and punish m ents ,
but in the deepe r fo rm of the in n er connection of

seed a nd ha r vest Thi s deep t r ue thought clothed
.
it s e l f fo r Buddha i n the t r aditional notion of the

t rans m ig r a tion o f souls O n the othe r hand the
.
,
ax w a s to be put to the root of man s egotisti c de ’
si r e fo r happi ness by the kno w ledge o f the illusion

of a n indepe n dent I ; t h e p r actical demand fo r self
less n ess clothed itself in the theo retical fo r m o f the
d e n ial o f a ny r eal self These tw o m otives enter
.
int o an opposition logically di ff i cult to harmonize ,
but they do co m bine in the common a im at ethical

self co n t rol
-
.
With that w e co m e to the furthe r question o f the

w a y of salvation He r e w e m ust di ffe r entiate
”
.
bet w een the gene r al w ay the ele m enta ry or lay ,
mo rals a nd the pa r ticul a r w ay o f him w ho i s p ro

,
g r essi ng to pe r fection the m o r als o f the monks

, .
The fo r me r co n tai n s beauti ful featu r es unive r sally ,
valuable pa rticula r ly its hea r tiness and purity its

, ,
u n s e l fi s h n es s a nd hu m ane S pi r it No t exte rnal

.
castigation o r r itual w o r ks but purity o f mind fro m

,
delusio n and p a ssion have the emphasis E ach .
o ne is the cause o f h is o w n su f f e r i n g and becomes

f re e f r om i t th r ough hi m sel f ; pu r ity and i m pu r ity
a r e m atte r s fo r each i n dividual h i m self ; no o n e can
make an othe r pu re — a p r inciple w hich r ecalls

I74
B udd hi s m
Kant s autonomy In the p r evious pages I have

’
.
mentioned othe r beautiful sayi n gs such as that o f

,
self conquest being the g r eatest cou r age and o f the

-
con q uest of hate th r ough love o f lying by t r uth

,
.
The duties a r e summed up in ten co m m andments o f ,
which the fi r st five hold unco n ditionally and the

oth er fi ve a r e recommended me r ely as means of
assistance to vi r tue They a re : ( I ) Dest r oy no
.
,
li fe ; Take no st range p r ope r ty ; Do not

lie ; D r ink no intoxicati n g d r inks ; Ab
stain f r om all i llegal sexual inte r cou r se ; Do
not eat at the w r ong ti m e ; U s e no w r eaths o r
salves ; Sleep o n a ha r d couch ; Avoi d
dances musi c and plays ;
, , O w n no gold o r S il
ver Besides these the lay m an S hould celeb r ate
.
,
the three monthly holy days by fasti ng and by b enev

o l e nce to th e people o f the o r de r ; also hold
father an d mothe r in honor and engage in an honest
business .
This ethics for the laity i s o n ly a p r el i m ina ry to

the noble path o f salvation w hi ch leads to sanc
t ity and to N i rvana In o r de r to ente r upon th i s
.
path o ne m ust beco m e a monk F o r such a o n e

, .
,
the co m m and m ents o f the lay eth ics beco m e m o r e

st r ict The cou n sels given in the last five co m
.
m a n d m en ts beco m e obligato r y : the co m m and m ent

against i llegal sexual i n te r cou r se beco m es a co m
mand to abstain f ro m all sexu a l inte r cou r se ; p r ivate
ownership alto gethe r i s not pe rm itted but the m o n k
,
must beg all of h is nou r ish m e nt ; these a re the well

175
kno w n m onasti c oaths of celibacy and voluntary
po ve r ty The li fe of a monk however i s n ot i n
.
, ,
itself pe r fection but merely the w ay the reto like

, ,
a p rotecting w all behind which he who is s tri v

i n g fo r p e r fection i s p r otected against the assaults
a n d dissipations o f the world The final and really
.
decisive point does not l ie in any extern al conduct ,
but i n the inner wo r k o f right th inking and right

—
self contem plation ”
.
Such pious meditation is accurately d escribe d and

four gr ades o f the sa m e are di ff erentiated but the ,
bounda r y l i n es bet w een them are not fi xed The .
fi r st o f these is the pie r cing of the nai ve illusions o f

the natu r al man ; then comes the supp r ession o f all
sensual and selfish a ff ects ; then co m plete apathy ,
and fi nally a kind o f ecstatic consciousness o r di s

appea rance o f all definite ideas in a dreaming
co n s ci o us l es s nes s ( w hich i s the summit o f the con
tem p l a ti on i n neo— Platonism ) This abnormal condi

.
tion i n some de g ree an auto hypnotism does not

,
-
,
hold as the rule but i s rather the passing ex cep

,
tion The rul e however for the h ighest grade

.
, ,
o f meditation is absolute peace which i s no longe r
m oved by extern al stimul i or inner st r uggle i n ,
w hich a full pe ace and there w ith the desired bliss ,
the N i rvana i s atta ined The wise man who has

, .
reached this stage i s the saint ; for h im al l desire is

dead and there w ith the root o f al l n ew bi rths i s
killed N i rvana i s not the exterm ination of li fe but
.
rather of the desire o r will to live ; but w h ere t h i s i s

1 76
B udd h i s m
k illed down to the root there t h e cause
, o f n ew
incarnation i s removed hence the ce r tainty of the

,
complete cessation o f individual existence after

death —a t least this must be considered the logical
consequence of the above described doctrine of the
-
soul and o f Karma ; how far that conclusion was

d r awn is q uestionable That N irvana i n any event
.
is a soul condition of peace of bl iss attainable he r e

, ,
below i s appa rent from many p assages ; for instance

, ,
the disciple w h o has laid aside all pleasure and

d esi r e he who i s rich i n wi sdom he has attained
, ,
he r e belo w salvation from death rest N i rvana th e

, , ,
”
ete rnal place I nto the mouth o f one of the disci
.
ples o f Buddha this saying i s put : I do n ot ask for

death nor do I as k for li fe ; I wait unti l the hour
comes as a servant who expects h is reward with
conscious and with wakeful spi r it .
The q uestion whether all i s over after deat h fo r ,
that saint w h o has al ready attained N i rvana i s sai d ,
to have been asked o f one o f the fi r st pupils o f th e

master but the r eport says that he refused to answer
,
i t because a k no w ledge the r eo f i s o f no se r vice fo r

salvation The positive spi r its o f the con g regation
.
kne w that the consequence o f th e teach i n g o f the

unreality o f the soul w ould lead to a denial o f the
further existence o f t h e saint but i t nev er beca m e
,
the o ffi cial doctrine The stage at w h ich they

.
rested was this : that noth ing conce rn ing the mat
ter had been revealed ; the di r ect statement that
a f ter death th e saint is no more was censured as
177
unchu r chly thi nking Thi s reticence o f decision
.
may be const r ued i n favor o f those fo r o r against

i t but th is much i s clea r that the r eligious desi r e
, ,
w a s me r ely for salvation f r om the su ff e r ing o f tran
s i to r i n ess ; whethe r beyond this the r e w a s any such
th ing a s positive bei n g o r w hether i t was simply a
not bei n g r e m ained undecided a m atter o f r eligious

-
,
indi ff e r ence I f we add to this that the logical con

.
sequence doubtless leads to a n on existence after —

death the j ud gm ent is j ustified that th is salvation is
,
only negative a libe r ation f rom the evil of the

,
w o r ld w ithout substituti n g any positive good Thi s .
i s explainable by the li fe w ea r iness o f the Indian fo r

-
w ho m existe n ce i tself i s only a source o f to r tu r e fo r
w ho m the positive pu r poses of li fe—acting striving

,
and hopi n g — a re w anti n g ; w ith such pu r e p ur

,
p o s el es s n es s of li fe the b a lance o f h i s weal and w oe

,
m ust natu r ally yield a negative r esult Hence the .
n egative qual ity o f th i s doct r ine of salvation wh ich
co r r esponds to the mo r e n egative and passive cha r

acter o f the eth ics Its m otive i s not s o much the
.
r ecog n ition o f the r igh t and value of human pe r son
ality as th e indi ff e r e n ce to all values the cond em n a ,
tion of i nd ividual existence i tsel f as the sou r ce of

all evil ; he n ce the r e i s sy m pathy w ith su ffe r ing
beings but the r e i s n o e n e rgetic activity ; the r e i s the
,
k illi n g o ff of selfish insti n cts but not the building ,
up of a higher sel f .
The r e i s a negative but not a positive content

i n thi s i deal of li fe Buddhisti c ethics may be
.
1 78
B udd h i s m
summed u p in the bibl ical w ords love not the

w o r ld for the wo r ld w i t h i ts j oys pe r i sheth
,
In
B uddhism this r e m ai n s the fi n al position w hile the
, ,
Bible passes on f r o m n egation : But he w h o does “
”
the will o f God he r e m ains fo r all ete rnity that is
, , ,
w hoeve r has m ade the positi ve pu r pose o f the w hole ,
the gene r al h ighest good co n tent and pu rpose of ,
h is li fe for him life possesses a supe r te m po r al value

,
-
and the r e w ith the gua r a n tee of an i m pe r ishable

, ,
pe r manence even though that i s beyond our con

,
cep ti on .
Another question a r ises in co n nection w ith thi s

negative qualit y o f the Buddh isti c obj ect o f salva
tion The Buddhist w o r sh ips h i s m aste r as the
.
bea r er of salvatio n and its exe m pla r the omniscient , ,
the holy and the pe r fect ; but as such he has r eally ,
entered into N i r va n a actually exists no longer o r

, ,
i f he does i t i s o n ly in that myste r ious r esting being

,
w h ich h a s no lo n ge r any co n nection w ith the w o r ld
of ti m e So the B uddhisti c cong r egation has a h is

.
to r i ca l fou n de r w h o although he i s the obj ect o f

,
thei r g rateful w o r sh i p a nd ed i ficato r y conte m pla

tion i s not really a substitute fo r the belief in God
,
w hich i s lacki n g H e has not the lasti n g po w e r of

.
salvation to wh ich th e pious spi r it m ight l ift itsel f

,
i n co n fidence a nd hope .
The r el igious need o f the Buddh istic chu r ch w a s

met in this case in r e m a r kable fash ion The d oc
, , .
trine soon appea red by w hich the co m ing of Gau

tama Buddha w as only o ne of countless Buddha
l 79
app earances wh ich are repeated in every age o f the
wo rld when human su ff e r ing has need o f h im B e .
fo r e Gautama the founder o f the con g r egation

, ,
the r e are sup posed to have been t w enty four Bud -
dhas and concern ing some o f them both names and

,
legends are repo r ted After G autama other Bud

.
,
dhas wi ll follow and concer n ing these futu r e

,
Buddhas i t is believed that they do now exist in

,
heaven as chosen candidates for the Buddha d ig

n i ty
. The next o f these Ma ittr ey a so r uns the
, ,
t radition in the L a l i tav i s ta ra was chosen by Gau ,
tama before he became a man and was designated

as his successor in the m iss i on o f salvation ( as
“
Bodhisattva H i s picture was early placed
in the Buddhist chu r ch at Ceylon alongside that of
G autama as an obj ect o f worsh ip Later other
, .
,
p r e — existing B odhisattvas in heaven we r e added to

Ma i ttrey a spi r it o f the good Such w ere p ar ticu
, .
l a r ly Ma n tus r i the spi r i t of w isdom and A v al oki

, ,
tes v a ra the spirit o f power and p r ovidence

, The .
spi r its of good wi sdom and po w er are evidently

,
noth ing more than the attributes of the on e highest

spi r i t whom we call G od made independent ( j ust
,
as the Pe r sian archangels o r A m s ch as p a ns stand

, ,
for the rep r esentatives o f the qualities o f Ahura

Mazda ) It cannot be wonde r ed at then that i n
.
,
a later development o f the no r th Buddhistic chu r ch ,
all o f these Buddhas and Bodhisattvas a re inter

p r e ted to be the for m s of ap pea r a n ce o f on e o r iginal
Buddha who is considered the self exi sting eter “

-
,
1 80
B udd h i sm
nal being in fi n ite light and li fe that i s to s ay G od

, , ,
i n the ful l sense It cannot r eally be said then

.
, ,
that Gautama Buddha the historical founder o f the

,
cong r egation beca m e a god in the belief o f hi s

,
cong r egation ; but he i s held to be the latest an d

most important appearance o f the ete r nal S pi r it of
salvation w hich had r evealed i tsel f before h im and
w ill reveal itsel f after h im repeatedly i n new fo r ms .
Involunta r ily we recall th e Johannine teaching of

,
the divine Logos which even befo r e its appea r ance

,
i n Jesus had r evealed itsel f as the l ight to men and

, ,
afte r Jesus continued to r eveal itself in the S pi r i t o f

the congregation the Pa r aclete w hich finds i n the
, ,
a postles and the p r ophets i n st r u m ents o f its contin

ued revelation Such a simila r ity in th e f o r mation of
.
two doct r ines bui lt up independently of one another

, ,
might well serve as testimony fo r the thinking s tu

dent o f histo ry that we a re here dealing not w ith
an a rbitrary play of fantasy but w ith a deep ,
develop m ent o f religious se r ies o f thoughts r ooted ,
i n the natu r e of the religious consciousness and o f

natu ral needs .
These t hen are the mai n teachings o f Buddhism

, ,
.
I can only indicate i n b r ief its further fo r m ation

, ,
and develop m ent as a chu r ch F r om w h a t has .
al r eady been said it is clea r that th e mo nks co n sti

,
tute the ke r n el o f the Buddhisti c chu r ch but Bud ,
d h i s m is not exclusively a r el igion fo r m onks for ,
the B uddha belief f r o m the begin n ing o ff e red con

, ,
s ol a to r y and educative m otives to that congregation
18 1
R e l igi o n an d Hi stor i c Fa i t h s
of la ym en w hich atta ch ed itself to the members of
the o r de r a n d fo r m ed th e w ider ci r cle G autama
.
Buddha hi m self b r oke the fi r st g round not only for

the sp read of h is teaching but also fo r the organiza
,
tion of the monk class He p r esc r ibed certain

.
r ules o f discipline but later there w a s m any a dis

,
pute as to h o w fa r these strict r egulations had to be

obeyed and w hich o f them could be t r aced back by
t r adition to Buddha himsel f and w h ich to his fi rst
pupils With the gro w i n g w ealth o f the monas
.
te r i es the r e came lively debates and cont r ove r sies as

,
to w hethe r the com m and m e n t w h ich fo r bade all

possession of mo n ey had to be taken se r iously a ,
cont rove r sy si m ilar to that k n o w n to us in the his

to ry of Ch r istian m onastic o r de r s especially the
,
F r a n ciscans Conce r ni n g acceptance i n to the o r ders

.
,
this m uch m ay be said that child r en w ere ad m itted

,
i n to th e novitiate w he r e the pa r e n ts had gi ven p er

m issio n ; actual accepta n ce and consec r ation could
o n ly t a ke place after the t w entieth yea r and w as ,
depe n dent upo n the co n sent of the cong r egation .
A m o n g the m o n astic oaths besides those of chastity

,
a n d pove rty .w a s one fo r biddi n g t h e p r oclamatio n
o f f a lse m i r aculous po w e r s This w a s done b e

.
cause the po w e r o f pe r fo r m i n g mi racles was

t hought to be co n nected w ith full saintliness and
s o so m e o n e m ight pe r haps p r ete n d to m i r aculous
po w e r i n o rde r to obtai n that d ign ity du r ing li fe .
In the good w eathe r pe r iods o f the yea r the monks ,
wande r ed about w ith thei r beggar s pots which they

’
18 2
B udd h i s m
were perm itted to S ho w only without making any
r equest . In the r ainy season they gathe r ed to ,
gether in enclosed spaces ; late r in g r eat m o n aste r ies,
founded by r ich pat r ons and su r r ounded by beauti

ful pa r ks In them they r e m ained together fo r
.
t h r ee months of each yea r a n d du r ing this time, ,
the r e we r e r egula r gathe r ings— they can sca r cely be

called se r vices o f God — for pious di scussions and
for confession O n such occasio n s all the r ules fo r
.
mo r al duties and monastic discipli n e w e r e r ead and ,
at each point he who w as co n scious o f any guilt

,
w a s obliged to co n fess the sa m e Ope n ly ; in case o f
heavy g uilt expulsion f r o m the o r de r w as the p en

,
alty and i n cases of u n i m po rtant i n f ractions a

,
lighter sentence o f r epenta n ce w as i m posed Any .
o n e w a s f r ee to r esig n volu n ta r ily and the r e w ith he ,
became a simple lay — b rothe r w ithout beco m i n g an

ene m y of the o r de r The accepta nce o f nu n s i n to
.
the na r r o w er ci r cle of the o r de r w a s r eluctantly

ag r eed to by Buddha h imsel f Ananda the f a vo r ite .
,
disciple had cha m pio n ed them a n d despite th e m as

, ,
te r s g r ave doubts m a de the begi nni ng The n eeds

’
, .
o f the lay m a n w e r e ca r ed fo r by the se r mo n s o f
w a n de r ing m o n ks a n d the house to house ca r e fo r
s ouls w hich they connected w ith thei r beggi n g ex
p ed i ti o ns. As fo r th e r est the w o r sh i p of the Bud

,
d h i s t people co n sisted m ai n ly i n a n ado ration o f

r elics of Bud d ha in pilg r i m ag e s to th e sac red
,
cities o f his ea rthly li f e i n s a c r ifici a l off e r i ngs

,
to th e images of sai n ts ( fl o w ers and incense

1 83
especially being used ) and i n donatio ns to th e
mo naste r ies .
In the h isto r y o f the Buddhist church the reign ,
o f the p o w e r ful King Asoka ( 2 0 2 3 a c ) plays

7 3
-
.
the sa me ro le as that of Constantine in the Ch r istian

Chu r ch Afte r a te m pestuous youth in the thi r d
.
,
year o f h is r eign Asoka i s said to have been con

,
verted to faith in Buddha by a monk to whom he

r e m ained attached throughout all his li fe as a lay
b r other and w hom he adored g r eatly He gave

,
.
p r oof o f th is not only by rich endowments and

buildings for chu r ch pu r poses but also by making ,
the beauti ful side of Buddhi stic eth ics the hu m ane ,
m ildness and benevolence a n d patience the leading ,
p r inciple o f hi s r ule r ship In o ne o f his edicts h e

.
decla r es All men a re as my child r en ; as to them

“
,
s o do I wish to all men that they may participate
in al l of the happi n ess he r e and beyond The r e i s .
no g r eate r deed than the wo r k for the gene ral

”
good . In anothe r edict he exp r esses h imself con
ce r ning the p r i n ciple of tolerance thus : The King
ho no r s all sects w ith s m all gi fts and proofs of h is
r espect but of m ost i m po r ta n ce to h i m is that they
,
g r o w in inner value The m ain th ing connected

.
the re w ith i s ca reful n ess o f wo rds so that one does ,
n o t laud o n e s o w n sect to hea ven and m ake another

’
lo w. Whoeve r does that even though h is pu r pose ,
b e p r aise w orthy only ha rm s his o w n sect

,
There .
fo r e ha r m o n y i s good so that mutually all can

, ,
lea r n th e teaching and hea rken to it gladly This .
1 84
B udd h i s m
i s the King s w ish that all sects be w ell instructed
’
,
and pious . In this spi r it h e appoints offi cers for

the r egular inst r uction o f all classes o f people not ,
only fo r men but also a n d this is a novelty in India, ,
for women A m o n g the mo ral duties thus taught

.
,
respect towa r d parents and teache r s goodness and ,
mild n ess to w a r d child r en se r vants an d poo r right , ,
eo us n e s s patience w ith and be n evole n ce to w a r d all

, ,
as well as ca r e for animals w e r e the m ost i m po r ,
tant for him He hi m sel f set the good exa m ple in

.
his care fo r the w el fa r e o f h i s people He founded .
hospitals fo r the sick he had w ells a n d t r ees and ,
shelte r s p r ovided for the w ande r e r s alo n g the roads ,
and he made it a duty of hi s o fficials to t r eat all citi

zens hu m anely pa r ticula r ly those o f the lo w est
,
classes and p r isone r s B esides this ca r e for the po p

.
ula r application of the lay eth ics o f Buddhis m he -

,
d evoted himsel f to the o r de r ing o f chu r ch matte r s .
F or this purpose he called the g reat cou ncil of

Patna 2 52 B C the thi r d accordi n g to Buddhisti c
,
. .
, ,
t r adition The r e the disputes conce r n ing m onastic

.
regulations w e re settled and the oldest canon of the

sacred w r itings w a s fixed Whether th is latter w as .
the same as that w h ich had acqui r ed autho r ity in

the South Buddh istic chu r ch u nde r the n a m e T r ipi
-
taka th r ee baskets see m s questio n able .
F inally Asoka w a s the fi r st to begin the S p read

,
o f Buddhism in la nds outside o f I n dia by the send

ing of m issiona r ies The mission to Ceylon headed
.
,
by Asoka s son a nd daughte r s w as pa rticula r ly suc

’
18 5
R e l igi o n an d Hi s to r i c F a i t h s
ces s ful . They wer e welcomed the r e i n friendly
fashi on an d lai d the foundation fo r the m ost fl our
i s h i n g and to thi s day th e most purely preserved
, ,
Buddhisti c chu r ch Asoka also sent mi ssio n aries

.
to K a sh m i r Bact r ia and lower Indi a and sought to

, , ,
establish connections w ith Syr ia M acedonia and ,
Egypt but w ith what success i s not k n own to us

, .
Seve r al centuri es later Buddhism found i ts w ay

,
into Easte r n Asi a whe r e i t gained g r ound more and

mo r e as th e centuries rolled on u n ti l to day that is ,
-
i ts main seat But i t w as a some w hat di fferent k ind

.
o f B uddh ism f r om that o f th e South i n Ceylon and
lower I ndi a At the beginning o f the second cen

.
tury o f the Chri stian era occu r red that i m portant

schism i n the Buddhist chu r ch w hich d ivided th e
adhe r ents o f the M ahayana f r om the Hinayana ( the
g r eat and l ittle vessel ) The fo r m e r di d not dev i ~
.
ate much f r o m the older form o f the B uddha teach

i ng
. O ve r th e single Buddhas an d Bodhisattvas ,
they s et an o r i g inal Buddha as the h ighest p r inciple ,
an ete r nal self existing being whose parti cular

-
fo r m s o f appea r ance a r e the si n gle B uddhas o f th e

past and th e Bo d h isattvas now existi n g i n heaven .
These bei n gs w hich here and there m ay have me r ged

,
w ith th e popular gods a n d the local heroes became ,
the obj ects o f r eligious p r ayer to who m appeals for ,
help w e r e ma d e i n eve r y time o f di st r ess N o mo r e .
was the p r actical ideal s o m uch the de m and for s al

vation fro m sor r o w lade n existen ce th r ough a p as
-
sive N irvana but rather th e dignity of a Bodhisattva

1 86
B udd h i sm
w h o had the power to act for others as a savior and

redeem er The eth ical —
. social motive o f the B ud
dhi s ti c doctrine o f salvation he r e outweighed the
purely pe r sonal and at bottom so m ewhat egoi sti cal
i nterest in passive salvation an d bliss In th is fo r m
.
o f the doct r ine ,

N irvana finally beca m e a positive
blissful exi stence i n th e wo r ld beyond a heaven o r ,
”
pure land . With all o f thi s a tendency h ad been
ente r ed upon wh ich came i n close contact w ith pop
ular B rahmanis m i n I n di a and Taois m i n Ch ina ,
a tendency w hich hel d various p os s ib i l ti es o f devel

op m e t in itsel f
n — ou the on e hand to theisti c belief i n
o n e God an d o n the other to natu r alistic polytheism
with its acco m panying m agic and exo r cisms Thi s .
last tendency became the stronge r i n Indi a from th e

fifth century on The repo r t of the j ou r ney of the
.
Ch inese pilgrim Juen T s ch unan g dated seventh

-
,
centu ry shows that Indian Buddhi sm had completely

,
degenerated an d fallen into a mass o f crude super

s ti ti on s and magi c notions In such condition i t
.
could not offer any powe rf ul o pposition to the

m ighty reaction o f B r ah m ani sm In the eleventh
.
centu r y it succu m bed enti r ely to Isla m w hich made

its victorious ent r y into India In Ceylon alone
.
,
Buddhi sm retai n ed i ts o r iginal character and mai n

ta i n ed i tself th r ough all the changes o f pol iti cal c i r
cum s ta n ces w ithout a b r eak to this day .
Buddhism had a peculiar develop m ent i n Thibet .
There it took on the nature of a h ie r a r ch ical system

whose h ead was the h igh p r iest Dal ai Lama a p o p e -
1 87
king The possessor of thi s dign ity was considered
.
th e i nca rna ti o n of the Bodhisattva Avalokitesvara

‘
, ,
merged with the ancient p rotecting s p i ri t of th e

count r y .
W i th i ts Sh ave d p i ests b ells r osar i es i m a g es h o ly

r , , ,
w ate r d i m p os i n g r obes W i t h i ts p ocess i o n s f o rm ul ae o f

an , r ,
co nfess i o m yst i c i tes d i ce se f th se v i ce o f G d

n, r , an n n or e r o ,
w h i ch t h lay m a o l y i t esses as a s p ctato i th i t

e n n w n e r, w s
abbots m o k s d u s o f va i ous g ades i t h i t o sh i p

, n an n n r r , w s w r
o f t h t o fold i gi
e w d o f t h sa i ts
v r d a g els i ts f asts
n an e n an n , ,
co fess i o s d p u g ato i al fi es i ts p o e f ul m o aste i es

n n an r r r , w r n r
an d m a g ifi ce t cat h ed als i ts p o e f ul h i e a ch y ca d i als

n n w r r r r n
d p o p e—L a m a i s m h
r , ,
an exte all y at least a st o g as rn , , r n re
sem bla ce to R om a i sm d espi te th e i esse t i al d iff e e c

n n , r n r n e
o f teach i g d m a e o f th ou gh t ( Rh y s D av id )
n an nn r .
"
s .
The contrast to thi s q uasi Roman C at h olic f orm -
o f Buddhism i s th e Protestant form wh ich it too k
i n the S ch i n s chu sect o f the Japanese Buddhists a f ter

the th irteenth century Th i s sect teaches tha t .
neither one s ow n wo r ks nor theological k nowledge

’
but belief i n Amida S uddh a alone ma k es blessed , .
( Amida i s the Japanese name for the Buddha o f

faith the celestial spi ri t o f salvation wh ich bears
,
about the same relation to th e h istorical G autama ,
t h e founder o f the congregation that the C hrist o f ,
faith bears to the h istorical Jesus ) To h im alone .
i s prayer to be made not for earthly gi fts but merely , ,
as an exp r ession o f gratitude for h is saving grace .
The faith ful w ill n ot have to wai t until after

death to be led by Am ida into his p aradise but ex ,
er i ence h is blessing p resence even now directly in

p ,
188
B udd h i s m
the heart The p riest i s no more h oly t h an the
.
layman but he is only the teacher of the truth w hich

,
mak es blessed ; the p r iest may marry for the family ,
i s the best place i n which to practice pious living .
I n conclusion I w ill quote two confessions of

earnest B uddhisti c piety ; the fi rst i s that o f an
Indian Buddhist o f the eleventh century who was
forced to fly from h is home because o f h is faith ;
and the second i s that o f an adherent of the above
mentioned Japanese sect :
Wh eth e r I dw el l eave i h e ll i th c it y ofin h n or n , n e
Sp i i ts of m
r or m y m y t h ou g h ts be fi m l y
en , t upo a t h ee r se n ,
for th e e i s r oth e h a p pi ess f m T o m th ou t

no r n or e . e ar
f ath e m ot h e b ot h e S i ste ; t h ou t m y t ue f i e d i
r, r, r r, r ar r r n n
da g e s O m y b eloved ; th ou t m y m aste m y teach e h

n r , ar r, r w o
d ot h i m p a t u to m i sdo m S eet as ecta Th ou t m y

r n e w w n r . ar
w ealth m y j o y m y p leasu e m y g eat ess m y f am e m y

, , r , r n , ,
w i s dom d m y l i f e t h ou t m y a ll 0 om i sc i e t B ud dh a
an , ar , , n n .
O n th e sh o eless of a o l d of p a i
r s ea w r n
Wh e e f ollo b i t h d deat h i t h out

r w d r an w a n en ,
T h e e d ove r t h S p o t o f th
r ave
w e on , e r e w ,
U t i l A m i da f ull o f m e cy o ce a g a i
n , r n n,
D i d i h i g ace th boat o f escue se d

n s r e r n ,
Wh i ch to th b l ess d p o t b ea s us saf e
e e r n ow r .
T H E G R EE K R E L I G I O N
WE wil l pass f r om the Indians to the G reek s In .
the religious history o f these tw o peoples the r e ex,
i s ts a closer rese m blance than commonly is believed .
In everyday th inking the opin ion has ta k en fi rm root

,
that two things could not possibly be i n greater oppo

s itiou : on the one h and the gay Greek full o f po w er
,
for li fe an d on th e other the worl d weary I ndian

, ,
-
,
asceti c and contemplative B ut we have seen that

.
o r iginally i n the pe r iod of wh ich the so ngs of th e

,
R ig Veda give us knowledge the Indians too were

, , ,
a nation r ej oici n g i n deed and j oyous in l iving as ,
well as the G r eek s of the ti m e of Homer ; besides ,
w e will discover that the world view an d mood o f

-
the G r ee k people ended in a deep world woe an -
elegiac resi g nation a fl ight from the world o f th e

,
senses to the w o r ld o f i deas Thi s is what makes

.
the parallel bet w een t h ese tw o peoples o f such i a

ter es t : thei r co m m on r evulsion from the j oy o f life
to resignation an d li fe—denial .
Yet the r e i s one thing w h ich di fferentiates the r e

l i g i ous h istory o f the Greeks f r om that o f the In
dians ; one th ing w hich the Indians lacked utterly ,
1 90
T h e G r e e k R e l igi o n
the G reeks p ossessed namely a sense of order and , ,
propo rtion o f clearness and beauty Thi s artisti c

, .
tendency was the ch a ri s m a o f the Gree k s ever pres ,
ent in thei r religion as in thei r philosophy p r eserv ,
ing th em from the excesses o f I ndian fantasticism

and d r eam ing I t i s th is wh ich made i t possible
.
for them to exercise a deep influence upon O ri ental

bel ief and thought such as had never been p ossible
to Indian wisdo m .
H egel aptly characteri zed th e G ree k religion as

”
the religion of beauty The gods of Homer .
,
Z eus Apollo Athene Aphrodite and the rest —are

, , , ,
essentially the aesthetic i deals of beauti ful mankind .
Therein lies thei r advantage an d questionabl e weak

ness The advanta g e i s th is : they a r e human ized
.
to a far greater extent than the gods of the In

dians the G e r mans o r the gods o f any other I ndo
, ,
Ge rm anic people had been To the credi t of th e .
Home r ic p oetry ( w h i ch naturally was n ot th e

work of any single poet but of generations o f ,
singers l iving f r om th e eighth to the tenth cen

,
tu r y B C ) be i t sai d that th r ough i t the various

,
. .
,
local and tribal gods and the spirits o f ancestors and

o f nature whi ch w ere at hand w e r e uprooted f r om
, ,
—
thei r nature soi l and humanized to a greater extent
than anywhere else G r eek mythology itself pre .
se r ves the record o f th i s change i n the legend o f the

struggle bet w een the O ly m pians and the Titans ,
wh ich ended i n th e complete victo r y of the O lym

pians The Titans were con q uered once f or all and
.
19 1
hurl ed into the O r cus belo w ; in other words the ,
Home r ic gods no longe r must struggle with the

po w e r s o f natu r e they a r e no longe r enmeshed i n
,
the processes of nature but they have become inde

p endent persons enti rely human i n thei r emotions
, ,
thoughts and actions so much s o that we are at a

, ,
loss to r ecognize thei r forme r nature meaning and -

,
at best make suppositions concer n ing them They

, .
have become human bei n gs beautiful human beings ; .
ideals o f human beauty grace and dign ity in the , ,
sense of that ha r monious balance o f sensuality and

reason which was ever p r esent to the Greek in h is
,
i deal o f the beauti ful good ( kal oka g ath on ) But

-
.
no w here is i t the purely mo r al i deal o f the good as

the th ing o f absolute value for which under some ,
ci r cumstances even that which i s pleasant to the

,
senses must be sac r ificed These humanized gods .
rise fa r above mo r tals in po w er kno w ledge and ,
happiness but they are in no way unlimited and

, ,
least o f all mo r ally perfect Though i t is often

, .
said of the m that they can do all things and kno w

,
all things many di fferent instances S ho w that that

,
i s not so : thei r po w er i s limited by fate that m oi r a , ,
whose dec r ee even Zeus m ust as k and—even ,
though it be cont r a r y to hi s wi ll as in the case o f ,
the death of h is s on Sarpedon— must obey ab s o

l utely . M o r e impe r fect than their power i s th e
mo ral goodness of these gods ; you k now w h at the
mo r als o f these O ly m pians was thei r constant q uar ,
rels thei r int r i guing thei r unclean love a ff ai rs

, ,
-
,
19 2
T h e G r ee k R e l igi o n
beings not even horrified by adultery Thei r att i .
tude toward men i s not praiseworthy ; they ask not

after merit or worth but rest thei r decisions on
,
personal moods and sel fi sh motives— sympathi es

an d antipath ies j ealousy revenge and the like
, , .
Hence i t m ust be sai d : these gods are esthetically

refined beings ( compare for example an Aphrodite
with its Asiati c p r ototype Astarte or Cybele what
, ,
a di fference bet w een the rude natu r e power here -
and the hu m an ideal of g r ace and char m there ) ;

nevertheless the truth remains that even th is charm
,
ing Aphrodite i s not a moral i deal The gods of .
Homer are ideals of humanity beauti ful but not ,
good ; they are elevated above the crude elemental

nature but they feel and act after the manner o f
,
p r imitive peoples and o f child r en who kno w no ,
higher cont r olling law of goodness than thei r ow n

a rbitra r y w ishes and thei r moods .
I t i s a strange cont r ast to find that a Zeus i n h is ,
o fficial activities s o to spe ak i s the rep r esentative

, ,
o f right and righteousness the guardian of the

,
o rder o f the un iverse the protector of the helpless

,
( particula r ly i n a pol itical sense ) the stranger and ,
”
the weak ; as King of G ods and M en he is the ,
representative and stronghold o f j ustice i n the

world So far then the god idea especially in th e
.
,
-
,
form s o f Zeus Apollo and Athene had been made

, ,
m oral. But this morali zation evi dently stopped

h alf way since according to the legends o f myth
, ,
olo gy these gods were i n thei r p ri vate l i v es any

,
19 3
thing but m o r al exa mples for men Therein l ies .
the r eason for Plato s well known exclusion o f

’
-
Ho m e r a s literatu r e for the schools ; and i f we

r efuse to allo w ourselves to be blinded by aesthetic
cha rm and put ourselves w ithout p r e j udice i n the

place of a Greek teacher of young and ol d we wi ll ,
find Plato s j udgment easy to understand however

’
c r ass a contradiction to the usual G ree k re v erence

o f Ho m er i t may be .
Without doubt the reason why the G r ee k concep

,
tion of God neve r rose above th is dual nature lay

in the fact that those w h o handled i t and handed i t
do w n w e r e not the moral teachers o f people not the ,
p r ophets and the p r iests but poets and a r tists fo r

,
w ho m the aesthet ic charm was of such moment that
they questioned no fa r the r as to what was morally

saluta r y The poets o f the Ho m eri c epics we r e
.
wande r ing singers who ente r tained the masters o f

the houses by pe r fo r m ing thei r songs at the courts
o f p r inces and the knightly castles ; we may think
r eadily that they nar r ated thei r stories o f the gods
a n d he r oes i n the fash ion wh ich would be most
accep table i n those ci r cles whe r e a gay life that

oscill a ted bet w een feasting adventure and feuds
,
w a s led,
but w hich kne w nothing of serious moral
pu r poses and i deals Because G r eece never ach ieved
.
a n ational m onarchy which could care for the per

,
m a ne n t w elfa r e of the people nor a priesthood , ,
w hich unde r took the education of the peopl e there ,
fore neithe r the m o r a l iz a tion nor th e un ifi cation of

,
194
the god world could be carried out co m pletely as

-
,
was the case in the r el igion o f Zarathust r a or even

o f Israel ; the gods re m ained the ideals of the fr i v
o l ous nobles and Zeus re m ained the fi r st a m ong h i s

,
peers th e presiding o fficer of the O lympian ari s

,
to cr a cy .
In the form s of Athene and Apollo w hom Homer

ranks nearest to Zeus the ideal si de o f the G r eek
,
conception o f the gods finds compa r atively i ts ,
purest expression The natu r e backg r ound i s al m ost

.
-
enti r ely gone in the case o f Athene the mothe r less ,
daughter o f Zeus ; s h e i s the goddess of wi sdo m ,
p rudence diplomacy indust r y technical a nd a r ti stic

, , ,
skill and the pat r oness of an i ndust r ious citi zen

,
sh ip as well as o f a r ts and sciences And A p ol lo .

,
the son of Zeus i s the r ev eal er o f h i s w ill ; i n the

,
‘
wo r ship o f Apollo at Delphi G r eek r eligion a t ,
fained its highest and f r o m Delph i the r e e m anated

,
an i n fluence w h ich acted benefici ally upon th e cul

tu r e o f the w hole peopl e F r o m o f o l d the r e had
.
,
been an o r acle o f the ea r th spi r it Python at D e lph i ;

-
o f h i m i t w a s bel ieved that h e d w elt as a sn a ke in
the d epths o f a fi ssu r e o f th e ea r th The Do r i c .
priests o f Apollo took possession o f th i s site o f the

o r acle and legend r ep r esents th i s as a victo r y o f
,
Apollo ove r Python The r eby a h ighe r m o r e .

,
mo r al ized t r ain entered i n to th e us e o f this o racle .
The enthusiasti c fo r m sti ll remained : the vi r gi n

p r iestess Pyth ia s at upon a t r ipod placed ove r th e ,
fi ssure in the earth f r o m w hich sense destroying

,
-
I "
S
R el igi o n an d H i sto r i c F ai t h s
v a p ors rose and hyp noti zed her . I n thi s condition ,
whatever s h e utte r ed w ith raging mouth

,
“
was ,
held to be the wo r d o f the god of whom she seemed ,
to be possessed Wh ile the enthusiasm o f th e

.
priest ess was the basis o f the oracle it was not ,
all for beh ind Pyth ia stood the i ntelligent priest

,
h ood of Delphi who i n the course of time had b e

, , ,
come ri ch in experiences in k nowledge of the worl d

,
and of men and had established many an d intri cate

,
relations They understood how to edit sensibly

.
and to retouch the oracles spoken by the p r iestess

in her ecstasy s o that her words became o f use
,
.
Th is i s a noteworthy example o f an experience ,
often found active in the history of religion whe r e ,
th e co m binati on of an enthusiasti c prophecy and

p r i estly wisdom resulted i n the most e ff ective r e
l i g i o us influence upon th e p eople .
I t has been maintained that the Delph ic oracl e

governed and di r ected the l i fe of the entire G ree k
people f r om the n inth to the sixth century D espite .
the autho r ity o f a Curtius the statement may not be

,
enti r ely co r rect ; nevertheless th is much i s certain , ,
that noth ing g r eat transpi r ed i n G reece in those cen

f uries w ithout the sanction o f the Delphic oracle
,
thi s was t r ue o f the f r a m ing of la w s the pe r fection ,
o f pol itical alliances the sending o f colonies as w ell

,
as of the founding o f states Ce r tainly this sanction

.
,
must have been held i n high rega r d or it w oul d not

have been sought constantly Most i m portant w a s .
the influence whi ch the Delphic worship o f Apollo

1 96
T h e G r ee k R e l igi on
exercised upon the national rel igion and morals A .
h igher conception of religious atonem ent and purity

emanated from th is pu r e god and that became of ,
greatest cultural impo r tance The blood atone .

-
m ent which had previously been practiced as blood

,
revenge was n ow subj ect to state r egulation It

,
-
.
was a rema r kable step forward that the blood which

had been spilled di d not cr y out for revenge but that ,
the purpose and attitude of the doer was asked

whether h e had shed the blood intentionally o r by
chance whether he was r ight o r w r ong in s o doing
,
.
I t was of utmost impo r tance to the w hole adm in i s

tr ati on o f j ustice in Greece that not me r ely the deed
as such but the i ntention o f the doer was the
, ,
standard o f measure F r o m that stage i t was but

.
,
a short step to the idea that the thing o f impo r tance

in the j udgment o f the value o f m en was not the ,
exte r nal action but the pu r ity o f the attitude ; that

,
this thought i n principle at least had been g r asped

, ,
by the better ones a m ong th e rep r esentatives of the

religion o f Apollo can sca r cely be doubted The
, .
wa r ning wh ich g r eeted the pilgrim s to the temple

at Delph i read F o r the good o n e drop su ffi ces
" “
, ,
but for the bad all the w aves o f the s ea cannot

,
”
wash thei r S ins a w ay The other tw o i n s cr i p
.
tions there a re cha r acte r istic o f Greek piety and

”
morality : Kno w thysel f and N othing beyo n d ,
measu r e Thoughtful kno w ledge of sel f an d

.
quiet tempe r ance sel f cont r ol that i s the ideal ; the

.
-
,
su pp ression of the senses w a s n ot de m anded but a ,
I 97
R e l igi o n an d H i st o r i c Fa i th s
training o f self b y th e cont rol of all unbounded
'
passions ; that i s th e funda m e n tal of Greek ethics ,
which A r istotle fo r mulated in hi s w ell k nown d efi -
n i ti on o f virtue as the m ean bet w een tw o extremes .
It must be conceded that even i f the h ighest plane

,
had not been reached the r ein at least i t marked a

'
,
stage in the moral cul ture o f m ankind worthy o f ,
great r espect .
F r o m the sixth century on the priests o f A p ollo

,
at Delph i steadily lost i n influence ; pa r tly i t was ,
thei r own fault but mai n ly i t w a s because o f thei r

, ,
anti national attitude in the Persian w ars wh ich the

-
G r eek people could never forget The n ew condi .
tions generally had been at wo r k ; the sixth century

in Greece was a period o f deep seated changes and-
innovations The upheaval i n state a ffai r s occa

.
s i on ed by th e rise o f the democracy in the separate
city states was partly the consequence and partly

-
the cause of a widespread striving for the eman

ci p a ti o n o f individual thought and action from
t r aditional faith an d paternal custom ; i t was th e
powerful movement o f the G r eek spi r i t growing
mo r e and m ore conscious o f h is cha r acte r isti c natu r e ,
hi s impulse fo r f r eedom cla r ity reasonableness

'
, , ,
w ithout wh ich there never had been a Pe r iclean
ag H v en though the shadows inevitably aecom
p a n i e d the l ight.
The way in w hich th i s n ew ti m e S pi r it exp r essed

-
itsel f i n the religion o f the G r eeks i s remarkable .
A lmost contemporaneously we s ee two new ten

1 98
T h e G r ee k R e l igi o n
d enci es emerge ; the opposition to the Home r i c

r eligion w as thei r o n e common g r ound in eve ry ,
th ing else they were impelled by motives that di f

fer ed and satisfied the needs of di ffe r ent classes o f
the people O n the one hand a r enaissance o f the
.
,
ol d
,
popular peasant wo r ship wh ich might be r e
-
,
garded as the democrati c reaction against the

aristocratic state w orship except —
-
one point that
, ,
must no t be forgotten — that this r eaction bo r e

,
within i t the most f r uitful seed o f r eligious p r og r ess

i n th e sense o f individual deep eni n g and m ystical
contemplation O n the other hand the beginni n g
.
,
o f philosophical c r iticism o f the mythical religion ,
a rational ism wh ich o r iginated with the Ionian

natu r e phi losophers l ived on i n th e wo r k o f th e
-
,
elegiac and tragi c poets an d reached i ts climax i n

the skepticism o f the Sophists The r ewith ca m e th e.
turn into the new movement i n th e ph ilosophy of

r eligion under S oc r ates and Plato which m ight be
desi gnated as the co m m on p r oduct and highe r u n ion

of the religion o f the m yste r ies and the th inking o f
the ph ilosophe r s In b r ief outlines I w ill attempt
.
,
to desc r ibe these three moveme n ts .
F i r st then the r enaissance o f the ol d peasa n t

, ,
religion of ag r iculture and w i n e g r o w ing of De -

,
meter and Dionysi us Though the O lympian w o r l d

.
o f the gods o f Homer had c r o w ded the m into th e
background s o far as offi cial wo r sh ip w as con

cerned yet the nature gods had never been s up
,
-
p ressed enti rely The ari stocratic gods o f O lympus

.
,
1 99
R e l igi on an d H i sto r i c Fa i t h s
who cared only for the larger a ffai r s o f all never
;
,
had satisfied the needs of the people and n ot even

the Ho m e r i c shutting—o ff of souls in Hades had been
st r ong enough to brea k the allegiance o f the fam

i l i es to the combination o f soul worsh ip with the-
r eal m s beyond .But n ow i n the age w hen dem oc

,
racy w as gro w ing more powe r ful the people turned ,
again w ith rene w ed zeal to those old but unforgot

ten legends and customs which revolved about th e
worship o f the gods o f the fruitful earth and th e
myste r ious nether world .
F rom ancient times there had been a worsh ip o f

Demeter and her daughter Kore ( Pe r sephone ) at
E leusi s Legend sai d that the goddess hersel f
.
,
wh ile seeki n g her daughter w hom Pluto th e god

, ,
o f death had abducted met with f r iendly hospitality

, ,
the r e and established the servi ces ; thei r o r iginal con

tent was noth ing more than the annual expe r ience
o f the death o f vegetation ( the abduction o f Kore )
a n d h er resurrection in the Spring ( the return o f
Kore to her mother ) This S imple nature notion

.
-
,
whi ch we met in the I sis O siri s myths was at th e

-
,
root o f the Eleusinian worship of Demeter but with ,
i t there was united a h igher religious i dea a hope ,
o f a happy beyond fo r the souls o f the p ious It .
may be that the wo r ship o f D ionysius was at wor k

here also ; from the time o f the incorpo r ation o f
E leusis into the Athenian state and the conversio n
o f the D emeter cult into a state a ffai r the cult o f ,
D ionysi us native to Athens was combined with it ;

'
, ,
200
besides they w e r e both closely r elated th r ough thei r

,
passionate motives and d r a m atic e ff ects s o that it ,
is easily conceivable that the enthusiastic mystical -
feature o f the Demeter cult upon w h ich the g r eat ,
”
attractive po w e r of the Eleusi n ia n m ysteries ‘
r ested
,
dates f r om that pe r iod What was its act .
ual magic ? It has been thought that the priests

impa r ted esote r i c teach ings That was an e r r o r ; .
altogether here w a s no m atter of doctrine nor arti

,
“
cles of faith The heart o f the celeb r ation was

“
the actions dramatic rehearsals o f the fate o f
,
the two goddesses the mourning o f the m other for ,
her lost daughter th e q uest and finally the j oy o f , ,
the reunited When we recall that thi s was a cele

.
bration o f gods w h o we r e not leading a li fe of bliss

,
o n O lympus heedless o f the su fferings o f men

, ,
but gods who su ff ered the so r ro w s of mortals ,
tasted o f death and then a gain overca m e i t then

, ,
we can well understand that for the spi ri t i n search

o f consolation th e hope o f a l ife o f bl iss beyond
,
coul d easily atta ch itsel f to thi s celeb r ation F o r .

,
be i t well understood it w a s not a matte r o f th e ,
mere continuation of the soul after death ; the

G ree k s had always bel ieved in that but th e condi ,
tion of the souls i n Hades was such a mise r abl e

S hadow existence that an Achilles p r efe r s rather
-
,
to be a day laborer o n ea r th than a prince i n Hades ;

-
naturally such a woeful futu r e state could not be

,
l ooked forwa r d to with hope but with fea r As , .
against the ordinary lot o f souls the initiated o f

201
Eleusi s hoped fo r a happy li fe beyond S imilar to ,
that o f the gods ; and with w hat happiness th i s hope

filled the m the inspired wo r ds of their noblest men ,
like Pindar and Sophocles give testi m ony With , .
ce r tainty no man can s ay upon w hat thi s ho pe was

,
actually based but we may suppose that the p re

,
pa r ato r y fasts and p r ocessions then the g r o w ing ,
d r a m atic tension an d finally at the cli m ax o f the

, ,
celeb r ation the seeing and the hearing o f m y s ter i

,
o us fo r m ul a an d symbols produced such an exalta
tion of the psychi cal l i fe o f the celebrants that they

beca m e one with the deity and felt themselves to be
pa r t a ke r s o f its invincible l i fe —
hence they woul d , ,
sha r e its fut u r e fate and might thus hope to escape

,
the d r eaded Hades .
O r iginally Dionysius w as a Thracian deity and

,
was w o r shippe d o n the hills o f Th r ace w ith crude ,
o rgi astic r ites ; t r anspl an ted to Athens he beca m e ,
the god of the vintage and the ru r al feast days d ur

,
-
i n g the vintage i n the autumn and the wi n e testing -

,
i n the sp r i n g w ere spiced w ith m any a r ude j ok e

,
by the peasants He r e again G r eek gen ius dis

.
,
played i ts po w er to take over t r aditional foreign ,
raw m ate r ial and ennoble spi r itual ize and trans , ,
fig u r e it
. I t w as the elem ental l ivel iness o f these
feasts o f the w ine god— the alte r nating songs the
-
,
dances and the pageants connected with i t — which ,
p r oduced the most glo r ious flo w er of G r ee k a rt ,
the tragic and the co m ic d r ama That the combi .
nation o f the worship of Dionysius with the worsh i p

202
of Demeter at E leusis gave this even a higher im

pulse has been mentioned The most singula r
,
.
mani festation of the Dionysiac enthusiasm was

that a fforded by the appearance o f ecstatic see r s ,
who acted as fortune telle r s physicians and p r iests

-
,
o f atonement to the people seeking help a n d advi ce .
A r ound them there gathe r ed small ci rcles o f b e

l i ev er s the Dionysiac th i a s oi o r conventicles by
, ,
whom ancient oracles were preserved and thei r

number increased by new ones ; among the m too , ,
ancient tradit ions such as th e theogony of Hesiod

, ,
we r e remodeled and imitated in short theological , ,
doctrines thought out and these were traced back to

,
the revelation of some anci ent seer l ike O r pheus ,

.
Thus th e O rphic theology and lite r atu r e w h ich ,
probably o r iginated in the sixth centu r y ca m e into ,
bei n g Though the r e a re but slight fragments

.
the r eof p r eserved the main funda m ental thoughts

,
may still be recogni zed The Di onysius Zag r eus

.
-
myth of the god killed and resur r ected w hich i s

, ,
co n nected with the O rph ic doctrine co n ce r n i n g

souls fo r ms the cent r al po int The O rphi es
, .
taught that h uman beings were composed o f a m i x

tu r e o f divine ( Dio n ysiac ) and anti divine ( Tita n ic )
-
elements Man s soul i s of d ivine o r igin a n d

.
’
through h is own guilt did he sink to the l i fe o n

,
earth ; th e body is i ts j ail i ts g r ave E ven death

,
.
does not lead to its release but to a w ande r ing o f

,
the soul i n a ci rcle of r ebi rths The one m ea n s o f

.
escape f r om this unfo r tunate ci rcl e i s th e em ploy

2 03
R e l igi o n an d Hi sto r i c Fa i t h s
“
ment o f the Dionysiac rites o f pu r ification estab ,
l i s h ed by O r pheus Among these w e r e certai n

.
ascetic abstinences particula r ly f r om the eating o f

,
meat In the real m beyond a blessed god like lot

.
, ,
-
a w aits those thus consec r ated wh ile the rest w ill ,
su ffe r castigation in the nether world o r enter into

n ew embodi m ents This theme o f the bliss and
.
m ise ry beyond was a favorite elaboration of the

O rph ic sacramental priests and the principal att r ae
tion o f thei r sermons for the people ; w hile among ,
the enlightened they were regarded as swindlers

,
a n d charlatans .
Al m ost contemporaneously with the religious

movement o f the sixth centu r y j ust described th e ,
enlightenment had begun X enophanes w h o had .

,
abandoned h i s Ionian ho m e after the P ersian inva

sion and settled in Elea ( Lower Italy ) sub j ected th e ,
traditional myths to sha r p criticism Homer and .
Hesiod had asc r ibed to the gods everything w hich

among m en w a s held to be wicked and reprehensible :
robbe ry adultery and lying ; equally fool ish i t was to
,
conceive of the gods in human fo r m ; with equal

j ustice ani m als m ight represent them i n an imal
,
S hapes i f they had hands Moreover G od could

, .
,
only be the one spiri t w ith w hom man m ight not

,
be co m pared and wh o moved the world by hi s think

ing Acco r ding to Pa r menides G od i s the all one
.
,
-
,
unchangeable Being w hile the world o f the mani

,
fold and the becoming i s an empty semblance the ,
dream o f M aya as th e B r ahmans taught A ccord .
2 04
ing to Heraclitus of E phesus there w as no such

,
thing as a permanent Bei n g altogether but only th e

ci rcle o f a pu r poseless becoming and dissolving in ,
whose endless flow al l the goods and values of l i fe

a r e submerged ; the course o f the world i s a chil d s
’
play and m en a re fools w h o hold that of i m po r tance

which is liable to dest r uction Among the Io n ian
.
G reeks of Asia M inor the j oy of li fe had given w ay

,
to th is pessim istic mood afte r thei r ho m es had

fallen prey to the Pe r sian conquero r s E ven i n .
G r eece p r oper w he r e the onslaught o f the Pe r sian

,
armies had been successfully r esisted the voices of,
doubt a s to the value o f life and of reason a n d r ight

e o us n es s in the unive r sal o r der g r e w louder and
,
loude r in the cou r se o f the fi fth ce n tu ry .
In the d r a m as of Sophocles w e hear ever the

,
anxious q uestioning of the unexplai n able r uli n gs o f

the gods and the co m plaints o f the ha r d lot o f
mo r tals undese r ved ; a n d even w he r e the poet u rges
,
to pious hu m ility the tone of bitter pessi m ism b e

,
t rays its p r esence : Best i t i s never to have been

born but second best it i s to r etu r n s pe edily th ither
, ,
”
whence thou co m est . With Euripides thi s doubt ,
o f the righteousness o f the divine o r de r ing o f th ings
rises to a doubt o f the existence o f the gods alt o

gether and yet th is faithlessness b r ings h i m no
,
g r eater peace than d id h i s faith ; in this r estless

s w ingi ng to and fro th is vai n seeking fo r positive
,
conviction he is the genuine s on o f the pe r iod of

,
enlightenment The main r epresentatives o f th i s

.
205
pe r iod we r e the S Op li i Sts the maste r s in oratory
, ,
a m ong w hom the p r actice o f dialecti c play w ith

co n cepts soon led to that excess w hich skeptically ,
d isinteg rated eve rything traditional Protagoras .
thought i t could not be known whether there were

gods o r no ; and K r i ti a s straightway explained the
belief in the gods as the invention o f clever states
m en a n d law as only another name for the p ower
,
of the st r onger .
This p r esumption of a su perfi cial sham knowl -
edge found i ts maste r i n Soc r ates who held that ,
the begin n ing of w isdom lies i n the recognition of

o u r lack o f i t He held i t to be his god given call
.
-
i n g to educate men to self kno w ledge to an insight -

,
i nto that w hich i s saluta r y for morals and thus to

vi r tue He believed i n the providence o f a highest
.
,
all decreei n g r eason who e m ployed gods o f the

-
popular faith as h i s inst r u m ents and who was as ,
much g r eate r t h an o ur reason as the world was tha n

o u r body He believed also i n a divine revelation
.
, ,
w ithi n h i m w h ich he w a s wont to cal l the voice o f

,
”
h is Da m on i a n al m ost the sa m e as what we a r e
,
accusto m e d to call the m onito ry voi ce of conscience

a n d the w a r n i n g p r e m onition It i s this D a mo .
n ion w hich he r el ied upon even i n opposition to the
autho r ity of the state ; he says to h is j udges that '
h e m ust obey the god who had given hi m the com

,
m i ssi on to educate m en to vi r tue more than men , .
He r e fo r the fi r st ti m e pe r sonality stands u pon th e

, ,
good r ight o f individual conviction as against the

206
traditions of state and soci ety This struggle which .

,
marks a new epoch i n the h istory o f religion re ,
s ul te d in the death of Soc r ates We may ca ll h i m .
the fi rst blood w itness o f philosophy and at the

-
same time a p r ophetic fo r erunner o f Christianity .
H is work however w a s active still in Plato

, , ,
w h o b r oadened the sel f kno w ledge of Soc r ates to

-
”
a kno w ledge of the supe r se n sual world o f i deas “
,
the eternal p r ototypes of the t r ue the beautiful an d , ,
the good which are the basis and the goal o f al l

,
temporal phenomena synthesized into a unity i n the

,
h ighest idea o f the good w hich i s one w ith G od , ,
the c r eator father and a r chetype of the visible wo r ld

, ,
hi s inbo r n s on In that higher wo rl d the soul o f

.
,
man has i ts origin ; the O rphic theologians had

taught that the soul w a s divine in natu r e and
origin and Plato s o embodied thi s doctrine in h is
,
ph ilosophy that he identified the soul with the idea

o f life and thus caused i t to pa r ticipate i n the eter
n i ty and indestructibility o f ideas i n general Ac .
co r ding to Plato the descent o f the soul into the

,
physical w o r ld i s the consequence o f an intellectual

fall th r ough s in a pa r alysi s o f the w ings o f the
,
soul striving to attain the heigh ts o f the essential

,
t r uth beauty and goodness

, .
B ut o f that w h ich it has seen once the soul

, , ,
even after i t has been d ragged down by its weight

o f earth retains ce r tain m emories ; o r dina r ily da r k
,
and unconscious these can be elevated into con

,
s ci ous ness b y the p e r ception of the earthly images

207
R e l igi o n an d H i s tor i c F a i th s
o f those heavenly for m s ; then and there longing ,
for i ts highe r h om e a w akens in the soul and with i t

'
the love o f that w h ich i s f r o m above the ideals of ,
the true the beauti ful and the good That i s the
, .
”
E r os the mediato r between god and man the
, ,
”
d ivine de m on o r savio r spirit w hich lifts us out
-
,
of the close and na r ro w li fe into the realm o f the

ideal F or he r ein Plato i s enti r ely in acco r d wit h
.
,
the O rphies m an has need o f a salvation Though

, .
the visible world be an i m age o f the w orld of ideas ,
yet the image i s disto rted disfigured and clouded ,
by ti m e and space ; though the r e i s much good i n the

w o r ld ,
yet the r e i s m uch mo r e of evi l here below .
Hence on e must attempt to fly thither from he r e

as soon a s p ossible Th e fl ight consists in th e
.
g r eatest possible achieve m ent o f likeness to G od and ,
that occu r s in beco m ing pious and righteous w ith

”
insight O nly the kno w ledge of th e righteousness
.
o f God and the struggle to achieve l ikeness to H i m
i s vi r tue w hile i t i s m e r ely sha m vi rtue to avoi d

,
w ickedness fo r the sake of so m e useful end If one .
w e r e to a s k w hethe r it i s m o r e useful to be r ight
e o us than to be un r ighteous the question would be ,
a s un r easonable as though o n e w e r e to a s k w hether
it i s better to be well o r sick to have a spoiled and ,
useless o r a tho rough soul So unconditioned and .
s o all su r passi n g is the inne r value of vi r tue

-
that ,
the r ighteous m an i s to be rega r ded as happy even

though h e be m isunde r stood a n d p e r secuted by gods
and men w h il e the blasphemer i s miser abl e e v en
,
208
though he i s able to h ide his w ickedness f r om both

o f them This latter case ho w ever i s actually n ot
.
, ,
thin k able because the good and the bad get thei r
,
reward usually in this l ife but i f not n ow ce r tainly

, , , ,
i n any event after d eath F o r j ust as little as .
the righteous can be fo r saken by God s o it is ,
impossible for the wicked to esca p e H i s punishment .
When a soul i n acco r da n ce w ith its divi n e nature

, ,
preserves itsel f pure o f the body and p r epares i tsel f

for death by the p ersistent st r iving for wi sdo m ,
then i t may hope to go to its like the i nvisible and ,
ete r nal and divine w he r e a like happy lot a w aits i t

, ,
a l i fe o f bl iss w ith the gods free f r om e r ror and ,
passion and other huma n i lls But those soul s .
which persisted in clinging to the sensual and hated

the S pi r itual are held fast to the ea r th by thei r l o w
,
i nstinct a n d a re d r agged to n ew bodies after death ,
i n to hu m an or ani m al bodies each after its o w n ,
kind O nly those souls beco m e o f the r ace of the

.
gods wh ich have w ithstood desi r es o f the b o dy

,
and sought salvation and pu r ification th rough love

o f w isdo m nou r ishing themselves by constant con
,
tem p l a ti o n o f the t r ue and the godlike .
Thus the Eleusinian a n d O rphi c m ysticis m i s

here spi r itualized to an ethical ideal is m w hich o f ,
fe r s to man as h i s highest obj ect and h i s h ighest

,
good th e g r eatest possible likeness to a n d the m ost

,
intimate com m unity with God the p r ototype and ,
principle of al l good : an eth ical ideal i s m w hich finds .
the p ower ca p able o f such elevati ng in the d ivine ,
200
h uman spiri t of the E ros the inspi red love o f that
,
which i s f r om above the true goo d and beauti ful

, ,
.
A comparison w ith A ugustine s words : Because ’
w e a r e created for G od therefore i s the heart rest

,
”
less unti l i t fi nds rest i n H im w ill be followed by
,
an acknowledgment o f the prep aration fo r Ch r i s

ti a ni ty contained in the religion and et h i cs of P lato
, .
210
T H E R ELI G I O N OF I S RA E L
WE come to the rel igion of I srael the propheti c

,
religion i n a high sense Taken according to ti m e

.
and impo rtance we ought really to have treated i t

,
before the other p r 0ph eti c religions even before ,
that o f Zarathustra B ut I have pu r posely w ith

.
held i t unti l n ow i n order not to brea k the h is

tor i cal connection with later J udaism and w ith
Christianity .
I t i s a pity that the b eginnings o f the I sraeliti sh

religion as th e beginnings of most religions are
, ,
shrouded i n deep darkness The in for m ation con

.
ta i n ed i n the Boo k s of M oses concer ning those b e

ginnings i s legendary ; any on e who unde r stands
h o w to j udge h istorically i n such matters w il l s ee
clearly that the events could not actually have taken
place as they are narrated in the B ibl e T w o .
groups o f these legends m ay be distin g uished The .
fi rst group tells of the patria r ch s Ab r aham Isaac , ,
Jacob and h is sons These a r e r eally myths o r ig

.
,
i n al ly legends of the gods i n which divine beings or

,
deified heroes the he r oes epony m i of the Is r ael iti sh

,
tribes became men of whom i n the manner usual

, , ,
211
R e l igi o n an d H i s to r i c F a i t h s
in e p ic s hum an experiences and deeds are repo r ted
,
.
We have as little right to search for historical mat

ter i n these legends as in th e Homeri c narrative o f
th e T r oj an heroes .
The matter i s somewhat di fferent in regard to

th e second group o f legends those concerning ,
M oses Here too we find ourselves at fi r st still

.
,
'
, ,
in the realm o f legend The sto r ies of the exposure

.
and mi raculous rescue o f the i nfant Moses have

thei r parallels i n the legends conce r ning the child
hood o f the Assyrian king Sa r gon the Median k ing ,
K y r os the I ran ian prophet Zarathustra the I ndian

, ,
h ero K r i s ch n a and the G reek he r o Herakles the ,
R oman e m peror Augustus an d the Christian Sav

i our Jesus — all legends whi ch by thei r close re
, , ,
l ati on sh ip to on e another betray thei r origin in th e

,
similar motives of ancient folk poet r y F urther -

.
,
the adventures of Moses in exile the appea r ance of ,
G od i n the burning thorn bush the salvation from -
death i n the desert by the penitential blood o f

th e ci rcumci sion o f h i s son then th e m anner i n ,
wh ich after h is return to Egypt he demands th e

, ,
dis m issal o f the people o f Is r ael by Pharaoh the ,
mi racles which h e pe r form s the m iracle o f the res ,
cue o f the Israelites at the Red Sea the giving o f ,
the l aw on Mount Ho r eb in personal dialogue with

G o d fi nally th e wandering o f the people in th e
,
’
d es er t w h er e two million souls a r e supposed to have

,
f ound sustenance fo r fo r ty years— all of thi s by ,
its own inner im p robability betrays its late legend ,
2 12
T h e R e l igi on o f Israel
ary character To this must be added the h istori ca l

.
data recently furnished by the E gyptian clay tab -
lets found in T el lam ar n a the residence o f th e ,
heretical King Amenoph i s I V who l ived about ,
1 4 00 B C .and whom you wi ll probably remember

.
,
f r om the history o f the E gyptian reli gion O ne .
o f hi s vassals writes from Jerusalem ( wh ich was i n
existence even at that time ) begging for help

against the Ch ab i r i a martial nation who had forced
,
themselves into Canaan I f as i s etymologically .

,
very probable the Ch ab i r i are identical with th e

,
Hebrews it follows that they had forced themselves

,
into Canaan about 1 4 00 that i s long before Ram , ,
s es I I du r ing whose rei gn ( about 1 2 50 ) the two

,
cities of Ramses and Pithom for wh ich th e Israel ,
ites were forced to perfo r m S lave services ( accord -
ing to E xodus i 1 1 ) were built Then too i n an

,
.
, ,
inscription o f the reign of M ern eptah the s on an d ,
successor o f Ramses under whom the ex odus o f,
the Israelites i s supposed to have taken p lace th e ,
I sraelites are expressly mentioned among other

con q ue r ed Canaani ti sh peoples i n fact as one of th e , ,
races whose ter r ito r y had been lai d waste ; wh ile ,
conce r ning thei r fl ight from E gypt and the d es tr uc

tion o f the E gyptian host w hich follo w ed after
them the r e i s no t r ace either he r e o r any w he r e else
,
i n the E g yptian monuments Thus y o u see that .
these things could not have taken place as the

B ible narrates them What the actual cou r se o f
.
events was i s p urely a matter of su pp ositions

, .
2 13
R e l igi on an d H i sto r i c Fa i t h s
Some have th oug h t th at the flight of the I srael
'
i tes f r om Egypt and the person o f M oses are mere

fi ctions That i s going too far ; the matter i s not
.
as bad as that As far as th e person o f M oses i s

.
concerned careful research students o f to day a r e

,
-
o f on e Opinion that much as legen d may have

, ,
woven fables about him yet he was a h isto r ical ,
fi g ur e o f great importance O f what natu r e i s h is .
importance ? That is the only question Was he .
actually the man who led the g r eat mass o f h is p eo

ple out of E gypt ? D i d h e then solem n ly receive
th e laws o f G od and b r ing them to hi s p eople ? That
can hardly be accepted I f ho w ever we observe .
, ,
”
what i s sai d about hi m in the blessing of Moses ,
( Deut . xxxi i — a very ancient document )

, certain ,
fundamental features may be recogn ized H e i s .
there s et up as nothing else than the ancestor and

prototype of the p rofessional Leviti cal p r iesthood ,
”
whose U ri m and Thummim ( oracles by lot )
“
were in h is hand ; that i s as an oracle priest he dealt

,
-
o ut admonitions and law as i t i s custo m a r y among ,
nomads that the priest i s at once soothsayer an d

,
j udge H e di d thi s at th e la w ing—w ell o f

.
Kadesh B arnea an oasis which the r eupon beca m e

-
, ,
a place o f oracles and law for those of the nomadi c

t r ibes wh ich roa m ed about the north Arabian steppe -
i n its vicinity In ha r mony there w ith is the state

.
,
me n t that Moses w a s the s on i a l a w o f the M idianite - -
p r iest p r i n ce Jeth r o and guarded h is sheep on

-
H oreb where J ehovah the god o f the mountain r e

, , ,
2 14
T h e R e l igi o n o f I srae l
vealed h imsel f to him in a flame o f fi re ( Ex o

dus i i i ,
also that acting upon the counsel of
, ,
h is father i n law later he chose thorough men from

- -
,
among the people to assist hi m in dispensing j us

tice in S hort that he establ ished a kind o f o r gani za
, ,
tion o f legal procedure the beginnings of a civi l ,
o r der among the nomadic tribes of the steppe .
( Exodus xvi i i I Hence we m ay pictu r e Moses

, , ,
for ourselves as a p r iest and a j udge w h o i n th e

, , ,
name o f the god Jehovah whom h e had lea r ned ,
to kno w from the M idianites ( and Kenites ) d eal t ,
out oracles an d j usti ce for so m e o f the Is r ael itish
nomadic t r ibes and the r e w ith lai d th e fou n dation

,
for thei r religious pol itical alliance out o f which

-
, ,
i n due time gre w th e unity of the people o f

,
“
”
I srael. That much I hold to be hi sto r i cally p r ob
able ; I do not dare to s ay anything as to the rela
tion w h ich it may have to the legend o f the exodus
from E gypt and Moses s part as leader in that de ’
parture ; later legen d has s o enveloped the historical

kernel that i t i s doubtful whether i t ever can be
brought to l ight again .
More i m portant however i s th e q uestion : What

, ,
was that god originally that Jehovah i n w hose , ,
name Moses dealt out oracles and legal decisions

and under whose p r otection th e allied t r ibes o f the
Sinai peninsula j ourneyed to the no r th and forced
thei r way into Canaan ? Jehovah w as the god o f
Mount Horeb o r Sinai and hi s seat i s thought to be
,
there e v en in later days The song o f Debo r ah .

,
2 15
probably the oldest piece of writing i n the B ible ,
( Judges v ) desc r ibes h i m as co m ing f r om there :

,
J e h ova h e t h ou e test fo t h out o f S e i

, w h n w n r r.
W h e t h ou m a c h edst out o f t h fi eld o f E do m

n r e .
T h ea t h t e m bled t h h eave s also d o pped

e r r , e n r
Y th clouds d o pp ed
ea , e ate r w r .
T h m ou ta i s fl o ed do
e n n at th p ese ce o f J e h ovah
w w n e r n ,
E ve yn S i a i at th p ese ce o f J e h ovah th g od o f
on n e r n , e
Is ra e l f f
He n ce he was t h e g od of the mountain and of the ,
lightning and thunde r storms wh ich raged about -
i t— the lightning w as hi s weapon in w a r the thun ,
d er h i s fea r ful voice ( Psal m xvi ii ) the cloud of fi re

, ,
hi s fo r m of appea r ance in the dese r t So you m igh t .

,
a sk, w a s Jehovah no m o r e than a natu r e po w er -
pe r sonified j ust as the gods o f othe r peoples ?

,
T r uly that is what he was originally but that he

, ,
beca m e in the course o f time so m ething s o i ncom

p a r ab ly di ffe r ent and higher i s n ot to be explained
f r om h is o r iginal meaning but f r om the history o f
h i s people ; the G od of Is r ael acqui r ed h is co n tent
and h i s i m portance i n a n d w ith the h i sto r y o f h is
adhe r ents ; he i s specifically a histo r ical god Th e .
p rocess o f that beco m ing fo r m s the subj ect matter

o f the h isto r y o f the r eligion of Is r ael .
F i r st w e m ust note carefully that the im m i

,
g ra tio n of the Is r ael itish t r ibes di d not occur at

o n e ti m e as th e later legend sai d it did but that
, ,
i t occu r r ed g radually an d f r o m va r ious dist r icts .
While those t r ibes w h ich ente r ed into the m iddle

and north of Canaan under the leadership o f ,
2 16
T h e R e l igi o n o f Isr aelj
E phraim came over the Jordan the J udaeans

, , of
the south from the neighbo r hood o f Kadesh

,
Ba rnea ( w here they w ere o r iginally native ) gradu

ally pushed on to the no r th in the di rection o f
Jerusalem In the ea r ly days those w e r e tw o sepa
.
,
r ate streams w h ich did not unite unti l the ti m e of

,
l
Davi d ; before that time they we r e separated by a
belt o f forti fi ed Canaanitish cities wh ich the Is r ael
ites were unable to conquer being technically ,
weaker in the art o f war O n the flat land only

.
di d the Israeliti sh nomad ic t r ibes fi r st gain a foot

hold ; they did n ot d r ive out the Ca n aanitish natives
d w elling the r e but they settled a m ong the m eu
, ,
ter ed into pe aceful neighbo r ly r elations with them

,
la nd lea r ned the works o f civili zation f r o m the m ,
especially husbandry and vine g ro w ing The nat -

.
ural conse q uence o f th i s mingli ng o f Is r aelites and

Canaa nites was a mixing o f th e religious notions
and customs of the two peoples The Israelites .
,
h aving become peasants could no longe r r est sati s

,
fi ed w ith thei r for m er no m ad — r eligion and i ts pov
e r ty o f r ite s fo r the w o r ship o f G o d ; they could n o t
avoid celeb r ating the local festivals w ith thei r

Canaanitish neighbo r s at w h ich the Baals the gods
, ,
of the sepa r ate valleys w e r e w o r sh ipped as the

,
lo r ds o f the ea r th and the gi ve r s o f its f r uits The r e .
was no one Baal w h o w a s the god o f all the land

o f Canaan ,but each sepa rate di st r ict had i ts p a r
ti cul a r Baal that mea n s m aste r and to h i m the d i s
, ,
triet owed t h e f ruitfulness of its soil Thus the .
2 17
R e l igi o n an d H i stori c F a i th s
I sraelites now b ecom e p eas ants were brought under

, ,
the lordship of the Baals the dist r ict and ferti lity ,
gods of Canaan ; but that does not mean that they

had forsaken Jehovah the God of their nomadi c ,
pe r iod He was sti ll the G od common to th e al l ied

'
t r ibes under whose name and protection the v ic

,
to r i ous advance upon Canaan had been successfully

ca rr ied out ; none the less was h e the G od of the
m ountain d w elling for the most p art on S inai i t
,
w a s thought active periodically and intermittently

,
as expe r ience showed Whenever war b r oke out .

,
Jehovah would hu r ry down f r om Sina i to aid hi s

people ; l ike a sto r m wind h e would sweep through
-
the land inspire h is heroe s gather h i s hosts and

, ,
lead them to battle and to vi ctory A fter the vic

'
tory had been w on and the return ing host scattered ,
to thei r va r ious local ities too k up once more thei r ,
peasant tasks the martial god of Mount S inai had

-
,
noth ing to do with them but hi s p lace was ta k en ,
by the Baalim the nearer gods of the f r uitful soil

,
.
That w as not really a desertion of Jehovah as

the late r h isto r ians w ere wont to desc r ibe i t f or , ,
at that ti m e the opposition of the Jehovah worsh ip

,
to the Baal wo r ship was not so mutually exclusive

as later on but one exi sted alongside the other ; they
,
were m utually co m plementary The bel ief in and .
w o r ship o f Jehovah ho w ever had its ebb and its

, ,
fl oo d tides and these va r iations corresponded to the

-
,
changes in the exte r nal co n ditions o f the Israelites .
Thi s condition o f m ixed rel igions lasted du r ing

2 18
T h e R e l igi on o f I srae l
the entire p eriod o f t h e j udges and th e older k ings .
All of th e ceremoni es especially the f esti vals give

, ,
e v idence of i t The th ree p rincipal f estivals of the

.
I sraelites were the Spring f estival of the unleavened -
bread ( the fi rst barley harv est ) th e S ummer f es -

,
-
ti v al o f the wheat harv est and th e Autumn festival

- -
o f the v i n ta g e —
al l of them agricultural festivals
h
,
wh ich th e I sraelites could not h ave celebrated i n the

desert b ut ac q uired a fter th ey settled down a s
,
p easants T h e P esac h ( Passah ) was the one fes

.
ti v al w h ic h they had retained from thei r nomadic

stage and t h at on e they p reserved ; originally i t had
been the S p ring festival o f the nomads at wh ich the
-
fi rs t born o f the lambs were o ffered and eaten as a

-
s acr ifi ci al meal -
Th is nomad f estival corr espond
.
,
ing al most exactly i n time was now united w ith the ,
peasant f esti v a l of unlea v ened brea d ; at a later

time the union of di ff ering custom s was arti fi cially
ex p lained by the legend o f t h e exodus f rom E gypt ,
i n commemoration of w h i ch th e P assah was sup

p osed to be celebrated — a n i nstructi ve example of
,
the use of a religious legend as the subsequent i h

terp reta ti on o f ancien t customs whi ch had become
unintelligible The same h olds true o f the sacred
.
places I n previous times the nomadic tribes had

.
,
been wont to gather once a year at some comm on

sanctua ry some place o f oracles and o f j udgments
, ,
such as Kadesh Barnea and during thei r wan

-
, ,
d er i n g s they had no other sac r ed places

, I n the .
l an d of Canaan ho w ever they found a num ber o f

, ,
2 19
s uch .
worship : in every dist r ict there were
p l aces of ,
sacred t r ees sac r ed wells and sacred stones i n

, ,
w hich according to th e bel ief of the i nhabitants

, ,
the r e dwelt divine beings w h o revealed them selves

,
the r e What else could the Hebrews do but seek

’
o r acles in the same places and celebrate thei r festi

v als there ? In early days that was not conside r ed ,
impious ; Jehovah and the Baali m we r e impartially

wo r shipped alongsi de on e another at the same
places Late r on the strict servants o f Jehovah b e
.
,
came suspicious of such worship and yet they could

not p r event i t at the popular sanctuaries What .
was to be done ? The ol d sanctuaries were main

f ained but a new meaning was given to them ; the
,
local legends o f Canaan were changed into the patri

a r chal legends o f the I srael it es The grove o f .
M am re o r Hebron the well o f Beersheba and the

, ,
stone o f Bethel were now supposed to have ach ieved

thei r sanctity through the facts that i n the ea r ly
days these were the places at wh ich Abraham I saac
, ,
and Jacob had r ested and received divine revelations ,
and they h ad establ ished places o f worsh i p to the

G od of Israel there .
Thus the I srael itis h p oets w h o composed th e

,
pious legends annexed the ancient sanctuaries o f

Canaan for Jehovah the G od of their p eople The
, .
sa m e thing has happened repeatedly in the history

o f the Ch r istian Chu r ch ; w hen Chri stianity spread
ab r oad a m ong the pagan peoples i t transformed th e ,
p laces sacred to the gods and heroes o f the heathens

220
into chapels o f its own saints and yet i n so doing , , ,
i t was not able to supp r ess the ol d heathen rites

entirely but had to su ffer them to continue unde r
,
Ch r istian labels I n ancient Is r ael the same th ing

.
,
happened These Canaanitish places of worship

.
were e q uipped with idols the Ashe r ahs and Masse,
both w hich we r e stone pi llars or wooden poles an d

, ,
were looked upon as images o r d w elling places -
( fetishes ) of the local deity The Israelites r e .
fained these i dols giving them the n e w relation to

,
”
Jehovah Besides they had thei r ark of Jehovah
.
, ,
whi ch was carried along in m ilitary expeditions but , ,
at other ti m es w a s stationed in a sanctuary in early

, ,
days at Si lo and later at J erusale m By an d

,
.
th r ough the ar k the e ffective po w er o f Jehovah was

,
i n so m e mysterious manner supposed to be p r esent .
Hence the fear that the ai d o f Jehovah has been lost ,
when after an unfo r tunate battle the a rk falls into

, ,
th e hands of the Philistines B ut Jehovah S ho w ed.
h imsel f to be loyal to h i s people : by means o f di re

plagues the Ph ilistines soo n lea r ned that i t w a s not
,
safe to hold that ark and they sent the uncomfo r t

able visito r home again as rapidly as they could .
A re m a r kable legend i s told wh ich sho w s h o w

crudely realistic was th e notion o f the attach m ent o f
the m i raculous power of the G od and the visible
symbol o f wo r sh ip A si milar idol was that image
.
of a bull erected at Dan and Bethel places o f w or

, ,
ship in the kingdom of E phrai m and s et up by ,
k in gs w h o were believe r s in Jehovah ; nobody too k

22 1
R e l igi on an d H i stor i c F ai th s
o ff en se J ehovah was rep resented by the image of
.
the bull exactly as the other Semites were wont to

,
depict thei r gods by the same image ; not unti l later

di d the p r ophets condem n thi s as i dolatry F inally .
,
the m ixing o f the two r eligions fo und peculiar ex

p r ession i n the name of G od i tself The uncertain .
m ultiplicity o f the in divi dual local gods and spi rits

was subsumed under the collective idea of the
Elohim ( wo r ld of s p irits deity ) and this was i denti
,
fi ed with J ehovah by a combination o f the tw o

—
,
names i nto one E lohim Jehovah Was that i a -

.
tended to convey that Jehovah had been merged i nto

the Elohim ? O r that the E loh im had been absorbed
by Jehovah ? F or the mass o f the people the answer ,
w ould be doubtful for a long period o f time but ,
finally J ehovah emerged from the contest alone the

, ,
victor What causes hel p ed to bring about that

.
result ?
O n the p art of certain p uritanical extremists
descended f r om the K en i ti c nomads ( later k nown as
Rechabites and resembl ing the N az ari tes ) there had
been a po w erful opposition from early days against
the entanglement of the I sraelites in the cultu r e
and religion o f the Canaanites They were a sect o f .
ascetics opposed to civili zation ; they maintained

that the p r imitive nomadic l ife on the steppes was
the ideal t r uly pleasing to G od They d w elt i n .
tents not in houses ; they were not engaged in

,
ag r iculture and they d r ank no wine It w as an .
ener g etic r ea ction against th e doub tful blessin gs

222
of culture wh ich natu r ally could not succeed in

, , ,
this extreme form ; nob ody dreamed o f exchangi ng

the settled l i fe of the p easant by a return to the
nomadic existence of the poor shepherd How .
ever the rise o f these peculia r dreamers acted as an

,
earnest reminder o f the ol d simple and sober

nomadi c li fe wi th the heavens for a roof and the
sole protection of the stern God o f the desert th e ,
terrible G od o f war Jehovah A deeper i mpression

, .
was made by the appearance o f the N eb i i m who

were not i n the beginning what we understand
, ,
by the word prophets but were rather ecstati c vis

, , ,
i on a r i es who wande r ed th r ough the land i n com

p a n i es after the fash ion o f the Corybantes o r the
n ative Dervishes and c r eated the impression o f
bei n g possessed or inspi r ed by thei r mad actions .
There were similar characte r s among the Canaani tes

( as there were also in many of the nature religions ) -
and thei r appea r ance among the Israel i tes may per
haps be traced to them ; but from the beginning ,
they ach ieved greate r impo r tance among the Israel

ites be cause they became the bea r ers of the national
r eligious inspi r ation during th e ti m es o f g r eatest
opp r ession at the hands of the Philistines Wh er .
ever the g r eat mass o f lazy or cowa r dly Is r aelites

were about to yield o r compromise there these i n ,
S pi red men appeared and i n the name of Jehovah

,
roused the cou r age for the cause of national eleva

tion and f r eedo m s o that Jehovah seemed to spe ak
,
through them and promise his assistance The .
2 23
consequence of th i s ex al ta ti on w a s that develop
'
m ent of national po w er w h ich came i n the ti m e o f

Saul and Davi d and finally meant the victory o f
J ehovah over the Baals of Canaan .
O f mo r e i m portance howeve r fo r the religion o f , ,
Is r ael was the activity o f the tw o allied opposition

,
pa r ties the pu r itans and the p rophets i n the days

, ,
of Ahab When King Ahab int r oduced the Ty r ian

.
w o r ship of Baal i n Sama r i a i n order to please Jeze
bel his Ph oenician wi fe the pious serva n ts of Jeho

, ,
vah feared that the r ise and spread o f th is st r ange

wo r ship might lead i n the end to the exti r pation
, ,
o f the national worship o f Jehovah At this e r iti .
cal j uncture rose the po w e r ful figu r e of the p r ophet

Elij ah the Tishbite He openly opposed the Ki n g
.
and co m batted h is m isrule both f r o m the r eligious ,
a n d the ethical standpoint F o r Ahab had n ot o n ly .
placed the worship of the st r ange i dols on the sa m e

level w ith that o f Jehovah but he had opp r essed the ,
poor he had i nc r eased his lands by illegal an d

,
fo r cible m eans as the well — kno w n sto r y o f the vine

,
ya r d o f Naboth proves Thus it was the r eligious .
a n d the mo r al co n science w h ich u r ged Eli j ah the
p r ophet to e n te r into opposition to the Ki n g an d

give testimony for Jehovah a s the on e God of j usti ce
a n d o f r i ghteousness Persecuted by the Ki n g an d
.
the p r iests o f Baal the p r ophet w a s fo r ced to fly

, .
He escaped to Mou n t Ho r eb the d w elling place o f ,

-
h is God and the r e expe r ienced a m i r aculous r evela

,
tion . O utsi de of the cave in w h i ch h e had spent

2 24
T h e R e l igi o n o f I sra e l
the night there raged a po w erful wind storm a

,
-
,
great and stro n g wind rent the mountains and b r ok e

the roc k s in pieces but Jehovah w a s not in the w ind ;
,
then came an earth q uake but Jehovah w a s not i n

,
the earthquake ; then came a fire but Jehovah was

not i n the fire ; then a soft m u r mur was heard and ,
E lij ah covered h is face w ith hi s mantle Stepping .
o ut o f the cave he hea r d a voice w h ich asked h i m :

,
What doest thou he r e Elij ah ? Then the prophet

,
made h is complaint that he has been j ealous i n the

cause o f Jehovah but that h e alone o f all the loyal
,
ones was l iving and that n o w even h is death

w a s sought B ut Jehovah consoles h im : Yet I “
.
have left me seven thousand in Is rael all the knees ,
”
wh ich have n ot bo w ed unto Baal ( I Kings xix
.
, ,
1 0 seq ).
The li fe wo r k of Eli j ah was a tu r ning point i n

- -
the histo r y o f the religion of Is r ael similar in i ts ,
consequences to those w hich follo w ed the appear

ance o f Za r athustra i n Iran As the latter so .
,
Eli j ah fo r ced the people to a decisive choice bet w een

the lying gods o r the one G od who alone i s t r ue
because he i s the God o f j ustice and o f righteous
ness "
How long halt ye bet w een two opin io ns ?
I f the Lord be ( the t r ue ) G od follow h im : but i f
,
”
Baal then follo w h i m
, .
( I Kings xvi i i It , ,
was the ethical idea o f G od matu r ed in the soul o f

the prophet by the need of his time which brok e
th r ough w i th i r r esistible po w er to th e demand fo r a
fin al choi ce between Jehovah the holy G od an d the
, ,
22 5
unholy natu e gods of the heathen Therewith J e
r -
.
hovah the God of the people o f I srael became the

, ,
God of the moral wo r ld — o r der who alon e could lay

claim to the right o f rule r ship and who soon was
recogni zed as truly the one .
In the path opened up by E lij ah followed the

p rophets o f the eighth centu r y o f w hom we have,
w r i tten docu m ents and they beca m e the creators of

,
an eth ical monotheis m from wh ich even a Mose s

and a Davi d had been far removed Amos preached .
to the unthinking Is r ael ites that they should not

brag of the protection o f Jehovah as long as they
made themselves un w o r thy o f it by thei r unright
e o us n es s ; that h e hi m self i s not bound to any one
people the st r anger peoples stand under h is r ule and

,
must serve as rods for the chastise m e n t of h is dis

loyal people W ith powe r ful wo r ds he thunders
.
,
against the semblance of piety of thei r external w o r

ship of God : Not the bu r nt o ffe r ings n o r the peace ,
o ff e r ings nor th e noise of songs i s pleasing to God ;

, ,
but let j udgment roll down as w ate r s and right

eo us n es s as ever flo w ing st r ea m s ; see k the good
and not the bad then ye shall l ive thus ( alone )

, ,
”
shall Jehovah be w ith ye as ye s ay Hosea s s ay .
’
ing i s w ell kno w n : N ot sacrifices but me r cy and

j udgment do I desi r e Mercy and j ud g ment "With
.
them a softer n ote i s heard ; not only r ighteousness

i n the legal sense but active hu m anity is demanded
,
by the religion o f Jehovah in w hose ethical natu r e

, ,
for the fi rst ti m e there appears through the agency

22 6
T h e R e l igi o n o f I sr a e l
of Hosea the milder f eatures of forbearance an d

forgi ving grace .
Soon after these tw o prophets w h o were active

i n the k ingdom o f Ephrai m Isaiah appears at the ,
court o f the Kings Ahaz and Hezekiah in Jerusalem .
”
H e too thunders against the lying sac r i fices and
the pseudo pious worshippers w hose hands are full
-
o f blood ; instead o f wh i ch he de m ands the se r vice
o f G od by righteous l iving : Put a w ay the evi l o f

your doings from before mine eyes ; cease to do
evi l learn to do well seek j ud g ment relieve the 0p
, , ,
p r essed j udge the fatherless plead for the wi dow

, ,
.
Thus the qualities by which Jehovah i s to be

,
worshipped through service are hu m anity b r other ,
li n es s an d readiness to help
,
You s ee the r efo r e .
, ,
that i t i s the social ethical conscience bo r n i n thi s

-
p r ophet o f the p r essu r e of bad social conditions

that creates the highe r i deal o f God But thi s ideal .
found s o l ittle r esponse that Isaiah decla r es in bit

ter pessimi sm that the obsti n acy o f this people i s th e
cause o f h is m ission ( vi 9 seq ) The opposition
. .
,
.
o f a stolid wo r ld serves only to inc r ease h i s con fi
dence in God ; above th e gloom o f the present h i s

p pr 0 h e ti c hopeful vision l i fted i tself to a mo r e
,
glorious future w he r ein h i s people n o w wande r ing ,
i n darkness w ill s ee a g r eat l ight and u po n th e

,
throne o f Davi d the r e wi ll s i t a w onde r ful he r o

and prince o f peace in w hose r ealm the r e w i ll be
j oy without end ( ix 1 s eq ) .
, , .
I saiah s favorable influence upon the government

’
2 27
of Heze k iah w as wit hout permanent r esults Dur .
ing the reign o f his successor M anasseh i dolatry , ,
was at its worst : in Jerusalem in the very templ e ,
of Je hovah could be seen the Ph oen ician sac r i fi ce of

,
children and the Babylonian worship o f Istar an d

her sun N ot unti l the r eign o f Josiah the g r and
.
,
son of Hezekiah di d the prophetic religious i deal

,
find practi cal application through the un ited e ffo r ts

o f the King and the priesthood The heathen .
forms of worship in Jerusalem were abolished and ,
i n order to root out entirely the semi heathenism -
o f the local forms of worship in the count r y all ,
sac r i fi cial servi ces at sanctua r i es outsi de of Jeru

salem ( on the high places ) were fo r bi dden and sac
r i fi ces to J ehovah con fi ned entirely to the temple at
J erusalem At the sam e time the prophetic i deal

.
,
o f the religi on of Jehovah was fi xed i n a law boo k -
sup p osed to have been found i n the temple and with ,
o ut doubt com p osed by the pri esthood there : i t i s

,
the law preserved for us in the fifth boo k o f Moses

and kno w n as D euteronomy Therein the worship .
o f Jehovah as the on e G o d and the sincere love o f

,
him i s set up as the highest p r inciple ; upon that a

, ,
S imple civi l and generally humane system of duties

,
i s based— a sound and humane ethics co r respond

ing to the spi ri t of the prophetic religion Th e .
proclamation of this law 62 1 B C was the means

, . .
,
o f m ak ing thi s religion wh ich had unti l then lived

,
only in the hearts o f the best t h e a ff ai r of all and,
a p ermanent institution .
228
N aturally ,
was soon seen t h at laws and th e
it
i nstitution o f a p urer o rder of divine worshi p wer e
n ot s u ffi ci ent to change the s p iri t o f the p eopl e .
T h e masses as well as the p riests fell under the i llu

sion that every th ing was done when the practices
laid down by the law for tem p le service had bee n -
done that then the hel p o f J ehovah against dangers

,
w h ich m ight th reaten would certainly be fo r th com
i ng
. Then i t was that Jeremiah the sublimest and
,
most tragical of the great propheti c fi gures under ,
took to combat thi s illusion and with a courage ,
t h at recogni zed neither high nor low attac k ed thi s ,
f alse cer ta inty H e warned sharply against the

.
h uman trust i n th e tem p le wh ich by immoral li fe

, , ,
was transformed into a murderer s den and calle d ’
attention to the correct k nowledge of the law wher e

the li fe di d not conform th ereto ; lying proph ets
was the name h e applied to those o p ti m i stic p r each
er s o f p eace who closed t h ei r eyes to the a p proach
i ng j udgments and l ulled the people and thei r

leaders to rest in fateful security But though he .
,
saw that there was no escape f r om the heavi est

blows w hich fate had i n store for both ci ty an d
state his faith in the permanence o f the covenant
,
between Jehovah and his people re m ained unshaken .
E ven in the futu r e he s aw as the last fruit o f the

, ,
impending heavy j udgments a new period o f s a l

,
vation the dawn o f a day when rel igion would be

,
enti r ely w ithi n man and the k nowledge of G od

would be universal .
2 29
R e l igi on an d H i stor i c F ai t h s
ol d th da y s come sa i th th L o d t h at I i ll m ak e
B eh , e , e r , w
a n ew cove a t W i t h th h ouse of I s ael d i th th h ouse

n n e r , an w e
o f J udah N ot acco d i g to t h cove a t t h at I m ade i t h

: r n e n n w
t h e i f ath e s i th days t h at I too k th em by th h a d to

r r n e e n
b i g t h em out of t h la d o f E g yp t ; h i ch m y cove a t
r n e n w n n
t h ey bra k e alth ou gh I , h usba d u to t h e m sa i t h

w as an n n ,
th e L d ; B ut t h i s sh all be th cove a t t h at I i ll m a k e
or e n n w
w i th th h ouse o f I s ael ; A f te th ose days sa i th th L o d

e r r , e r ,
I w i ll p ut m y l i th e i i a d p a ts d i te i t i th e i
aw n r nw r r , an w r n r
h ea ts ;r d i ll be th e i G od d th ey sh all be m y p eo p le
an w r an .
A d t h ey sh all teac h
n m o e eve y m hi e igh bo
no d r r an s n r, an
eve y m h i b ot h e say i g K o th L o d f th ey sh all

r an s r r, n , n w e r : or
all k o m f om t h least o f th em u to th g eatest o f

n w e, r e n e r
th em sa i t h th L o d f I i ll f o gi ve t h e i i iq u i ty d
, e r : or w r r n , an
I w i ll em em b e t h e i i
r mo e
r (J xxx i 3 q )
r s n no r .
”
er .
, x , se .
2 30
P OST E X I L I C
-
J UD AI S M
T H E p unishments which J eremiah had pro p hesied

came to pass : Jerusalem was dest r oyed the greater ,
n umber o f th e Je w s car r ied o ff into exile to Baby
lon ( 58 6 That the religion of Jehovah h o w ,
ever di d not fall at the same tim e as the Israel itish

,
state i s the merit o f th e prophets who had sepa r ated

Jehovah from the peopl e o f I srael long befo r e an d ,
had recognized h im as the G od of the moral worl d

order who rei gns as the eternal spi r i t beyond all th e
,
changing fates o f nations Again during thi s period

.
,
o f exile a period of misery the p r ophets kept aligh t

, ,
the sparks of faith and hope At th is time we meet

.
,
two powerful figu r es di ffe r ing fundamentally i n th e

,
manner o f thei r thought and action but both of them ,
o f greatest influence i n the development wh ich fol
lowed Pe r haps they m ight be called the exemplars

.
o r fathers o f tw o tendencies wh ich run pa r allel i n
the Jewish religion from that time on which strug ,
gl e w ith one ano ther and fi nally end the on e i n ,
Talmudi c Judaism and the other in Chri stianity I

, .
mean E zekiel and the second or Babylonian I saiah , ,
as we are wont to call th e one o r more unkno w n

—
authors of the p ro p hecies in I saiah chapters xl lxvi .
,
23 1
Re l ig i o n an d H i stor i c F ai ths
Ez ek iel i s th e classi c type of theocrati c p riest ;

with a cool heart he looks upon the su ffering o f hi s
,
people as the righteous divine punishment for th e

,
guilt heaped up by them during thei r entire past .
Thei r mi sfortune served h im as a means of a w aken

ing the feel ing o f guilt wh ich he then intensi fi ed
,
to such a degree of abj ect humility that all human

st r iving for happiness all desi re for temporal power
,
and national independence should be broken an d

choked i n order that the n ew structure o f th e
,
p r iestly state o f G od m ight be erected upon the

ruins o f thei r national state existence H i s i deal i s-
.
a community o f pious men under the rulership o f

the p r iest the cent r al point i s the temple ; thei r
,
greatest care i s the legally ordered divine service ,
and the on e tas k of life i s the s anctificati on o f all

thei r members by stri ct observance of ceremonial
regulations and rigi d avoidance o f all sullying con
tact wi th the heathen At the beginning of the exile
.
,
E zekiel had desi gn ed thi s program and on e h un ,
dred years later through Ezra s proclamation of the

,
’
p r i estly l a w i t w a s actually carried out in the J e w

,
ish community w h ich returned to Palestine .
How di ff erent the spi r it we meet in those p r op h e

”
cies o f that great unknown D eute r o I saiah writ -
,
ten toward the close o f th e p eriod of exile H e .
d id not see k to break and rule h is p eople but to ,

‘
cons ole and l i ft them u p ; he di d n ot seek to make

h is people ritually exclusive and narro w their l ives ,
b ut rather i n the widest mi ssionary wor k for true

, ,
2 32
Post Ex i l i c
-
Ju ai sm
d
religion among all the peoples o f the world he hel d ,
up for hi s people the i deal o f its h isto r ical m ission

and hope H i s fi rst pu r pose i s to arouse and to
.
strengthen in hi s deeply bowed people a faith in its

-
o w n futu r e a trust i n the loyalty of i ts God but

, ,
above and far beyond that stretches h i s propheti c

vi sion ; fo r he knows— the history o f the peoples o f
the world is the proof for him— that Jehovah i s not
only the God o f I srael but the one Lo r d o f all the
world the Creator o f heaven and o f earth the co n
, ,
troller o f the fate o f all peoples ; he knows the

heathen gods are nothing images m ade by folly and
,
by human hands Thi s one and only God ho w ever

.
, ,
has chosen the little people o f Israel not that th ey ,
should remain hi s one possession but that as h i s , ,
servant instrument and herald they may p r oclaim

, ,
the true G od to the peoples that they m ay become ,
the mediating nation i n the divine education o f

humanity .
Deutero I saiah also gives up the thought o f tem

-
poral r ulership but not in o r der to s et up an exclu

,
s i v el y Je w i sh theoc r acy i n its place He r e Is r ael s ’

.
vocation i s to come in its stead I srael s r eligious ,

’
—
mi ssion the ideal described by Deute r o Isaiah in -
the wonde r ful words : Behold my serva n t w hom

I uphold ; mine elect in whom my soul delighteth :
,
I have p ut my spi r it upon h im ; he shall bring fo r th

j udgment to the Genti les H e shall n ot cry n or .
,
li ft up nor cause hi s voice to be heard in the st r eet .
A bruised reed shall he n ot brea k and the smoking ,
233
flax shall he not q uen ch : he shall bring forth j udg
ment i n truth H e shall not fai l nor be discou r aged
.
,
ti ll he have s et j udgment i n the earth ; and the isles

”
shall wait for hi s law ( xli i.I s eq ) Th is sheds , ,
.
a new light upon the heavy su ff erings which we r e

Israel s fate E zekiel s crude criminal law theory
’
.
’
-
i s not a k ey to the adeq uate solution o f th is problem ;

but in th e eyes of a rel igious ph ilosopher o f his
tory— and such name m ay well be given to our
prophet— the suff e r ing o f the servant of G od ap
pears as the i nstru ment b y which he i s enabled to
attain hi s highest ob j ect the salvation and r e dem p
,
tion of men I n whatsoever manner the words o f the

.
fi fty thi rd chapter o f Isaiah may be interpreted th i s

-
,
m uch is certainly clear that therein the deep thought

,
whi ch has ever stood the test fi nds expression that ,
the innocent su ff ering o f the righteous i s a sacri fi ce

fo r the best welfare o f all a p urchase p rice of the ,
salvation of the world .
In the generations wh ich f ollowed the pro phets ,
their great expectations were not realized by events

as they occurred True Cyrus the Persian King
.
, ,
whom Isaiah greeted as the annoi nted o f Jehovah

( Messiah ) di d gi ve the Jews permission to return
,
from thei r exi le after h is con q uest o f Babylon ,
5 36 B C ; an d the greater po rtion o f t h e J ews di d

. .
actual ly return to thei r home but the conditions i n ,
and about Jerusalem for the n ewly settled colony

,
were v ery m iserable A political crisis which

.
,
shoo k the f oundations of t h e P ersian k ingdom

234
P ost E x i l i c J ud ai sm
-
s h ortly a ft erward in the reign of Darius gave t h e

,
o pportunity fo r k indling anew the o l d temporal
politi cal messianic hopes and th e fla m es we r e fed

by Haggai and Zechariah the prophets ; heedless o f
,
all the experiences o f the p ast again they gave them

,
selves up to the bold expectation of God s impend ’
ing j ud gm ent upon the heathen and the un iversal

rulership of the Jews : they prepared the golden
crown for the Davi dic prince Z er ub ab el the Persian
, ,
g o v ernor. The Persian realm however su rv ived

, ,
the crisis and the Jews had to postpo ne thei r m es

s i a n i c hopes to some uncertain futu r e day .The
temple which had been begun was completed but ,
the religious inspi ration was pa r alyzed by th i s

new disenchantment Actual conditions we r e n ow
.
loo k ed i n the face ; peace was made with the neigh

bors and alliances sought pa r ticularly through
m arriages w i th those o f thei r comrades w h o had
,
remained in Samaria The Jewish colony w hich had

.
remained i n Babylon — fo r wh om the strict exclu

sion o f thei r heathen envi ronment was the p r oblem
o f existence— regarded the action of thei r b r e thren
as fraught with danger for the religion of Jehovah .
They wi shed for the r ealization o f that plan w h ich

E zekiel and othe r s o f l ike spi r it h ad matured ; a m ong
them l ived th e desi r e for the ach ieve m ent o f the
i deal of a Je w i sh theocracy on the soi l of the sacred
land o f the fathers .
To thi s end E zra the priest and scribe arranged

, , ,
all of those s k etches and studies into a new M osa i c

2 35
law book a n d gained perm ission of Artaxerxe s ,
the Pe r sian King to i n t r oduce i t o fficially at Jeru

,
salem Acco m panied by a la r ge ca r avan o f Je w ish

.
exi les f r o m Babylo n he a r r ived at Je r usale m 4 58

,
B C
. . S o on the r eafter he began the pu r ging o f the
,
people of God of all fo r eign elements and his exclu

sion o f the hereti cal Sama r itans w as s o rigo rous that
h e did not even hesitate at the dissolution o f the
existing m ixed m a r r iages In orde r to p r otect hi s
.
w o r k against the fo r cible entry o f the neighbo rs
w ho m he s o ruthlessly insulted he tried to rebuild ,
the walls o f Jerusalem ; but th is attempt failed b e

cause the governor of Sa m aria had induced the Per
sian king to fo r bi d it That was a heavy blow for
.
the authority of the p r i est Ez r a ; his hopes for the

i ntroductio n of the n ew p r iestly l a w seemed to be
blighted fo r yea r s F inally help did come to h im
.
again f r o m the Pe r sian court where the Je w ish cup

bea r e r Nehe m iah had used h i s position in o r der to
, ,
obtai n f r o m th e king hi s own com m ission as gov

e r n o r of Je r usale m and th e perm ission to build its
w alls . By h i s w isdo m and the power of hi s pe r

s o n a l i ty he w a s able to win the p eople over for
,
himself and Ezra Afte r the reconst r uction of the

.
walls had been finished he called a gene r al gather

,
i n g of the people and they called upon Ezra to r ead

h i s l a w book . The impression was s o powe r fu l
that the w hole people with the exception o f a few
,
si n gle p r i ests whose opposition was s w ept a w ay by

th e enthusi asm of the m ass at once follo w ed the ,
23 6
P o s t E x i l i c J ud a i s m
-
example o f N ehemiah the Governor binding them ,
selves by thei r signatures to obey the p r iestly l a w

o f Ezra Th is solemn deed 4 4 5 B C w as the b e
.
, . .
,
ginning o f the Jewish priest state As in the case -

.
o f the later copy the Roman papacy thi s was the

, ,
result o f an alliance o f the priesthood with the royal

p ower .
In i ts original form the priestly law boo k has not

survived but the contents have Later periods
,
.
added to it older la w s an d writings o f h isto r i cal o r

legendary content form ing i n i ts enti r ety the fi ve
,
books of Moses ( Pentateuch ) wh ich makes up th e

beginning of the O ld Testament canon Thi s work .
,
wh ich does not contain a single line by Moses him

self is an artificially wrought collection o f writings
,
f r om about five centu r ies and reflects the va r ious

planes o f th e develop m ent o f the religion o f Is r ael
a n d Judah in the pe r iod between Solomon and the
last of the Pe r sian k ings The priestly l a w book i s

.
di ffe r entiated from Deuteronomy which had been ,
promulgated under J osiah in 6 2 1 D C by the ab . .

,
sence of ci vi l and eth ical regulations and the exclu

sive attention to the arrangement o f the p r iestly
h ie r a r chy and thei r ce r emonial functions as w ell as ,
the o r de r ing of the Observances by w hich Je w ish

l ife beca m e sanctified that i s by which i t shoul d
, ,
become separated f rom other people It m ay p e r .

,
haps be said that the priestly l a w of E z r a i s the

,
epito m e of the r eligion o f the ave r age man among

the Je w s i n the ex ile Thei r s tro ng feeling o f guilt
.
2 37
expressed itsel f through t h e mass of p en itential sac
r i fi ces and n ew ceremonies such as the D ay o f
,
Atonement upon wh i ch th e sins o f the p eople

,
th rough the whole year are put on the back of the

scape — goat and considered done for when the sca pe
goat has been driven off into the wi lderness This .
crude rite revived the anim istic notion of sin and

guilt as evi l material i n its nature and therefore
,
removable by sensuous means ; all o f which ac q uir es

the n ew sanction under the gu ise of ancient re v ela
tion.
The same holds true of the com p li cated l aws for

p urification particularly those relating to clean and
,
unclean animals ; in them the taboo of the “
nature rel igion i s raised to the level o f a most i m

-
p o r tant m atter o f conscience and b ecomes a com

mand o f the holy G od of I srael E very one can see
.
how far this priestly god who bothers about such

,
m iserable stu ff falls belo w the eth i ca l i dea of G od

,
enunciated by the great pro p hets This decline int o .
a sem i heathen ritual religion glori fi ed only by the

-
halo o f a divine revelation to Moses can be ex ,
p lained only by th e condition o f Jewish worsh ip

du r ing the exile ; the Jews felt the need of em ph as i z
ing and preserving thei r separateness as against
thei r heathen environment and lacking a system of
, ,
worship employed such external rites as abstinence

from the eating of pork stri ctest obse r v ance of the
,
Sabbath circumcision and the l i k e Thereby these

, , .
,
th i ngs whi ch ha d been nai ve popular cust om s b e

2 39
P o st E x i l i c J ud a i sm
-
f ore and wh ich had not been matters o f deep con

cern n ow assumed the value of w ork s and sacred
,
duties peculi arly pleasing to God the pe r formance ,
o f wh ich represented membe r ship in the Jewi sh
church Thus at the cost of making i t mechanical

.
,
and i n half heathenish fash ion material the p ro

,
-
, ,
p h e ti c Jehovah rel igion was preserved .
However thi s w as only on e side o f the p ost

,
exil ic Jewish religion Within the hard shell o f

.
external legal ity the better spiri t o f the i deal re

,
l i g i on o f the prophets di d live on and p r oduce d

new and valuable f r ui t At the same time that the
.
sensuous sacri fi cial services which were s o l ittl e to

the taste o f the p r ophets were b e ing carried on with
ever increasing pomp at the temple there arose the
-
,
s p i ritual service of G od w ithout sacrifice th rough ,
scriptural ed ification i n the synagogue Where .
formerly the p rophetic belief i n G od had been the

possession o f a few ind ividuals n ow i t could be ,
ac q ui red by all the members o f the Jewish cong r e

g a t i o n as thei r personal conviction and spi ritual
attitude The most beauti ful f r uits of thi s inter
.
n al i z a ti on and appl ication o f r el igion to the e x pe r i
e n ces of man s daily l i fe were the Psalms and the

’
wisdom books ( Proverbs E cclesiastes Job ) Thei r

, , .
ideal o f piety is not the ritualistic saintliness of

the priestly code but a clean hea r t and noble deed
,
i n the fear o f and the trust i n G od They alone .
who have this a r e true servants of God and as such

they k now themselves to be separated by a dee p
2 39
R e l igi o n an d H i stor i c F a i t h s
abyss from the i ndi ff erent and the godless who ,
though they are Jews by bi rth and in external p ra c

tices are really on a level w ith the heathen O nce
,
.
having made th is di ffe r ence between true and merely

exte rnal seeming attachment to the congregation o f
G od whe r ein th e personal and moral value of the
,
i ndivi dual was the standard of m easure th e religious ,
importance o f national boundaries was lost ; it could

not be overlooked that outsi de o f J udaism als o
there were pious and good men I t was i n thi s sense
.
that Malach i th e last of the p ro p hets said that the

, ,
name of G od i s great eve r yw h ere among the peo

ples i n th e E ast and the West and in every p lace
,
pure o fferings are sacri fi ced to h im wh ich means ,
that among the heathen too there were true servants

o f G od . Yea the author o f the Boo k of J ob has
,
even made a non J ewish man the patient J ob th e

-
,
representative o f a p urer belief i n G od as against

Jewi sh p re j udices .
With th i s p ersonal deep en ing o f the religious

consciousness there arose new problems disheart
, ,
en i ng enigm as and cruel doubts So long as .
religion was though t o f mainly as appl ied to the

people as a w h ole and eac h on e felt h imself a p artici
pant i n its fate through the feeling of solidarity the ,
fact of experience that t h e p ious man was o f ten the

v i ctim o f misfortune and the godless man en j oyed
,
good fortune was not food for much thought B ut

, .
now that the p ious indivi dual felt h imsel f as the

bearer of an unmediated personal r elatio n to G od ,
240
-
now that eth ical self j udgment had deep ened and
-
clarified the serious question arose : How can th e

,
misfortune of the pious be reconciled w ith the ruler

ship o f a G od who rewards and p unishes right
eo us l y ? Thi s question was the more d i fficult
because the Judai s m o f that day had no such hope as
that of reconci liation i n the w o r ld to co m e for that ,
thought was then either entirely strange or was i t

self a mere premo n ition o f a dawning p r oblem .
The more w o r thy of ad m i r ation the r efo r e i s the

, ,
courage with whi ch the author o f the Book o f Job

st r uggled with th is dark ri ddle He has th e friend s
.
o f Job take the usual Jewish belief i n retribution
and mak e complaint against the patient man that

hi s m i series must be the punishmen t for some secret
sins Against th is Job defends h imself for h i s
.
, ,
conscience i s f r ee from heavy guilt H e calls G od .
himself to w itness and t r usts that th e true God wi ll

once agai n save th e hon o r o f a man so r ely m i s rep re
sented and enter the lists for h im who has been
patient i n h i s su ffe r ing and fi rm i n h is faith th rough
it all And the poet d oes actually have God h imsel f
.
appear upon the scene and declare against the s us

p i c i o n s of h i s friends — suspicions which were the
consequence o f thei r bel ief i n retribution— that th e
pious and patient Job is right S o this belief in so
.
,
far as it makes the w o r ld s j ud g ment of a man de

’
pendent upon his exte r nal ci r cu m stances i s rej ected

,
as i rr econci lable w ith the pure r kno w ledge o f G od

h imself ; the pious consciousness ri ses to t h e inne r
2 41
certainty o f i ts community with G od which inde ,
pendent o f the chance o f external fate cannot even ,
be shaken by m isfo r tune Thi s view o f the Hebrew .
poet who wrote the didacti c p oem called Job h ar

monize s completely with that of the probably con
temporaneous G r eek thin k er Plato ; the latter also ,
presents th e unconditional value o f the ethically

good in h i s picture of the righteous su ff ering m is
rep r esentation an d persecution yet inwardly happy ,
and ce r tai n that the righteous can never be for

saken of G od The same thought i s expressed i n
.
some o f the Psalms ; a pa r ticula r ly beautiful exam

ple is th e seventy th i r d Psalm whose author fleeing
-
from gloomy fate fi nds refuge in G od : ,
N eve rt h e l e ss I co t i ually i th t h ee
am n n w
T h ou h ast h olde m by m y igh t h a d

n e r n .
T h ou sh alt g u i de m i th t h y cou sel

e w n ,
A d a f te
n rw a d ece i ve m to g lo y
r r e r .
W h om h ave I i h eave but t h ee ?

n n
A d t h e e i s o e u p o ea t h t h at I d es i e b e i d e t h ee
n r n n n r r s .
M y fl esh d m y h ea t f a i leth
an r
B ut G od i s th st e gt h o f m y h ea t d m y p o t i o fo eve
e r n r an r n r r .
Wherever such an attitude shows itself we may ,
well call i t Christianity before Christ Average .
Judaism howeve r remained on the standpoint of

, ,
the util itarian bel ief in ret r ibution and the conflict ,
between thi s faith and the facts o f experience led

many a on e into that pessi m istic skeptical moo d
.
wh ich the preacher with h is Helleni c training

“
”
con f essed when he sai d all i s vanity , .
242
P ost E x i l i c J ud ai s m
-
F rom t h e t h i rd cen tury

G ree k enligh tenment on ,
made its entry among the up p er classes o f J udea ,
as i t had in all of Asia M inor F o r many the ten .
d en cy to strange culture produced an i ndi ff erence to

the faith and customs of th e fathers In this incl ina .
tion to things Greek the thoroughly worldly priest

,
nobles o f J erusalem went to such an extreme that

they o ff ered to help the Syrian King A ntiochus ,
E p iph a n es i n h i s e ff ort at complete Hellenisatio n

,
o f the J ewish peo p le However the v iolence with

.
,
which thi s attempt was made awa k ened the r eac

tion of th e national and religious spi rit of the peo
p l e Wh en the combination o f the M accabean
.
h eroes with the p ious peasants succeeded in defeat

ing the Syrian army and throwing o ff the govern
ment o f the strangers the Jewish religion was saved
,
from being caught i n the th reatening snare of the

G reek spi rit Then happened what happens every
.
where and at all times under such ci rcumstances

the victorious rel igious inspi ration ends in a tre
m en d ous ecclesiastical r eaction and what had begu n
i n the spirit i s completed in the fl esh—ritual ism ,
h ierarch ism dogmatism etc As a further p rotec

, , .
t ion against the incu r sion o f heathenism th e Assi ,
d aea n s the pa r ty of the pious wh ich soon became the

,
”
Pharisees the party o f the sep arates laid most
,
“
,
stress o n a st r ict fulfillment of the law in all its

detail an d exte r nals But the written law was not
.
enough for them : a fu r ther hedge o f school ordi

n ances was built u p making the realm o f t h in gs
,
2 43
R e l igi o n an d H i sto r i c F ai t h s
p erm itted ever narro we r and tighten ing the net

o f Observances around daily li fe N o longer w a s
.
stress laid upon the pious attitude o f the Psalms

and the l i fe wisdom of the Prove r bs but upon legal
cor r ectness acco r ding to the prescriptions of the
Sc r ibes and the Pharisees I n the school of these
.
vi rtuosos of religion that tendency noticeable as

,
early as the priestly l aw of E zra wh ich gave cere

,
monials far greater impo r tance than morals was ,
carried to such an extreme that the law became an

opp r essive yok e and the fulfill m ent o f all its de
mands became an im p ossible tas k for the g r eat mass
o f the working people Hence these exemplary
.
p ious men o f the school looked down a r rogantly

”
upon the people o f the soil condemning them as
,
godless because they di d n ot understand aught o f the

casuist ry o f the school regulati ons and because the
needs of daily l i fe made i t impossible for them to
avoi d transgressi ons and impurities Hence th e .
l aw becam e a dividing ba r r ier ; not only did i t divi de

th e J ew f r om the heathen but i t divi ded the Jews
,
a m ong themselves into those w h o we r e righteous i n

th e legal sense an d the p r ofane mass The ethical .
l iving spi r i t o f the religion o f the prophets beca m e

a death dealing letter by th i s Pharisaical disto r tion
-
.
B ut however much the li fe of the Jews m ight b e

e nchained and cut o ff f r o m the r est o f the w o r ld by
th is legal discipline o f the Sc r ibes they could not ,
p revent the in p ouring of a mass of Eastern and

244
Po st E x i l i c
-
J ud ai sm
Western elements into the thin k ing of the J ews ;
thus there was brought about a m ixture of Jewish ,
O riental an d G ree k th oughts whi ch p repared the

,
foundation for a n ew rel igious structure o f th e

future F rom Babylon and Persia i n the E ast came
.
the speculations concerning divine mediators con ,
ce r n ing the realm of the good an d the bad spi rits ,
concerning the resurr ecti on last j udgment an d , ,
p laces o f retribution in the wo r ld beyond D ivin e .
att r ibutes such as Wisdom Spi ri t and Word w ere

, ,
transform ed into independent personal mediator s

between G od an d the world after the manner o f the
Persian A m s ch a sp ans or archangels The ol d idea .
”
o f the messengers o f God angels was expanded
, ,
into a host o f spi rits whose leaders have certai n

speci fi ed duties i n the government o f the world ;
p eoples and individuals have thei r protecting angels
and the phenomena of nature are cont r olled by
angels an im itation o f th e heathen natu r e gods A s
,
-
.
i n the P ersian religion where the host of good spi r i ts

i s opposed to th e host o f bad spi rits s o Judaism ,
n ow ac q ui red the demons which had fo r me r ly been
m eaningless ghosts i n the popular belief and they ,
too k on the rel igious meaning o f fallen angels mak

i ng u p an anti d ivine realm under thei r over —
-
lo r d ,
Satan Satan h imsel f who i n the Book o f J ob had

.
,
been rega r ded as on e in God s t r ain and played th e

’
p art o f the divine state prosecutor the complainant

-
against man now became the opponent o f God an d

,
the p rince of the m undane realms o p p r essing th e

2 45
d ivine realm o f the Jews The a pp earance of sin .
and o f evi l in G od s good creation was traced back

’
to temptation by Satan and h i s demons were looked ,
upon as the originators o f all physical and Sp i ritual

diseases ( possession ) The fear o f these inimical .
spi r i t powers weighed like a mountai n upon the

-
souls o f all the men o f that time upon the J ew no ,
less than upon the heathen B ut as w ithout doubt .
the Jews too k over from the Persians t h i s idea of a

struggle between the divine and the Satanic rule ,
so they hoped as di d the Pe r sians that the divine

, ,
rule w ould eventually b e victorious that the p eople ,
o f God would be saved and that there would be a
unive r sal j udgm ent and a resurrection of the dead .
These pictures o f the future are th e themes of the

A pocalyptic l iterature which became o f supreme
impo rtance for the Jewi sh religion i n the last cen
tury before and the fi rst century after Jesus The .
Book o f Daniel written i n the time o f the M acca

,
bees 1 6 5 B C mar k s the beginning It contains a

, . .
,
.
r eligious philosophy o f h istory di viding the world
period into four parts in i m itation o f the Persian ;

i ts underlying thought i s that after the impending
do w nfall of the last heathen world empi r e the -
,
Grecian Macedonian the ete r nal empire o f the

'
-
,
saints namely the Jews would begin The f our

, , .
heathen world e m pi r es had been typi fi ed by ani m al

-
figu r es and he typifies the co m ing Jewi sh d ivine

empire by the fi gure o f a S on of Man swaying
toward G od on a cloud of hea v en ; p robabl y h e
246
-
thin k s of a divine M essiah such as is also to be

f ound in the prophecies o f th e S ibyls and o f the
Book of E noch The old prophetic hope o f a m es
.
s i an i c pe ri od o f salvation fo r the p eople o f Is r ael
thus gets a new di rection ; it i s no longer ex p ected
i n the natural h istorical course o f events but the

government of G od i s to come from heaven by a
sudden mi raculous catast r ophe which w ill put an
end to all present mundane conditions That r e .
mained the ruling O pinion of Judaism and was the n

taken over by earliest Christianity .
Concerning th e person o f the exp ected Messi ah ,
the vi ews al w ays va r i ed so that at on e time he i s a

,
supernatural being w h o shall appea r f r om heaven

( S ibyls
,
Enoch E zra ) again
,
h e i s,
a human king ,
o f the house of Davi d ( Solomon Psalms ) and at , ,
another time he i s enti r ely absent and G od alone

,
i s to rule i n the coming aeon ( Asce n sion of

Moses ) The one th ing that i s not changed is the
.
catastroph ic mi raculous character of the co m ing

,
o f God s real m The character o f h is kingdo m will

’
.
correspond to its supe r natu r al o r igin for though i t ,
w ill be real ized on ea r th the pious of bygone days ,
w ill r ise from the dead in o r der to partake o f i ts
happiness as the godless will rise to ete r nal tor

,
ment The hope o f resu r rection exp r essed fo r the

.
,
fi rst time i n the Book o f Daniel w as p r obably the ,
result of Pe r sian in flue n ce and sp r ead i n close ,
connection with the w hole bel ief i n the w o r ld j udg -
ment and world renewal In the later A p ocalyp ses

-
.
,
247
E noch Ezra B aruch there was added the i dea
, , , of
p laces of r etribution in the wo r ld beyond for i ndi
vidual souls : Paradise for the pious and Gehenna o r

Hell for the godless Th e idea o f immortality and
.
o f a li fe o f bliss or misery for souls after death
had been ali en to the ol d Israelitish faith but i n ,
conj unction w ith the belief in resurrection i t h a d ,
long existed i n the Persian and E gyptian religions ,
i n the G r eek Mysteries and among the O r phic and

,
n ew Pythagorean soci eties I t i s probable th at .
f r om them si n gle features of the gay picture of

the world beyond painted i n the Jewish Ap ocaly p
,
ses had been taken over

, .
F or besi de th e O r iental gnosticism i t was G ree k ,
religious p h ilosophy whi ch exercised a deep i n fl u

ence upon the religious thinking o f the Je w s espe ,
ci a l ly in Alexandria du r ing the last ante Christian

,
-
centuries The boo k entitled The Wisdom of S ol

.
omon i s already a product of the m ixt ure of Jew

ish belief and Greek ( Stoi c and Platoni c ) ph ilosophy ;
but the ripest fruit i s p r eserved for us i n the writings
o f the Jewi sh ph ilosopher and theologian Philo o f ,
,
.
—
A lexand r ia 2 0 B e 54 A D By means o f a bold
. . .
allegorical method of inte r preting the sacred wri t

ings o f his people reading into them the thoughts
,
o f Plato and the Stoics he sought to ha r moni ze the

,
Jewish faith with the G reek trend o f thought of h is

time Philo s view of the wo r ld also was dualistic
’
but i t was not the r ul ing opposition o f the Je w ish

Apocalypses wh ich set the p r esent w orld over against
24 8
-
the f uture world but rather the Hellenisti c o p po si

,
tion wh ich placed the sensual visible over against -
the supe rsensual ideal w orld Acco r ding to Philo

-
.
,
God i s pu r e spi r it sublime beyond all the limitations

,
o f fi niteness the opposite of the m ate r ial world and

, ,
therefore he cannot work upon it without mediation ;

yet G od i s eve r active powe r and the perfect po w er
-
from whom all good gi fts and only good co m e i m , ,
mediately F or him evils a r e me r ely the recogn ized

.
,
activities of subordinate spi ri ts The mediation .
between G od and the world i s accomplished by

bodyless powers or ideas or angels ; at thei r head
stands the Logos which is both the world o r de r ing
reason as well as the personi fi ed revelato r y word .
”
H e is called G od s fi r s t born S on and Image a
’ “
-
,
”
“
second G od mediator of creation and all h is
,
to r i cal revelation high priest and attorney ( Para

,
clete ) for men thei r teacher physi cian helmsman

, , , ,
gui de out o f the strange land of earth into the

heavenly home F or the human soul as Philo con
.
,
f orm ing to Plato teaches has fallen from its upper ,
world of i deas and been caught i n the p r ison of a

mundane body ; its task therefore i s to ri se above , ,
th e world o f the senses and free itself so as to go

to the worl d of ideas I ts ow n po w er howeve r .
, ,
cannot possibly do th is but i t can only be accom ,
p l i s h ed by the divine aid of the mediator Logos
( Here you have the theological t r ansformation o f

the Platonic thought o f the saving po w er o f th e
di v in e h uman E ros
-
I t i s the Logos who i n
.
,
2 49
R e l igi o n an d H i stor i c F ai ths
hi s merci ful sym p athy descends into the souls of
,
men and lifts them out of the stormy sea o f the

'
p erishable world into community with the divine ,
con s ecrating them as temples of G od The Pla .
tonic way to salvation the striving after wisdom

’
,
( philosophy ) ac q ui res through Philo a decidedly

, , ,
religious tinge : it is faith wh ich surrenders w ith

humility and j oins the train o f the Logos up
ward ; he unites us wi th G od ; he i s the solace of
li fe th e abundance o f h Op e the only undeniable
, ,
g ood the hei r of bl iss And with faith belongs as

, .
,
the twin sister of piety love B ut faith rea ches

-
, .
i ts h ighest point i n that vi sion which in the m o ments

o f ecstatic inspi r ation enj oys here belo w and in a d
vance the bliss of the world beyond .
These thoughts were not confined to Philo alone

at hi s time ; many o f th e Jews w h o came i n contact
with G ree k cultu r e shared them w ith h im Soc i .
e ti es were formed for th e common p r actice o f this
p ious w isdom for example the Therap eutae in

,
lo w er E gypt and the E ssenes i n Palestine That .
was a religious brotherhood wh ich lived a l i fe of

labor and asceti c sel f discipline i n f r aternal s ecl u
-
sion — ,
a late blossom ing of those old pu r itans the ,
R echabites o f whom you wi ll r emember that I

,
spoke in the last lectu r e B ut they had been m odi .
fi ed by the influences o f the n ew Pythagorean and

similar religious social f r ate r n ities o f the Gree k
-
world The Essenes had the same regard for the

.
laws of M oses and t h e strict care for ritual p uri ty

2 50
-
i n common w ith the other Jews ; they were di ffer

en ti a ted from them however by th e re j ection o f
, ,
bloody sac r i fi ces i n the place o f w h ich they put thei r

d aily baths and thei r co m m on sacramental meal but ,
most especially by celibacy and community of pos

sessions They lived together i n fraternity houses
.
-
under a h ierarchical organization and strict disci

pline ; during the wee k they busi ed themselves with
the cultivation of th e soi l o r simple handi crafts ,
whi le on the S abbath they gathered together for the

common edifica ti on using the sacred writings as i n
,
terp r eted by the best informed among them

-
Th e .
instruction was intended for the education o f the

members o f the order i n p iety purity temperance , , ,
sel f control mercy and benevolence toward th e

-
poo r and the sic k They gave freely out of the

.
mass of thei r commo n store even to those w h o were

not members of th e order ; be sides wh i ch they we r e
active as physicians s oothsayers p astors an d
, , ,
tutors wherever thei r counsel and th ei r help was

needed Wh at the cyni cal popular ph ilosophe r s
.
were to the G reek Roman wo r ld and the Buddhist

-
mon k s were i n India and eastern Asia that the ,
E ssenes were approximately i n Palestine We

, , .
may not doubt but that thei r influence st r etched fa r

beyond the limits of the fraternity and despite all ,
Pharisai c sanctity dependent upon wor k s was active ,
i n k eeping alive that i nward piety of the Psalms

”
among the qui et ones o f the land Th is was the
.
s oil out of w h i ch C hristianity gre w .
25 1
C H R I S TI AN IT Y
T H E last lecture led us to the t h res h ol d of Ch ris

ti a ni ty . I nasmuch as we have but one more h our
at our dispo sal it w ill not be p ossible for me to
,
present the origin and development o f C hri stianity .
In fact I coul d only repeat what I said last winter

,
i n thi s room i n my l ect ures on C hristi an O rigins .
I n the meantime those lectures have appeared i n

,
print and I refer you to them con fi ning mysel f to

,
day to a s k etch of the faith o f th e C hr i stian com

munity in the N ew Tes tament p eri od .
Wh ile doing that however we will guard care

, ,
fully against commi tting th e error s o wides p read

to day o f reading into the biblical d ocuments some
-
thing they do not contain and o f p utting aside

everything whi ch they d o contain that i s n ot en
ti r el y agreeable to o ur m odern manner o f think ing .
I t i s i n such fashion that the well k nown J esus -
romances originate shooting up l ike mush rooms

,
f rom the ground ; we may well grant those p oets th e

privilege o f doing such work but they ought not
,
to l ay cl ai m to the c r edit of tell ing act ual history

’
J ust that w hich to the modern consciousnes s is odd ,
2 52
C h r i s ti an i ty
wh i ch i n fact seems to o ff end i t j ust t h at usually

,
reveals that wh ich i s histori cally most ch aracte r i s

—
ti c the thing upon whi ch the thorough going suc—
cess of th e C hristian f aith at its time re s ted O ur .
fi rst tas k is to grasp an d to understand this char

a cter i s ti c i n p urely ob j ect ive fashion N ot unti l
.
then can the further q uesti on he as k ed : W hat of

p ermanent im po rtance i s contained for us i n th is
historically conditioned manner of thin k ing ?
B ut i t i s i n no wise proper for the historian of
reli g ion s o to arrange the historical matter that i t
conforms to the sub j ective standard o f me asure s et
u p by h imself o r by contemporaneous tast e ; nor may
he distort i t Wh at was Ch r istianity as it is p re
.
sented to us in the N ew Testament ? I t was the

belief in redemption th rough Christ ; th at statement
contains the other statem ent that a C hristianity of
”
Christ never existed f or Christ could not have
,
bel ieved in h i s ow n salvati on by h imself ; t h at i s

simply an inner contradiction Altogether th e
.
,
Chris tian f aith existed f or the fi rst time i n th e

-
Christian community wherewith the q uestion what

,
contribution the h i storical Jesus m a de thereto r e i
mains a m atter by itself wh i ch I cannot enter i n to

,
to —day ; my tas k to day i s only a p resentation of the

-
original faith o f the C hristian Church and I s up

pose that I may count u p on a general agreement
when I say that f rom the begi nning Ch ristian ity
was a religion of salvation B ut th ere had been
.
s uc h religions before it , and one might e v en say

253
that about the time of the change o f era almost
e v ery r el i g i on was i n one way or another about to
‘
, ,
take on the natu r e of a religion of salvation There .
fore the question i s th is : What was i t that consti

tuted th e pecul i ar characteri stic of the Ch ristian
religio n o f salvati on ? Its belief i n salvation was
the ri chest and the deepest fo r i t comprised three
,
fund am ental k inds : belief i n f uture salvation i n ,
past salvation and in present salvation E ach of

, .
these forms was represented i n s o me one of the

religions or ph ilos ophies of that time but C hris ,
'
ti a n i ty ,
and therein consisted i ts distinguish ing
-
advantage —gathered all th ree together into a

,
h igher unity and thus occupied a position higher

than all the others I t was the reserv oi r that sea
.
,
i nto w h i ch all rivers em p ti ed an d in w h i ch they

flowed together .
F i rst then : that Ch risti anity i s

rel igi on of sal a
vati on i n the sense of the h ope of futu r e salvation

and that salvation not only and not in the fi r st place
o f indivi dual beings but of human society as such
, ,
th e message of a future salvation and that too to , , ,
be h oped for i n the immediate future salvati on ,
from the presen t m iserable condition o f the world ,
the message of the da w n o f a new wo r ld o f the ,
coming of the kingdom o f G od in w hich universal

p eace happiness and righteousness shall rule — that
, ,
was the great message that went forth from Pales

tine A nd i t caused a po w erful echo f or it came
.
,
2 54
C h r i sti an i ty
at the right time The rule o f the R omans had .
destroyed the glory and throttled the freedom of

the ancient peoples ; the long civil wars had caused
universal unce r tainty and la w lessness a brutal ization ,
and degeneration of soci al conditions had come to

pass and naturally eve r y w here th e misery weighed
,
heaviest on the lo w est class of the people upon the ,
weary and the heavy laden upon the poor whom th e -
gospels compare to a scatte r ed maltreated and , ,
leaderless flock Hence throughout all the E ast .

,
and the West the longing for a new world o f p eace

,
and of r ighteousness .
In an inscription from the year 9 B C recently . .

,
di scove r ed at P r i en e there i s a hymn to the E m ,
p e r or Augustus wh i ch furnishes a capital p icture o f

the mood o f that day It reads .
Th i s da y th b i th day o f A u g ustus h gi ve a
. e r , as n n ew
a pp ea a ce to all th o ld h i ch h d b ee a p ey to de
r n e w r w a n r
st uct i o h d th e e t em a ated f om h i m
r n a r bo a
no n r n ow rn
u i ve sal fo tu e f all m th be gi i g o f a
n r r n or l ife en , e nn n n ew .
N ow i s t h day p ast h e e m ust g i eve t h at h h w bee n on e r e as n
bo rn .P ov i de ce h r se t t h i s m to us d to co m i g
n as n an an n
g e e at i o s as a sav i o h i ll m ak e
n r n d to all st u gg le
r, e w a n en r
an d m ould t h i g s g lo i ously I h i a pp ea a ce t h h o p es
n r . n s r n e
of th f ath e s
e f ul fi lled H e h su p assed all fo m e
r a re . as r r r
be ef acto s o f h u m a i ty I t i s i m p oss i ble t h at a g eate

n r n . r r
o n e ca n co m e T h b i th d ay o f th g od h led th o ld
. e r e as e w r
u p to t h m essa g es o f j oy F th o ld th b i t h day o f
e . or e w r , e r
the g od h led u p t h m essa g es o f j oy ( eva g els ) attach ed

as e n
to h i m F om th day o f h i b i t h a
. r ec k o i g o f t i m e
e s r n ew r n n
m ust be gi
”
n .
Such we r e th e hopes wh ich the masses o f the

p eople re p osed in the deified Caesars of Rome and ,
2 55
R e l igi o n an d H i s tor i c F a i t h s
h ow they we r e disap p ointed " Though matters
Went fai rly well under Augustus the disappoint ,
ment became more and more bitter under his

successo r s All too soon i t became evident that
.
these Caesars themselves were the i ncarnation o f

greed and v iolence under which the maltreated p eo
ples g r oaned Then there came a message from
.
the m idst o f the people not p olitical i n i ts i mpo rt

, ,
but g r eatly treasu r ed i n religious regard f or the

sake o f its ol d revelations and messianic ho pes
f r om Palestine came the wonderful news that a
saviour was ex p ected not an earthly but a heavenly
,
k ing who shortly before had dwelt upon the earth

,
as a prophet a man o f the pe ople and a friend o f

,
th e poo r and oppressed on e who too k pity on the

,
leade r less flock and p r omised to the poo r the weep ,
ing and the starving the bliss o f th e k ingdom o f

,
God h i s satisfaction and consolation— a f riend o f

,
men who had taken up the least o f them and the

,
rej ected as thei r humane teacher and heal ing phy

s i ci a n ; while on the other hand he had hurled r e
,
p r oving wo r ds at the satiated r i ch th e arrogantly ,
j ust and the pro ud supe r io r s for wh ich reason they

, ,
had rej ected and cursed h im and in the end nailed

, ,
him upon the c r oss ; but then di d G od himsel f

m i r aculously resurrect the cruci fi ed o ne and ele ,
v a ti n g him to the h eavenly throne place him on H i s

,
ri ght hand whence he i s about to return as the v i c

,
to r i o us savior of hi s own .
What the J ews had long ho ped of thei r M essiah ,
2 56
C h r i sti a n i ty
t h e Persians of thei r sa v ior S aoshyant the E gyp , ,
tians the G reek s and the R omans o f Serapis

, ,
E s culap i us and Hercules thei r deities of salva

, ,
tion,
o r , ,
—
fi nally even of the dei fi ed C aesars all of
this was here su r passed by the announcement o f the
divine messian ic king of the Ch r istian he who had ,
been a man and had tasted hu m an sorro w yea ,
had drained the cup to th e ve r y lees but even n ow ,
had become more than man a divine being equipped , ,
w i th omnipotence and establ ished as the savior and

,
j udge o f men The double nature o f this announce

.
ment from Palestine that th e savior who would r e

,
deem the pious would at the same time be the , ,
j udge o f the godless was o f greatest importance

,
for the world o f that ti m e That is what gave .
to thi s announcement i ts fo r ceful rousing moral , ,
power Through i t the feeling o f guilt wh ich

.
has been called into being by the ve r y need o f th e

time was i ntensi fi ed to the extrem e ; for the ce r tain ,
th e p roud an d the indi ffe r ent the thought of j udg ,
men t was a motive to self exam ination refo r m -
, ,
puri fi cation and betterment o f l i fe E ven i n later

, .
centuries after the Church had long given up the

,
hope o f a m undane messianic kingdom and an ea r ly

visible com ing of thei r L ord the thought of the ,
great day of j udgment of the Lord was p owerful

enough to mak e them q uake inwardly .
D i es i r ae d i es i lla
,
S ol v et s a e cl a in f av i lla ,
T este D av i d et S ib y l la l
”
2 57
R e l igi on an d H i sto ri c Fa i t h s
N ow let us a sk the q uestion : What importance
can thi s ea r liest Christian belief i n salvation a hope ,
o f an ea r thly divine ki n gdom o f righteousness of ,
peace and of j oy have for us to day ? It i s self

,
-
evi dent th at the supernatu r al and the catastroph i c

pa r ts of i t fall away for us because history itself
h a s shown that to be an error of the p e r iod N ever .
th el es s there does remain fo r us the ea r ly Ch r istian

,
belief i n the coming o f the heavenly k ingdom o n

earth ; i t remains as a bel ief in the righ t and v i cto r i
o us realization o f the eth ical social ideals o f human
-
society Wi th thi s di fference : we no longer ex

.
peet its reali zation by a m i r acle descending from

h eaven but we fi nd in i t the ethi cal tas k given to
,
us by God the task of honestly cooperating i n per

,
s on for th e reali zation o f that i deal and we hope
that th is labor i n th e cause o f the d ivine p ur

pose o f the world must be of service i n the h is
to r y of the world That i s the import o f faith
.
i n futu r e salvation The same i s t r ue o f the bel ief

.
i n a future j udgment A lthough we no longer

.
believe that Ch r ist will descend f r om heaven to

ea r th and devote some day to formal j udgment ,
neve r theless the truth does remain that d ivine

,
r ighteousness ever and again i n the grave cri ses

,
and i n the w inno w ing j udgments o f national li fe ,
has r evealed i tsel f and wi ll reveal i tself in the

future To our thinking the singl e miraculous
.
,
catast r oph e divi des into the eve r r ecur r ing catas -
tr op h es o f the l ife o f the peoples retu r ning accord ,
2 58
C h r i sti a n i ty
ing to the eternal laws o f the order of t h e world ,
catastrophes in which that which i s impu r e is de

st r oyed by th e test of fi r e and that alone persists
which is genuine true and good ,
The history of
, .
“
the world i s the j udgment of the world "
Thi s future salvation o f society was no more i m

p ortant to the men l iving at the beginning of our
e r a than the hope o f a blessed existence in the wo r l d
beyond for the individual soul Th is hope w a s .
based upon legends relating certain facts o f salva

t ion i n the past i n wh ich the guarantee o f future
,
bliss was given to those pious souls who had been

united to t hei r god of salvation O f course you .
remember the legends o f O siri s I sis I star Tam -

,
-
muz D emeter Kore to wh ich must be added Atti s

,
-
,
Cybele Adoni s Aphrodite and others As w e

,
-
, .
have repeatedly seen these legends all revolve about

,
th e simple t hought o f the death and resur r ection of

nature and the gods gove r ning i t I n the myth .
,
the annual expe r ie n ce o f the Aut umn and th e Sp r ing

'
beca m e a poem telling of the one ti m e fate o f th e -
natu r e god who died a violent death and retu rned

-
a gain to l i fe An d th is m yth o f th e past fate o f

'
the god w a s then moved into a ti m eless p r ese n t by

a co r r esponding custom the festal rite by wh ich
, ,
the death and the resu r r ection o f the god w a s annu

ally celebrated By the ce r e m onies of th is celebra
.
tion i t was bel ieved that a m yste r ious community

,
w ith the god had been achieved s o that the w or

2 59
R e l igi on an d H i s tor i c F ai t h s
ship per became a participant in the death con q uer -
ing li fe and thus became certain o f a blissful l i fe

to come W e hav e many reports o f such f estal
.
custo m s i n E gypt Syri a and Phrygia made by

,
Pl uta fch A p ulei us

,
L ucian F i rmicus Matern us
, , ,
and others Lucian of Antioch the well known

.
,
-
author describes the celebration o f the Syrian

,
Sp r ing festival about as follows : W hen the red

-
anem ones blossomed i n the Spring and the waters

o f O rontes were dyed red by the ochre earth o f the
mountain f r om wh i ch it flows then i t was sai d that ,
”
the god Adonis the lord had been torn by the
, ,
w ild boar and ki lled ; and hi s deat h was celebrated

by wild songs o f lamentation sung by the women
and the solemn burial o f h is corpse in the shape o f
a wooden i mage B ut on the second o r accord
.
,
ing to other customs on the thi rd or fourth day

,
after h is death suddenly the m essage sounded on

the ai r : the lord l ives A don is i s risen again "Then
,
r
he ( his i m age ) emerged i n the body from the grave

i n which h e had been lai d and rose i n the ai r ( by
means o f so m e mechanism— a ce r emony wh ich i n ,
the Greek Church an d as I have learned i n some

, ,
places also i n the Roman Ca thl oi c Church i s cus

tom a ry to thi s day i n si m ilar fashion on E aster
n ight ) ; then according to the repo r t of the P h ry
gian Atti s celeb r atio n made by F i rm icus Mater nus ,
the priest would anoint the mouth of the la m enting

wi th oil and speak the consolato r y wo r ds : Be “
solaced ye pious since the god i s saved salvation

, , ,
260
C h r i s ti a n i ty
f rom distress will be our lot

our j ust as th e
Chri stians sing to this day J esus lives and I l ive
,
“
”
with H im .
S uch was the E aster festival as i t was annually

celeb r ated i n Antioch the Syrian capital from o f
, ,
ol d . To thi s same Antioch soon after the begin ,
n i n g s o f the m essianic co m m unity of Jerusalem ,
men from Cyprus and Cyrene had come and had

begun to decla r e the message o f the cruci fi ed and
resurrected Christ not only to the Jews but also
,
to th e heathen ; and the heathen l istened to them an d

some o f them became conve r ts to the n ew lo r d ,
Chri st Thus i t was that the fi r st m ixed co m munity

.
o f Jews and heathen was establ ished the r e an d ,
there for the first time the new na m e Christians

, ,
was given to them as i s reported i n the Acts of the

A postles ch apter xi ve r ses 2 0 2 6 So the com
'
, ,
-
.
munity the r e was looked upon as someth ing n ew ,
som ething that was neither Je w ish nor heathen .
What might i t have been by w h ich they r ecogn ized

this ? N atu rally i t must have been thei r customs
, ,
which must have been other than those o f the mes

s i a n i c community co m posed fo r me r ly only o f Je w s .
But from whe r e may these n ew custo m s by which

th is com m unity was recognized as a n ew co m m u
n i ty o f Ch r istians have come ? As r el igious cus
toms a r e never created out o f nothing we may w el l ,
acce p t i t as a fact that the heathen Ch r istians o f -
Antioch preserved the old custo m s by wh ich they

had previously celeb rated the death and r es ur rec
26 1
R e l igi o n an d H i s t o r i c Fa i t h s
tion o f Adoni s thei r lo r d and now transfe r r ed them
, ,
to thei r new lo r d Jesus Thus i t came about o f

, .
itsel f that Christ seemed to them to be the lo r d w h o

a chieved the salvation o f hi s o w n by his death and
h i s resu r ection and became the savio r o f the w orld

r .
And n ow the Apostle Paul comes into this new com

muni ty having been called fo r by Ba r nabas at Tar
,
s us hi s n a tive city ; he soo n felt at ho m e the r e a n d

,
hi s w o r k w as s o blessed that the com m unity gre w

visibly Ce r tainly i t w as no mo r e tha n natu r al that
.
Paul for h is pa r t pe r m itted the custo m s a n d i deas

, ,
w h ich h e found exi sting i n the h eathen Ch r istian -
co m m un ity at Antioch— othe r w ise how could h i s ,
activi ty have been blessed ? I t w a s the mo r e natu r al

because everythin g which h e found ha r monized
exactly w ith the manne r i n which he himsel f had a r
rived a t the faith in Christ F ro m a fanati cal perse
.
cutor of the messianic community Paul had been ,
conve r ted into an Apostle of Ch r i st by the ex p er i

ence of a vision in w hich he had seen the c r ucified
Jesus as th e heavenly Christ and s on of God ; there
fo r e h is death had n ot been that o f a c r i m inal but a ,
—
death s a cr i fice i n w h ich God had given hi s s on for
the sake of our sins s o that we m ight be saved
,
f r o m the p r esent w icked w orld About the li fe of .
Jesus the p r op h et of ea r th Paul kne w very little

, , ,
j ust as l ittle as di d the heathen Ch r istians of Anti -
o ch ; therefo r e i t w as the mo r e natu r al that he agreed
w ith the m i n the co n viction that the death and the
resu rr ection o f Ch r i st the s on of God was the one

, ,
2 62
fact of redemption and the content of the new r e

li g ion o f salvation .
In h is theology Paul furthe r developed and

,
g r ounded this belief F o r him Ch r ist i s no longer

.
,
the p r ophet and the st r uggling he r o of a Je w i sh

messiani c r ealm as the ea r ly co m m unity thought
, ,
but fo r h i m he i s the su ffe r ing he r o of a m ystical

,
salvation of the w o r ld h i s death i s a guilt o ffe r ing

,
fo r the reconci liation o f God and the fo r giveness

o f human guilt h is resurrection the conquest o f the
,
p owe r s o f death and o f hell th e victo r ious r esu r

,
rection o f the divi n e l ife the begi n n ing o f a n ew

,
hu m anity v i v i fied by the spi r i t o f God In the w el l .
kno w n passage I Co r inthians xv he c r ies t r iu m ph

, , ,
a n tl y Death i s s w allo w ed up in vi cto r y O death .
whe r e i s thy sting ? O g r ave w he r e i s thy victo r y ?

The sting of death i s s i n ; and the st r e n gth o f s i n i s
the law But thanks be to God w hich giveth us the
.
,
victo ry th r ough our Lo r d Jesus Ch r i st " Thus”
the gospe l of Paul beca m e th e p reach i n g o f th e

c r uci fi ed and r esurrected mediator th e Lo r d w h o ,
i s the spirit the Lo r d of the l iving a n d the dead

, .
Th i s victor over death and hell i t i s evide n t can n o , ,
longer be an ea r thly m an th e Ch r ist afte r th e,

“
”
fl esh for h e was bu r ied and r emained i n the g rave
, .
but that which now l ives i s acco r di n g to Paul , ,
someth ing much h ighe r i t i s the Lo r d th e spi r i t

, ,
wh ich maketh al ive and maketh f r ee God s fi r s t ’
bo r n Son the m a n f r o m heave n the seco n d Ad a m

, ,
from whom a new hu m a n ity took its beginning ; in

263
R el igi o n an d H i stori c F ai ths
a word it is the i deal man i n whom there i s nei ther
,
Jew n or G r eek but al l are on e in whom the idea

, ,
o f man i s resurrected to li fe This divine man so .

,
Paul teaches G od sent down to earth had him take

, ,
o n a body o f sinful flesh so that he shoul d su ff er ,
death and by hi s gui ltless v i carious su ffering and

,
dying take the sting from death p ay i ts tribute to

, ,
sin render j u stice to the law but therewith an d at

, ,
the same time do away w ith all of th ese evi l powers

once for all brea k thei r yo k e and loosen thei r fet
,
ters overcome death for all and bring l i fe and

, ,
immortal existence for all .
The Christian message o f salvation by means o f

t h e sacri fi cial death o f Chri st the Son of G od was , ,
p owerful i n its e ffect upon the heathen world The .
penitential rites by whi ch the intensi fi ed feeling o f

,
guilt of the period sought to fi nd some relief the ,
ceremonies o f the mysteries which were p iously

entered into as the death and resurrection o f a myth
ical god i n order to hold a guarantee o f one s ow n ’
salvation and beatitude— all of this found ful fi ll

ment here ; nay more i t was far surpassed I t was
, .
fulfilled for here too was a superhuman a beav

, , , ,
e mly bei n g wh ich G od himsel f had made into a sac r i

fi ce i n o r der to purchase therewith the salvation of
the world Thi s being ho w ever had not su ff ered
.
, ,
d eath a s a natural fate as i n the case o f the mythical

,
gods ; in f r ee obedience and o ut o f love Chri st , , ,
the S On of God had given up h is earthly l i fe so as

,
to save the wo r ld ; i t was the eth i cal deed of sel f

264
C h r i s t i an i ty
sacri fi ce on the p art o f a divine man w h ich h ad

saved humanity from s i n the law death and the , ,
devil which had robbed th e old ritual and myth

,
i cal services o f sac r ifice and atone m ent of thei r

value and had created the new ti e of the community
with God in the spi ri t o f childsh ip I n thi s way i t .
,
i s possible to comprehend the wonderful and all

subversive e ffect o f Paul s preach ing o f the cruci
’
fi ed and resurrected L ord J esus ; w ithout that th e

, ,
victory of the Chri stian f ai th over the heathen

world would hardly be thinkable .
I t i s a d i fferent matter however w h en we turn

, ,
to the q uestion : What m ean ing has th i s faith i n a

past salvation through the sacrificial death of Chri st
for us to day ? N aturally the r e i s much to be sai d
-
,
on th is subj ect and o ur time l imits to day force m e

,
-
to con fi ne mysel f to a few suggestions I think that .
what was sai d before concerning the belief i n a

future salvation wi ll be found to be applicable here :
,
that which was myth ical and supernatural i n the

form o f the ea r ly Christian belief naturally drops
away wh ile the k ernel o f the truth cannot but per
,
si st What else can th i s truth be than the ete r nal

.
l a w o f the world order that th rough death is th e

-
,
”
way to li fe that the ol d Adam the sensual selfish
, , ,
hu m an being must die i f th e divine spi r itual sel f

, ,
o f the personality the son o f God with in us

, i s to ,
be and to do Th e other t r uth also will remain

.
, , ,
that as in all previous times the salvation o f human ,
ity and ac q uisition of all permanent means o f r e

26 5
R e l igi on an d H i s to r i c F ai th s
demption rested upon the moral sac r i fi ces o f obedi
,
ence and o f love made by th e individual for the

,
good of all so i n the days to come salvation will

,
require the same foundation He r e too for our .

, ,
thinking the on e time m iracle of the myth the s ac

,
-
,
r i fi ci al d eath o f a uni que supernatural Son o f G od ,
breaks up into a se r ies o f repeated happenings ;

namely the endless h istorical series of all the s ac
, ,
r i fi ces o f m en who demonstrated thereby that they

,
were true ch ildren of God u rged by the spirit o f ,
G o d thoughtless of themselves but i n active an d

, ,
su ffe r ing love sur r endered themselves for the sal

,
vation of men fo r the good cause of G od and H is

,
kingdom Upon these sac r ifices o f obedience fi del

.
,
ity and l ove made by generation afte r generation ,
finally rests all the progress o f humanity the salva ,
ti on of man from the fetters o f the crude nature

po w e r s the ac q ui sition o f all pe rmanent i deal pos
,
sessions wh ich ma k e life worth the l iving The .
hi s tory o f the wo r ld therefore i s n o t only the j udg

, ,
m en t o f the wo r ld but it i s also the s a lv a ti on of

, , ,
the w o r ld That i s th e truth o f the gospel of Paul

.
,
wh ich can n ot be el iminated f r om Ch r i sti anity w ith

o ut fatally mutilating i t F or thi s Pauline p r ocl a
.
mation of a past salvation has de m onstrated itsel f

h isto r i cally to be the way that d id lead beyond the
me r e hope of a future salvation w h ich g r ew m o r e
and mo r e p r oblematical w ith each yea r of the delay
i n its fulfillment u p to a certainty o f p r esent and
,
inner salvation .
2 66
C h r i sti an i ty
H ow can a salvation wh i ch i s regarded as a thing

completed i n the past become an e fficient experience
,
o f the present ? The answer to th is q uestion had

been p repared in many ways and Christianity agai n
had but to enter into the orchards and gather the
ripe fruit The rites o f the mysteries served to
.
transport the votari es into a present and a permanent

un ion w ith the God of salvation The bond o f union
.
was partly established by calling the name o f the

G od o f salvation in w h ich name all of h i s p ower to
,
bless was mysteriously hi dden ; again ri tes o f puri ,
fi ca ti on an d immersion designed to bring about the

actual wiping away of sin and guilt an d all th ings
-
demon ic were employed ; finally they ate consecrated

,
food and drank consecrated draughts in the belie f

that the li fe of the g od was actually present in the
body i n them so th at in w it h and th rough the s en
, ,
s uous matter the v o tary seemed to have taken on

,
th e god s body H ence those who h ad been con s e

’
.
,
crated by those rites spo k e o f t h emselves as reborn

f orever ( r ena ta s i n w tem um ) .
I t would have been m arvellous i f these rites had

not f orced thei r ent ry into the Christian community .
C ertainly Paul was not the fi rst one to introduce

,
them ; without doubt h e found that they were being

employed by the community o f: A ntioch There .
upon he brought them into closest relation to h is

doctrine o f Ch rist and salvation and gave them a
deep ethi cal religious meaning far beyond any
,
-
,
i deas wh ich had been attached to those rites by th e

267
R el igi o n an d H i stor i c F a i t h s
heat h en B aptism too k on th e m eaning of the i m
.
p lanting o f Chri st s death an d resurrection for th e

’
purpose o f participation i n b oth : the former man

o f s i n i s buried by the i mmersion and the new man
rises to li fe with G od and for G od a l i fe no longer ,
ruled o v er by sin and death The p rimitive Chris .
tian love feast took on the mystical mean ing of the

-
eating and drin k ing of the body and blood o f C hrist ,
whereby a commun ity o f love and li fe i s establ ished

between the head and the members and be tween one
member and the others By these sacramental .
means j ust that i s represented and pe rform ed wh ich

,
belief i n Christ s name i n i tsel f i s n amely a b eing

’
, ,
i n Christ a state o f being fi lled wi th h is s p i ri t by

,
which t h e believer becomes w h at J esus t h e S on o f ,
G od was
,
Ye are a l l sons o f G od through th e
.
f aith in Christ J esus The connection w ith Chris t

i s s o close th at Paul can say : N 0 longer d o I l ive ,
’
”
but C hrist l ives i n me I f one be in C hrist then
.
,
i s he a new creature the ol d is dep arted behol d h e

, ,
”
i s become new A bove all for thi s new man there
.
, ,
h as passed away the worl d of th e l aw wit h i ts lit

eral obse r vance o f the ordinances t h e threats an d ,
the curses resting u po n transgressors— al l of that i s

done away wi th ; it does n ot hol d for such as have
become n ew men in Christ free men of the spiri t , .
F or the L ord is spirit and where the spirit of the

“
”
L ord i s there i s freedom
,
C onse q uently the spi r
.
,
i tual man i s fi rst o f all a f ree man w h o has within ,
h imsel f the source of true knowledge and t h e motive

268
C h r i sti an i ty
power o f good Love i s the fulfillment of the

.
law the holy spi r i tual motive takes th e place of

external force The sam e holds of knowledge
.
“
The spiritual man j udges all and is j udged by
”
none for the spiri t which i s given to us searches
, , ,
”
all even the deeps of God
,
In this close com m u .
n it
y o f spi ri t w i th God which i s the faith accord
,
ing to Paul all unfreedom ceases and hete r onomy

,
and subordination under st r ange ordinance and

authority have ended ; th is faith i s n ot a blind ac
cep ta n ce i t i s the voluntary su r render o f the hea r t
,
to the experience w ithi n and clear recognition o f

t h e w ill o f G od who seek s our salvation ; i t i s th e
,
t ruly reasonable service o f G od

Therefore John can also s ay : Thi s is l i f e eter
,
nal that th ey should k no w Thee the only true God ,
”
and h im whom thou didst send Jesus Ch r i st Th e , .
k nowledge of G od after i ts revelation in Chri st that ,
i s eternal li fe the salvation now present

, Accord .
i n g to John i t i s true Christ i s not i dentical w ith

, ,
the man J esus but something far more com p r eh en

,
sive : the eternal word o f G od o r the Logos which ,
had been with G od from th e beginning and had

been the p ower through which al l th ings ca m e i nto
being the l ife o f the worl d and the l ight of men
, ,
w h ich had revealed itsel f i n a unique and mi raculous

manner i n J esus but di d n ot con fi ne itself to hi s mor
tal existence and a f ter Jesus reveals itsel f ever
,
anew i n that spi rit wh ich leads the community on i n

trut h F or this reason the belie f i n J esus that
.
, ,
269
eternal Logos and Son o f G od means p resent p os ,
session o f ete r nal li fe according to John Th e

, .
bel i evers have even now gone over from death to

l i fe and taste o f death no more thei r faith is the
power wh ich has overcome the world T h at does .
not imply that the world i s devoi d o f value and

reality for the Christians as i t i s for the B uddh ists ;
but rather the world i s the ob j ect o f a p ositive
,
moral tas k the materi al wh ich i s to be shaped by

,
the activity of a p atient and servin g love into th e

kingdom o f G od The love wh ich Ph ilo h ad called
.
,
—
the twin sister of f ai th is according to Paul the
, , ,
active energy of faith and the most p recious gift

o f grace w h ich wi ll never fai l though p ro p heci es
, ,
tongues and knowledge shall cease ( I C or xi i i . .

,
An d John condenses the enti re substance of th e

Christian faith i n that dee p saying : G od i s lo v e ,
”
and whoso i s in love i s i n G od and G o d i n him
,
.
I f i t i s faith w h ich ma k es man the master of all

things and frees h im from those th ings w h i ch other
wi se enslave him i t i s love whi ch un ites h i m to the
,
whole and makes him the volunta ry ser v ant of all .
Thus faith and love are the actual sal v ation o f th e

p resent bridging the past revelations of t h e divine
,
S piri t with the hoped for coming f ul fi llmen t and

-
co m pletion .
The mythi cal i deas of p ast and p res ent m i racle s

were naturally the outer f orm of th e belie f i n salva
tion necessa r y for the old Church as they are fo r
,
man y men to thi s day but from t h e beg inning , ,
270
they were merely the shell i n w h ich lay h idden the

,
actual experience o f the p r esent redeeming p ower

o f faith an d love . Though we of to day can n o -
longer h old these mythical notions to be literal

truth we m ay well recogn ize them as symbols and
,
means of representation o f the perm anent truth of

the Christian i dea o f salvation Let us be careful .
that we do not lose the i dea l content or lessen o r ,
weak en it by an all — too hasty th rowing aside o f th e

-
symboli cal shell before we have actually g r aspe d

,
thei r dee p meaning I f from the beginning the

.
, ,
C hristi an com m unity went beyond the earthly li fe

o f the Jew i s h p rophet Jesus and for the actual, ,
ob j ect o f thei r fait h t ook the heavenly man the ,
e ternal Son o f G o d the divine L ogos which is the

,
—
l ight of all men truly it was no chance in q uisitive
,
ness but i t was an i nner necessity ; i t was the i nv ol

un ta ry recogn ition of th e cardinal truth that th e
redeeming po w er i s not a tem po ral th ing not even ,
the m ost excellent man but that i t is the eternal

,
divine human spi ri t o f the true and the g ood That .
alone can become an immediate inner experience

fo r us ; that alone can produce an unconditioned cer
tainty free from al l temporal and fin ite limitations ;
,
that alone can be a universally vali d norm and -
authority for all men Thi s divine human spi rit i s

.
-
the t r uth that frees and th e love that binds o p ening ,
the heart to i t with a faith that k nows consecrating ,
to i t a life o f active labor o f serving love and o f

waiting with p atience and hope—that is the actua l
, ,
27 :
R e l igi o n an d H i stor i c F a i t h s
salvation o f the present for which all the fi gures and
stories and legends and p oems o f the past are but
means of visual ization symbols and parables : The
,
”
fin ite i s eve r an image .
The Ch r i stian belief in salvation gathered u p in

i tself an the truths contained i n the religions and
the ph ilosophies o f its time With the religions o f .
the myste r ies Ch r istianity shares the mystical en

,
th us i as m that upli fted and intensified feeling o f

,
being i n God and the implied hope of a blissful

- -
beyond ; i t conve r ted the mystical m eans o f salva

tion into symbols o f a mo r al rebi r th and o f brotherly
love With the philosophy o f its time Christi anity
.
,
shares the reasonable worship o f G od i n moral

k no w ledge and p r actices Again i t shares with .
,
Buddhism the abnegation o f self and th e world

, ,
the quiet peace of r esignation ; and also with the ,
rel igion o f Zarathustra i t shares a courageous ,
struggle against godlessness o f every nature and a

j oyous hope of the vi ctory o f G od s cause i n the ’
world With Judaism Christianity shares belief

.
,
i n the o ne subli m e and holy God the j udge o f men ,
and of nations and in the coming of h is k ingdom

,
o n earth ; but w ith Plato i t shares also belief in that

,
G od who i s the h ighest good and the unenvying

,
sou r ce o f all that i s true and good as also belief i n ,
the divine mediator E r os that p ower of inspiration

,
resident in us and love o f those i deals coming from

,
a bove . With the Stoics fi nally Christianity shares

, ,
t h at inner f reedom f rom the world t h e calmness of ,
2 72
C h r i s ti a n i t y
fi rm character the power

,
sel f determining w ill
of -
( autonomous ) and the liberal ity of the h um a n i ta r
i an i dea which reaches out over all nations and all

classes ; but i t gives li fe to thi s cold and p r oud vi r
tue of the Stoics by belief that the w orld i s God s ’
and by love which r ende r s the se r vice o f brothers

a j oy and by the hope that all struggle and all s uf
,
fer i ng mi se r y o f the ti me will on e day be resolved

i nto the peace o f ete r n ity .
Thus i t i s that Chri stianity became the religion

o f the religions con q uered t h e ol d w orld and led up
,
to the new .
27 3
IS LA M
I S L A M the religion
, of Mohammed i s the latest
,
among the histo r ical religions a late after—

,
impulse
o f the religion form ing po w er of the Sem itic race
-
.
F ounded by the prophet Mohammed under Jewish

and Christian i nfluences among the half ba r ba r i c -
A r abi c people in the seventh centu r y I slamis m ,
sha r es th e monotheisti c r igidly theocrati c and

,
legalistic characte r of Judaism w ithout its national

,
li mitation ; w ith Ch r istianity i t shares the claim and

,
propagati n g impulse of w o r ld religion but without

-
,
the wealth of r eligious thought and motives and

without the mobility and the capacity for develop
ment w h ich b elongs to a world r eligion It might be
-
.
maintained p r obably that I slam ism i s the Jewish

, ,
i dea of theocracy carried o ut on a larger scale by th e

youthful national vigor of th e A rab ians well cal , ,
cul a te d to discipline raw ba r ba r i c peoples but a ,
brake on the progress o f free human civili zation .
The religion o f the Arabs befo r e M oham m ed w a s

the ancient Semiti c heathenis m which had pre ,
served itself longest i n its ancient fo rm among

them The separate tribes had their i ndi v i d ual gods
.
27 4
Islam
wh ich di ffered from on e another only in the fo r ms

o f worship i n us e at the local sanctuaries Allah .
was the species nam e for god and even before

-
,
Mohammed he was placed above the others as an

,
i ndependent god the highest o f all ; the oldest of

,
these gods Allat ( M i st r ess ) Utza an d Manat

, , ,
wer e subo r dinated to Allah as hi s daughters ,

.
Besi de these and seve r al othe r natu r e — gods the ,
D s ch i n n s good and evi l s pi rits playe d a g rea t

, ,
r o le in the popular religion A s dwelling places .

-
an d manifestations o f the p r esence o f the gods th e ,
cult regarded stones p r efe r ably but trees an d wells ,
se r ved als o ; to them sanctua r ies were attached at ,
whi ch the separate tribes met once a year for an

adoration o f the god i n common The Caaba th e .
,
sanctuary at M ecca stood in especially h igh regard ;

—
i t was a four co r ne r ed house i nto th e wall o f which
,
there had been built a black stone as th e fetish o f ,
the g od w h o was native t o those pa r ts ( Hobal o r

Allah ) Th is sanctuary belonged to th e tribe o f
.
th e Koreish ites ; w ith espe cial solemnity they cele ,
b r a ted th e annual holy festi val and caravans from ,
al l of Cent r al A r abia came th ither With th is cele .
bration a l ively m a r ket fo r trade was c o mbined an d

, ,
there wares and thoughts as well as the latest p r o

,
d ucti on s o f the song w r ite r s were exchanged

-
,
Thi s .
worldly activity p r edominated at these festivals ;

true the anci ent rites we r e attended but th e faith
, ,
in th e ol d gods was beginning to disinteg r ate i n th e

sixth century So much the more could the mono
.
2 75
R e l igi o n an d H i stor i c F a i th s
t h ei stic faith o f the Jews and Christians scatte r ed ,
here and there among the colonies o r l iving in some

di stri cts of A r abi a as hermits wield an attractive ,
influence upon the more earnest spi r its among them .
Before Mohammed s day there were seve r al such

’
men among th e Arabs who had thrown o ff the w o r

sh ip of heathen i dols believed i n one G od and his
,
world j udgment a n d l ived serious asceti c l ives ;

,
”
they were known as H an i fites wh ich i s probably ,
derived from the Syriac word for heretics or the

A rabi c word for separatists The greatest number .
o f them were found at M ecca and Medina and ,
though they too k no steps t o ward th e formation o f

a congregation or the dissem ination o f thei r beliefs
by propaganda nevertheless they were the fore r un
, ,
ners of I slam ism and p aved the way for the wor k o f
Mohammed .
Born about 57 0 A D M ohammed belonged to t h e

. .
,
ruling t r ibe of the Koreish ites at Mecca E arly .
orphaned he g r e w up i n the poorest o f circum

,
stances unti l h e entered the service of Khadi j ah the

, ,
w idow o f a rich me r chant whom he married when ,
he was twenty fiv e years o f age and w ith whom h e

-
l ived a happy ma r r ied l ife unti l her death F re .
quently hi s me r canti le pursuits led h im to Syria and

Palestine and the r e h e ca m e i n contact wi th Jews
,
and Christians But the fi r st sti r rings of his reli

.
g i ous awakenings came from the pious H a n i fi tes o f

M ecca He began to w ithd r aw into sol itude and
.
reflect upon the folly o f the heathen who lived ,
27 6
I s l am
along certai n of thei r beliefs t h oughtless of t h e ,
j udgment of G od Thus he too became a H an ifite

.
, , ,
”
and sought salvation for h is soul i n Islam that “
,
means self surrender to th e one t r ue G od Th e

,
-
.
fi rst i mpulse to disseminate thi s faith i n his envi ron

ment came from a vision wh ich i n hi s fortieth year , , ,
he experienced during a night watch on the holy -
mountain near M ecca An angel bearing a sc r ol l

.
,
i n h is hand appeared to him an d commanded

,
Read i n the name o f thy Lord who o ut of a

, , ,
single drop ha th created men Read for thy Lo r d

, .
,
i s the Al m ighty w h o hath taught by this writing

, ,
what man hath not known Yea verily man walk .

, ,
eth i n h i s folly when he opines that h e i s su fficient

,
”
unto himsel f ; to thy Lord must they all return ,
.
Thi s fi rst vision roused him to great excitement ; h e

believed h i m sel f po ssessed by a Dschinn and his ,
restlessness was the more Opp r essive because a space ,
o f time elapsed before the reappearance of the vi s
ion Then i t did come agai n and i n the fo r m o f

.
a p ositive command : Rise an d Wa r n G lo r i fy “

.
”
thy Lo r d and wait upon him Thi s command .
ca m e repeatedly and finally M ohammed was con

v i n ced that he was called by God to be the prophet
to his people That this conviction was an ea rnest

.
o n e and rested
,
j ust as much as with the prophets
,
o f I srael upon an i r r esi stible pressu r e o f conscience

,
wh ich seemed to him to be divine revelation there ,
can be no doubt ; and the fact that later pronounce

ments o f the prophet wh ich h e also enunciated as
,
27 7
revelations were undeniably the outcome o f um
,
hampered reflection and the prudent w eigh ing o f

ci r cumstances does not alter matters i n the least
,
.
At fi r st Mohammed p r eached in the narrow ci r cle

o f hi s relati ves and his f r iends H e di d n ot seek .
to found a new religion but r ather to reintroduce

,
Ab r ah am s a n cient belief i n God as i t was written

’
i n the heavenly book from wh ich the proph ets o f

,
the Jews and the Christians had ever received thei r

revelations He demanded o f h is adherents that
.
they submi t to Allah as the highest master and

,
righteous j udge before w hose j udgment seat they

,
-
would al l have to appear ; they shoul d abandon

thei r heathen blasphemy they should pray regularly
,
an d give alms w ithout hope o f p ro fi t or reward .
N ew revelations soon impelled h im to a p pear

p ublicly before h i s fellow citi zens and condemn -
thei r heathenism They hea r kened not to h im but

.
,
deri ded him as a madman as on e p ossessed , .
D erision roused h is sensibility the temper o f hi s ,
p r each ing became more acri d h e threaten ed h is ,
countrymen with the te rr ible punishmen ts wh ich

G o d meted o ut here and beyond
"
The bitterness .
against h i m was heightened by th is method until ,
i t resulted i n deadly hat r ed and serious pe rsecutions .
Thi s served but to confi rm the prophet i n the con

v i cti on that h is calling was divine and the impres
sion o f loyalty to convicti on i n the f ace o f di re op

pression brought enthusiastic followers especially ,
from among the p oor and the enslaved H owever .

,
27 8
at Mecca where the mass of the people were bound
,
to the religion of forme r days by the mate r ial be n e

fits accruing to a much vi sited place o f pilg r i m age
-
,
the p rophet s cause seemed hopeless At th is ti m e

’
.
,
a host of friends from Medina making a festal pil

,
grimage to M ecca arrived and were s o enthused by

,
the imposing impression o f h i s pe rsonality that ,
they solemnly assured him o f t hei r loyalty in l i fe and

death and induced him to move over to Medina .
Th is w as the decisive turn ing point for h is cause ;

-
from thi s fl igh t ( Hegira ) in the year 62 2 dates the ,
beginning o f I slamism as a religious co m munity .
I n h is new surroundings ami d g r eater successes ,
the activity of Moha m med took new directions In .
M ecca he had been the prophet of a religious faith

, ,
without religi ous motives but i n Medina he soon

, ,
became the f ounder and ruler o f a religious pol itical -
commonalty which formed the basi s o f the the

,
ocracy o f I sla m ism H is g r eat ene r gy and p r u

.
dence soon subj ect ed all th e inhabitants o f the city

to h is social arrangement an d ri tual com m ands .
P r aying becam e a form o f mi lita ry exercise ; th e

mos q ue becam e the great exercise ground and the
-
r —
ritual was th e d ill system o f I slam wh ich thus ,
i mplanted solidarity and a st r i ct discipline in its

armies Alms became a re g ular tax and fo r m ed
'
the basis o f t h e fi nanceer i ng o f the n ew theocracy .
At th e same time with the g r o w th o f th is closer

alliance o f the faith ful there grew up the exclusion
,
of thos e not o f t h e f aith particula r ly against the

,
279
Jews whom M ohammed had r egard ed before as h i s
,
friends but whom after hi s assumption of the r o le

, ,
of pol itical o r gan izer of the Arabic theocracy he

'
t r eated as unco m fo r table r ivals o f his idea an d

e n e m ies o f his autocrati c rule Mohammed s .
’
fou n dation o f a state o n the b asi s o f a common

religious im pulse as a substitute for th e old heathen
ana r chy o f the Arabs was the greatest deed of hi s
,
l i fe and most decisive for the future ; th e congr ega

tion o f Medina was the i nstrument their he r oi c ,
faith was the po w er through wh ich Islamism ,
achieved its wo r ld h istorical successes It i s h is

-
.
w o r k at Medina whi ch makes up the greatest part
o f hi s h istorical importance and here the prophet ,
w a s concealed for the most part behind the states
man A s such Mohammed undeniably pe r formed

.
,
a great work but naturally he was not choice in

, , ,
the selection of h is means M any a deed of cruelty.

,
revenge and deceit may have to be j udged more

m i ldly from the standpoint o f the popular morals
o f the A rabs ; but in the character picture o f a -
prophet and founder o f a rel igion ( for to him th e

title i s more appl icable than to any o ne else ) they ,
w ill and must r e m ain da r k spots .
Not only di d th e fall o f Mecca wh ich decided the ,
victory o f M ohammed over the Arabs serve as th e ,
ground wor k for subse q uent Islami c con q uests but

-
i t also deeply influenced the inner con fi guration o f

the new rel igion O f th is vi ctory too the ancient
.
, ,
saying was t r ue : Vi cta v i ctor es cepzt I nasmuch

'
280
I slam
as M ohammed embodied the heathen rites o f the

Caaba at Mecca and the cel eb r ation of the pilgrim
festival which was native the r e into h i s r eligion he ,
made a concession to the ol d heathenism o f th e

A r abs which c r assly cont r adicted the funda m ental
monotheistic and unive r salisti c i dea o f hi s religion .
G lossing i t over by the claim that Ab r aham had

founded these heathen customs was a crude decep
tion conscious o r unconscious The r eal motive o f
, .
thi s retrogression to fetishi stic supe r stition lay i n

a prudent regard o f the p r e j udices and advantages
o f h is countrymen whose city was thereby elevated
,
in quite di fferent fash ion f r om befo r e into the cen

t r al point of national culture In th e propo r tion.
that Isla m ism became bound to the Arabi c capital

a s i ts permanent center its claim to the title of a
,
”
general w o r l d religion became invali d ; at b o t
-
tom i t al w ays remained an enla r ged national

,
A rabic theoc r acy by force of ar m s j ust as the ,
Jewish messiani c realm was to b ecome a national

-
Je w i sh theocracy A s a national theocracy Islam

.
,
i s m d id beco m e a mighty power i n the worl d s

’
h isto r y but its influence upo n the religious devel

,
op m en t of mankind w a s rather a h indrance than a
help F r om th e beginning its religious conten t

.
,
was l i m ited and i m pure ; and i ts r evelation and

book faith was a h i n d rance to all healthy p r ogress
-
.
In th e beginni n g th e sayings o f Moh ammed we r e

,
p r eserved by wo r d of mouth only ; towa r d the close

28 1
R e l igi o n an d H i sto ri c F a i t h s
of th e first generation of hi s cong r egation they ,
were co m m itted to w r iting In o r de r to ha r m oni ze

.
the di ffe r ent readings of the various collections of

sayings Caliph O thman the Thi r d o r de r ed Zaid
, ,
Moham m ed s secreta r y to make an o fficial edition

’
, ,
which resulted in th e sacred book of Islamism the ,
Koran Throughout the style i s rhymed prose ;

.
,
the sayings o f the older period are laconi c after ,
the fashion o f o r acular sayings but th ey soon b e ,
come more prolix full o f arti fi cial rheto r i c and

,
endless repetitions— dry an d weariso m e r eading for

a healthy taste N aturally thi s never h indered the
.
,
faithful of Isl am from regarding the book as ex

a ctl y that wh ich i t lai d claim to being namely the , ,
unmediated word o f God which had existed f r o m ,
”
eterni ty as the uncreated word i n a celestial
o r iginal an d had been revealed to M ohammed by
the angel Gab r iel Alongside the Koran Isla m ism
.
,
holds a secon d rule o f faith— tradition Sonna , .
Thi s contains p r ecise ordina n ces conce r ning eve r y

manne r o f external ce r emoni al as well as civi c and
pe r sonal li fe ; all o f these o ften without foundation
, ,
are t r aced back to utterances of Moh ammed B e .
si des the tradi tions contain a mass o f mi r aculous

,
legends o f wh ich th e Koran had none since Mo

, ,
h ammed exp r essly discountenanced the rage for

m i racles an d pointed out the great wonders of G od
i n nature .
Islam ic teach ing rests up on fi ve pillars w h i ch ,
come f rom M ohammed h imself : ( I ) Belief i n the .
282
I sl a m
all one G od A llah and i n M ohamm ed as hi s

-
, ,
p r ophet ; Prayers five ti m es a day i n set fo r m ,
w ith the face tu r ned towa r d M ecca ; The giv

i n g of alms later regulated as a p oo r —
,
tax ;
F asts late r li m ited to the daylight hours of th e
,
month R am adhan ; Pilg r i m ages to Mecca a ,
duty devolving on every believer at least once in h i s

l i fe The g r eater the pove r ty of spi r itual content
.
i n the teachin g the m o r e minute a r e the details o f

,
the ce r emonial p r esc r ibed do w n to the most minute

,
.
The fundamental dogm a i s that of the unity o f ‘
G o d ; but concerning the nature o f God Moha m m ed ,
made no deepe r reflections He conceived G od as .
the super m undane al m ighty ruler si m ila r to an

, ,
O r iental despot ; te r r ible in h i s anger an d then again

benevolent delayi n g j udg m ent i n hi s benevole n ce
, ,
a rbit r a r y i n re w ard and punish m ent with a w ill ,
i r r esi stible as inco n ceivable dem anding blind s ub ,
mi ssion o f m en and even then hi s g r ace uncertain .
Thi s al l deciding f r eedom o f God s despoti c w ill

-
’
w a s exp r essed though w ithout logical co m pleteness

, ,
in the fo r m o f an absolute predestination Mo .
h ammed had no di fficulty i n cont r ibuting even i m

m o r al featu r es such as revenge and decep tion
, ,
w hich naturally belong to th e typi cal O r iental despot ,
to h is idea o f G od This gloomy v ie w o f G od

.
co r r es p onds to a pe ssi m isti c vie w o f the w o r ld ;

the wo r ld i s compared to a dung heap full o f decay -
ing bo n es and i ts m isery i s so g r eat th a t only th e

,
to r tu r es o f hel l exceed i t Just as ho r rible as th e

.
2 83
R e l igi o n an d H i s to r i c F a i th s
h ell s o j oyous i s the description o f the heavenly
,
p aradise whose drinking b outs shall compensate the

,
-
p ious for the prescribed abstinence from the en j oy

ment o f wine during l ife on earth .
G od i t is sai d has revealed h imself through

, ,
thousand s of p rophets in all tim es ; most prominent

among these are Adam N o ah Abraham M oses , , , ,
Jesus and M oh ammed ; and M ohammed i s not only

the last but the greatest o f them he alon e being ,
destined f or all m en T o h im G od has revealed ,
H imself mainly through the angel G abriel b ut ,
p artly also in di rect instructions given i n h eaven to

, ,
wh ich he ( Moh ammed ) had been transported bodily

at various times B eyond this M ohammed made no
.
,
claim to supernatural attributes not even that o f ,
moral p erfection ; he had erred and sinned an d

needed forgiveness li k e other men H e sought to .
be only a preacher a monitor the fi rst o f the faithfu l

, ,
( Moslem ) h is mission had been ful fi lled i n the rev

elation o f the sacred boo k and i t i s n ot h is p rovinc e
,
to be a permanent mediator between Go d and men .
An ol d tradition h as h im s ay : Praise me not a s ,
Jesus the s on of Ma rj am was p raised

,
”
T he .
acknowled gm ent o f Jesus as a p ro p het who had

gone before di d not hinder M ohammed i n any way
,
from a denial o f Christianity wh ich h e p ronounced ,
as a falsi fi cation of the true teach ing of J esus The .
doctrine that Jesus was the Son o f G od was partie ,
ul a r l y o ff ensive to him ; he thought that that was a
p al p able l ie because he was certain that G od h ad no

,
2 84
I sl am
wi fe ; he rej ected t h e doctrine o f the Trinity which

h e conceived as a heavenly fam ily consisting o f a
f ather mother and s on ( probably one o f the O r i
,
ental sects through thei r gnostic mythology had

given h i m that n otion j ust as the s i x principal
,
p rophets are reminiscent of the Elkesai tic clemen -
t i nian gnosticism .
To t h e con flict over t h e regular succession to the

p rop h et the or i g i n o f the sect o f Shiahs i s to be
,
ascribed from the end o f the seventh centu ry they ,
were dominant i n Persi a They woul d a ckn ow l .
edge only Ali the s on i n law of Mohammed the

,
- -
h usband o f h is daughter F atim a an d thei r descend ,
ants as the proper I mam heads o f the congrega ,
”
tion. Th is schism at fi rst m erely p olitical in
,
nature soon acqui red a religious sign i fi cance

,
throug h the d octrine o f the continuity o f the chain

o f p rophets Whereas orthodox I slam loo k s upon
.
Mohammed as the last of the prophets the Shiahs ,
belie v ed that the d ivine revelation continued through

A l i and hi s fam ily ; as the Wal i ( con fi dant ) o f
God they set Ali even above M oh ammed an d the
,
ann iversary o f th e death o f Ali s s on Hosein who ’
, ,
fell at Ke r bela i n 68 0 they regarded as a much

,
more im p ortant celebration than even the g r eat feast

at M ecca O ne extreme branch o f Shiahs of Persi a
.
m aintained that Al i and th e successive legitimate

'
I mams were th e continuous i ncarnation of th e

deity w h ic h recalls the Thibetan doctrine of D alai
,
2 85
R e l igi on an d H i stor i c F ai ths
lama How deeply rooted th is thought originally
.
,
alien to Islamism grew to be among the Persians

, ,
was mad e m anifest i n the second hal f o f th e las t

century by the rise of the Babists a sect founded ,
by M i r za Ali Mohammed wh o claimed to be the ,
h ighest embodi m ent o f that same divine spiri t

which had appeared before i n A braham M oses , ,
J esus and Moha m m ed .
It might see m for a ti m e that freer thought was

, ,
seeking expression in I slam The sect of the .
Muta z il i tes r aised ob j ecti ons to the orthodox teach

ing o f the eternity an d infallibil ity o f the Koran ,
the doct r ine o f predestination and to the doctrine ,
of an a rbit r a r y G od i n cont r adi ction to whi ch they

,
lai d the greatest st r ess on the righteousness of G od .
In m ost instances o r thodoxy found it most com

,
fo r tab l e to r ender these rationalists h armless by the

te m po r al a r m of the Caliph ; h owever i n the strug ,
gle w ith them the r e develop ed a theology which

,
sought to e m ploy the dialectics learned from the

he r etics in defense o f the orthodox doctrin es Al .
Asha r i ( died its most i llustrious rep r es en

ta ti v e,
may be regarded as the founder o f th e
dogm atic theol og y o f Islam ism I n the q uestion o f .
p r edestination for example he decided entirely in

, ,
the sense of the Christ ian S em ip el ag i ans : i t is the

part of man to will but it belongs to G od to ful fi ll
, .
Again i n th e case o f the sinlessness o f the p rophet

,
the possibi lity of sinful action was i n h im but the ,
divine w atch fulness united w ith his ow n merit as

2 86
the pro p het h ad never p erm itted the realization .
But the rationali sts we r e n ot defeated by the fi ne

ness o f thi s dialectic play but by i m mutable char
,
acter inherent i n Islamism f r om the beginning they ,
we r e ove r th r o w n The g r eat mass of the people

.
recognized thei r Allah and the Allah o f Mohammed ,
not in the G od o f the Mutaz i l i tes w hose natu r e w a s

r ighteousness but i n the G o d of the o rthodox the
, ,
Almighty w h o w as bo und to no other law but h is

,
o w n a r bitra r y wi ll .
A peculiari ty o f Persian Islam ism not less i n ,
ter es ti n g i s S ufism a mystical —

, s p eculative tendency ,
some o f which was deep ly pious and gi ven t o flights

o f high thinking Ce r tain i t i s that th i s was not a
.
genuine p r o duct o f A r abian Islamism even though ,
i t must re m ain undecided whether it o w es i ts origin

to ancient Persian Indian o r Neo— , platonic g nost i
ci s m . Acco r ding to the Su fi theo r y the world i s ,
a fl owing out o f and flo w ing back into G od The .
soul of man i s part o f the d ivine being and i ts ,
destiny i s uni on with G od wh ich i s pe r fected in,
three planes Upon the fi rst plane the plane o f

.
,
l a w G od i s held to be the Lord beyond w h o desi r es

,
to be w orshipped w ith all the traditional ce r emonies .
Upon the second plane comes the kno w ledge that

,
external wo r ks are without value for th ose who

know and i n thei r stead there must be placed
,
an asceti c freeing o f the s p i r it f r om sensuality .
Through continuous concent r ation of thought one ,
m ay arrive fi nally at the condition o f enthusiasm

287
and ecstasy whi ch by freque n t r ecurrence leads to, ,
the thi rd and highest plan e upon w h ich G od is no , ,
longer sought outside of one s self either by ritual ’
i s ti c o r asceti c wo r ks but upon w hich the i mma , ,
n en ce in one s o w n spi ri t co m e into consciousness

’
.
F or the wise m an and the mysti c w ho has attained

th is kno w ledge the va r ying doct r ines and ordi
,
nances o f the di fferent r el igions h ave lost thei r

meaning H e r e are s o me examples o f the thought
.
laden pious p oems o f the Persian mysti c D sch el a

, ,
—
leddin Rum i ( 1 2 07 1 2 7 5 )
W h e n t h pi ous p ay g lo y d p a i se i n d eed
e r , r an r , ,
I n to o all o sh ip off e i n g s k n ead

ne, w r -
r .
W h at i h i f a i t h each
, n sp ay i g says , one , r n ,
N ot t h ate but t h g lass d i v i des

e w r, e .
A ll glo y d all p a i se fl but f t h

r an r ow or e one ,
I to
n vessel ; G od p ou s th glasses all
one r e .
K o n t h i s f o m G od s l igh t em a ates each p y

w , r
’
n ra
’
r,
F om f o m
r fi ssu e com es t h f alse t h at s t h e e
r or r e
'
r .
Up a all h e s im p le su l igh t p lays

on w , w n n ,
Th e su s sh atte ed to a t h ousa d ays

one n
’
r n r .
T h ose h to Caaba m ak e pi l g i m ag e
w o r ,
A d eac h at le g t h t h e i g oal
n r n r ,
S ee old h ouse sta d i g

an n n
I a seedless vale
n .
T h ey e t th e e G od to see
w n r ,
A d n t h ey c i cle ou d t h h ous
now r
’
r n e e .
Ci cl i g t h us t i m e a f te t i m e t h ey
r n ai t r , w
U t i l a vo i ce sou ds
n th i n on e a r :
F ools do ye call u p o a sto e

, n n ?
Wh oould be g b ead o f sto e

w r n ?
Th e G e rm an ve s i o s r n a re by T h o l uk a n d R uec k e t r .
2 88
I sl am
I f ti s God s tem p le t h at ye see k
’ '
,
S ea ch w i t h i n ; i t h i you h ea ts t i s b u i lt
r w n r r ,
’
.
H a pp y h w h o tu s i u to h i m sel f
e rn n n ,
T r avell i n g o dese ts i n p i l g i m a g e
n r r .
0 l ove I bea t h ee
,
i t ess S ad as th i gh t I e p t
r w n . e n , w
A d th
n ays o f th y
e r b ou gh t day to m s un r e .
S oul o f m y soul I m t h ou d t h ou t I ,
a an ar ,
Th ou t all d t h o t h ee I o k e to all
ar , an r
’
, w .
S eet ess t t h ou d i tox i cat i o

w n ar an n n .
Th p ea l f au gh t
e r t t h ou t h m i e o f g ol d
-
r s ea a r , e n .
H e h com es ea to t h ee gi ves u p h i soul to t h ee

w o n r , s ,
D i s h e t h y m out h i s oth d i es h e t h i e eye dot h

e w n w r , w n n
sm i le .
F i st dot h th y f avo lu e th lov i g o es to t h ee

r r r e n n ,
T h e com es t h y ath d ch o k es t h eak l i g s i th

n w r an e w n n e
f ay r .
D ea m h osts se ve t h ee d a i t h s o f f a cy g o
r -
r an w r n
F o th i t h fi e y ea p o s as th y battle a ay ;
r w r w n -
rr
F lam e fl au ts t h ba e o f t h y u e d i g s ay
n e nn r n n n w ,
B u i g u t i l o lds b do bef o e t h ee
rn n n w r ow w n r .
E ach m om e t te o s t h ou se dest f o th
n , rr r n ew n r
M ak i g th soul t em ble as a l i ttle ch i ld ;

n e r
T h e if th soul y i eld d t h ou dost e te i

n, e an n r n,
V i cto i ous —t h y co m i g i s k i dl i e t h a
r ,
h h d t h ou g h t n n r n s e a .
0 b i d f f eedom call i g
r , or r n ,
A d t h ou
n h o m t h body ca g e i s g all i g
, w e -
n ,
0 soul ouldst t h ou be f ee
, w r ?
T h e love th love t h at t m th th ee
n e a e .
Ti s love t h at t igh te s ev y t i e
’
n
’
r ,
T i s love t h st o g est loc k

’
p y; e r n ca n r
L ove s t h p u e m us i c o f th s ph e es
’
e r e r ,
N o cla k i g c h a i s t h e e i
n h ea s
n n r n one r .
Th eo ld i s G od s m i o clea
w r
’
rr r r,
E xce p t th y eye be da led h e e ; zz r
G a e i t h g lass i t h lov i g g la ce
z n e w n n
A d be co f ou ded b y G od s b i ll i a ce ;
’
n n n r n
289
R e l igi o n an d H i s to r i c F ai t h s
a i se h i m 0 soul d u k i t h love
Pr , , r n w ,
Wi g i g at da
n n l ik e t h la k above w n, e r , .
M ak e com p la i t th at t h ou t cast i ch a i s
no n ar n n ,
M ak e com p la i t t h at t h ou m ust be ea t h s p a i s ;
no n ar r
'
n
Co m p la i t t h at t h
n no i de o ld i s est a i t e w w r r r n ,
Th o ld b ecom es a j a i l t h o th y com p la i t
e w r -
r
’
n .
A sk t h no i ll t h i s i ddle fi ally u fold ;

ow w r n n
B eaut if ully th t h y q uest i o b e u told

, o
'
n n .
S ay t L ove h at h f o sa k e m
no : r n e .
W h o m h at h love f o sak e ? I be g o f t h ee r n .
B e bold h e g i m deat h ould m ak e t h ee f ea

w n r w r,
D eat h y i elds to t h ose h boldly f ace h i m h e e w o r .
Ch ase t o ldl y p leasu es as t h fl eet h a t ;

no w r r e r
I t tu s i to a l i o
rn n d p lays t h h u te s p a t n an e n r
’
r .
C ast t t h ysel f i
no ch a i s O h ea t th e ca st t h ou n n , r , n n
M ak e com p la i t th at t h ou t cast i ch a i s
no n ar n n .
I am g a p e com e t h ou d be th v i e
th e r , an e n ,
Th lm
e e ou d h i ch m y b a ch i g a m s e t i e
, r n w r n n r n w n .
I m th i vy ceda be m y ste m
a e , r, ,
Th at I stay t dead th m o i st ea t h no on e r .
I m th b i d com e t h ou d be m y i g s
a e r , an w n ,
T h at I m y soa aloft to th y h igh h

a r ea v n
’
.
I m t h steed co m e t h ou d be m y s p u s
a e , an r ,
Th at I m y st i ve to each th y ace cou se g oal

a r r r -
r .
I m t h bed o f oses be t h ou m y ose

a e r , r ,
T h at I ou i sh t so y eeds
n r no rr w .
I m th E ast 0
a e i se t h ou i m , s un , r n e,
F om m y cloud f ab i c t h ou l igh t a i se
r -
r , , r ,
I m th igh t be t h ou m y c o o f sta s
a e n , r w n r ,
T h at sel f fea i g I t em ble t h e t i s da k

,
-
r n , r no , w n
'
r .
o i g led i th th y soul h ath m i e

C mm n w n
A s ate m i g les i th th i e
w r n w e w n .
Wh th i e d ate p a t ?
o ca n e w n an w r r
Wh e d o r u i o m i e d th i e ?
n o ur n n, n an n
M y l a g e se lf t th ou b ecom e ;
r r ar
290
T h i s s m alle sel f W i ll I es ig
r r n .
M y atu e h ast t h ou ta k e
n r ; n on
S h all , y m ust I
na , t ta k e t h i e no n ?
F or aye h ast t h ou a ff m ed m
,
i r e
T h at I de y t h ee t i t i m e
n no n .
Th y love a o m a p e m eat i g m
-
r r n e
Ma o rr w bo e n or es ig n ca n e er
’
r n .
F lutel i k e u p o t h y l i p s I est
, n r ,
L t hk
u e u p o t h y la p ecl i e
e, n , r n .
O ne b eat h le d t h ou f I ould s igh

r n ,
or w ,
O ne blo st ik e t h ou f I ould p i e
w r , or w n ,
S eet
w m y s ig h s
a re d s eet m y tea s an w r
F or all t h o ld t h i k s j oy i s m i e
e w r n n .
D ee p i m y soul s de p t h s dost t h ou est

n
’
r
A d m
n d t h e e s t h y h eave
i rr o r
’
subl i m e
r
’
n .
O p ec i ous j e el i m y s h a f t
,
r w n
0 p ea l i m y m ussel sh i e
, r n -
r n .
29 1

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R e ligi o n and

Professor in the Un i ity

T H E l ectures here publi shed were del ivered at

the lectures were also given i n a publi c course at a

them by both audiences was a pleasing proof o f

l i g i ous in all ci rcles .

O n the basis o f stenographi c reports w ithout ,

material change I have prepared the contents of

these lectures for press ; so that as far as possible , ,

the s p iri t o f the spo k en word woul d be caught by

re q u ired a curtailment o f the q uotations but i n most ,

cases they have bee n inserted in this vol ume at

proper length The close o f the semester p r evented

he actual delivery o f the concluding lecture on

sion here impossible .

I t i s sel f evident that within the narrow l imits o f

these lectures only the essentials o f the w ealth of

and of contact The th r ee int r oducto r y lectures

wi ll make clear the v iew points w hich se r ved as my

standa r ds Pe r haps it w ould be advi sable to r ecom

m end to those readers who are less interested i n the

after having read the histo r ical matter turn bac k ,

to the po r tion devoted to the philosophy of rel igion .

F or deeper study I refer the reader to my larger

wor k Religionsph ilosophi e auf geschichtlicher

o n the general history o f religion by Tiele Chan ,

tep i e de Saussaye O r el l i and Menzies ; i n them

l ists of books treating of the separate religions are

THE ESSE N CE OF R ELIGI ON

B EF OR Ewe enter into the consi deration o f th e

ans w er to the question : What are we to under

re q ui res explication in order to demonstrate its gen

AS i s well known there are some religions wh ich

do not believe in one G od but in a plu r ality o f gods

o r spi rits or even in so m e va ue but div ne some

or der to make our defi nition hold good for these

tion god i n a general sense ; something like thi s

this there imm edi ately does appear the Ob j ection

that the gods of the lower reli g ions do not govern

o ur sense o f unive r se does p r esuppose a trained

understand ing such as we are not able to accept

as p r esent at the beginnings of mankind N eve r .

o f his expe r ience to be bound to h is god as the

ruling power Deity everywhere i s the power wh ich

unites the mani fold experience o f each separate ex

nature environment i nto a whole and somehow

ordering thi s whole governs it , .

Toward thi s superior power man ﬁ rst has the

he feels the woe mo r e k eenly and i n s o far i t was not

whole truth ; man has though t the possessions whi ch

therefo re h e felt himself bound to i t not only by

fear but also by g r atitude and conﬁdenc e G oethe .

has emph asized th is S i de o f religious f eeling p ar

i s not only an Obj ect o f fear but also o f conﬁdence ,

Therewith me r e fear becomes reverence and the

simple feeling of dependence rises to an obligation

render Toward g r eater human beings befo r e

whose p ower w e b ow and upon w hose f r i e n dly

o f duty . B ut to w ard men thi s feeling o f attach

superiority they stand o n a level w ith us in th e

m atter of hu m an li m itation and i m pe r fection I t .

i s di fferent with the divine po w er which gove r ns ,

o ur entire universe : i t stands in unmeasurable