Impact of Wireless Technology 1

Running head: IMPACT OF WIRELESS TECHNOLOGY ON LANGUAGE LEARNING

Impact of Wireless Technology on Language Learning

Mohd Muzhafar Idrus

West Virginia University

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Abstract

This paper reviews the findings of research on the impact of Computer-assisted Language

Learning (CALL) on language learning from the perspective of wireless technologies. Previous

studies presented us with a broad view on initial CALL development (Chapelle, 2001; Kukulska-

Hulme & Bull, 2008). However, they have not crystallized how wireless technology affects

language learning development, nor have they considered the in-depth relation between wireless

technology and language learning. This paper, therefore, argues that by employing the wider

field of wireless technology as the environment within which developments in CALL may be

understood, impact on wireless technology can lead to new perspective and practices, and

whether they are likely to change how languages are taught and learned. These impacts are

guided by skilled areas of language learning, learners’ needs, language use and literacy rate.

Through reviewing CALL from the perspective of wireless technology, one can question about

wireless devices, content or application that work well with learners and that specific

recommendations for further study can be given. It is suggested that views of instructional

technology designers and new approaches to wireless technologies such as mobile blogging,

podcasting, and wireless ESL classroom be dialectic in that they should be explored by utilizing

mixed method approach and exposing specific language learning development that are embodied

in the impacts. In addition, more conclusive evidence of wireless technology is required to

understand wireless technology and their impacts on language learning. This understanding can

further reflect on what is distinctive and worthwhile about wireless technology.

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Impact of Wireless Technology on Language Learning

The present study of looking at the impacts of wireless technologies on language learning

is built upon three important approaches; Integrative Computer-assisted Language Learning

(CALL), Constructivism and Socio-cultural theory. First, Integrative CALL focuses on

integrating the teaching of language skills into tasks or projects to provide direction and

coherence (Chapelle, 2001). Embedded with the teaching of language skills is the development

of multimedia technology as well as computer-mediated communication which sees a dramatic

shift of use of computer for drill and tutorial purposes to a medium for extending education

beyond the classroom and reorganizing instruction. In addition, the present study is based on the

principles of Constructivism which concentrates on students being active participants in a task in

which they build new knowledge based on experience in order to get new ideas into their schema

of knowledge (Plester, Wood, and Joshi, 2009). Furthermore, Socio-cultural theory states that

learning is a process of becoming part of a desired community and learning that communities

rules of behavior (Chapelle, 2001). Therefore, the current study looking at the impact of wireless

technologies on language learning is based upon the work of Integrative CALL, Constructivism

and Socio-cultural theory.

Reflecting on what wireless technology has to offer and to evaluate whether they are

likely to change how languages are taught and learned are the aims of this review. Technology

does not ensure educational tasks or language learning. Beetham & Sharpe (2007) highlighted

that in order technology to be understood as a social and cultural practice , it ‘cannot but

influence the ways in which people learn, and therefore what makes for effective learning and

effective pedagogy’. Spasojevic, Ito, Van House, Koskinen, Kato, and Okabe (2005) noted that

new social phenomenon may have affected the design of mobile and wireless technology, thus
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making association between social practices and technology. Because they are widespread,

wireless technology are commonly used for people to learn. In contrast, language teachers are

needed to evaluate and consider the implications of wireless technology.

Providing the review with twelve studies, the paper is organized into presentation of the

latest study on wireless technologies, looking at its implications on language learning. Then, the

review is concluded with a discussion section in which recommendations are brought about.

Review of literature

The present review which looks at the impact of wireless technologies draws from four

broad themes; four articles under skilled areas of language learning, three under diverse learners’

needs, three on language use, and the remaining two are placed under literacy rate of learners.

Skilled areas of language learning

The first article looks at the impact of podcasting on language students’ pronunciation by

Ducate & Lomicka (2009). Exploring the effects of podcasting in enhancing pronunciation in

second language learning and how learners’ attitude change toward pronunciation over a

semester, the study utilized twelve German and ten French learners as participants and they were

selected based on a convenience sample. Before the podcasting tasks were instructed, students

sat for training sessions on how they could go about using podcasting. After the training sessions

were conducted, eight podcasts (five scripted and three extemporaneous podcasts) which were

produced by every student over the course of the semester were analyzed. In addition, pre-test

and post-test were administered for the purpose of assessing students’ attitudes toward

pronunciation and the podcasting project. While findings showed that there was no significant

improvement on pronunciation, podcasting was perceived positively and the students appreciated
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the feedback given for the each recording. In addition, the podcasting activities were regarded as

fostering creativity. Three noteworthy pedagogical implications requiring attention are teacher-

feedback, which is based on podcasting recordings in improving pronunciation, visual feedback

by computer, and constant pronunciation practice to supplement podcasting exercises. In

addition, in order for students to enjoy podcasting tasks, it is imperative for teachers to conduct

training on podcasting before implementing it in a classroom.

Another study delving into the use of wireless technologies has its relevance on

improving pronunciation. Saran, Seferoglu, and Cagiltay (2009) compared the effectiveness

among three different means of supplementing materials; through mobile phones, web pages and

handouts in improving language learners’ pronunciation of words among twenty four students at

the English Preparatory School in an English-speaking university, Turkey in four weeks. These

students who were further divided into three groups to ensure each group received one of the

means were sampled using purposeful sampling, through data received during a pre-study

questionnaire. Whereas the learners received the study materials in the forms of multimedia

messages (MMS) in the mobile phone group, the learners who received handouts were given

colored handouts and each word was pronounced after the handouts were distributed. On the

other hand, learners with the web page category needed registered participants. The study had

two research questions; 1) Does the mean change (mean difference between pre- and post-tests)

in the pronunciation test scores differ among the three groups: mobile, web, and handout?, 2)

What are the students’ perceptions of the use of the mobile phones in their pronunciation

learning? By employing mixed methodologies, quantitative methods entailed a pre-test and post

test quasi-experimental design, while the qualitative approach utilized post-study semi-structured

interviews with the students and open-ended questionnaire. It was found that the quantitative
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data revealed positive effects on pronunciation among the learners who received materials via

mobile phones and this result was backed by the qualitative data. All participants of the study

gave positive feedback on the use of mobile learning application. The strength that this research

has lies in its system; a web-based vocabulary learning system, which included the elements of

interactivity, such as the ability to respond and receive instructional materials without having to

attend classes. A pedagogical implication that teachers can ponder over is the use of mobile

phones to track students’ after-class progress on pronunciation.

Not only is pronunciation discussed, impact of wireless technologies on vocabulary is

also relevant for the present study. Nian-Shing, Sheng-Wen, and Kinshuk’s (2009) discussed

vocabulary learning using content delivery via the use of mobile phones. Addressing the issue of

content adaptation in mobile language learning environments and instructional strategies in the

form of written and pictorial annotation, learners’ cognitive models with reference to verbal and

visual short-term memory were being considered to identify the best solutions on vocabulary

retention. 156 learners involved in this study were categorized into four groups; Group 1)

learners with higher short term memory in both verbal and visual components, Group 2) learners

with lower short-term memory in verbal but higher in visual, Group 3) learners with lower short-

term memory in both verbal and visual, and Group 4) learners with higher short-term memory in

verbal and visual components. The results revealed that with the provision of learning content

with pictorial annotation via mobile phones can positively assist learners with lower verbal and

higher visual ability as they easily grasped vocabulary presented in a visual than in a verbal

form. On the other hand, learners with both high verbal and visual ability would learn vocabulary

through learning content which was supplemented with both written and pictorial annotation. A

pedagogical implication that can be drawn from implementing content delivery via mobile
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phones to learners with low verbal and visual ability is that too many written or pictorial

annotations will increase the cognitive load, which could lead to irritation and lack of

concentration.

Reviewing different applications and wireless devices that were applicable for language

learning, Godwin-Jones (2008) briefly discussed current and future technology. Beginning with

applications from iPhone, he wrote about The Stanza e-book program that allowed iPhone users

to flip through the library of e-books stored for online and offline reading. Another iPhone

application included ‘Innovative Language Learning’ which introduced vocabulary and

pronunciation building tools (My Words) for different languages, allowing a user to compare his

or her pronunciation with a model native speaker. Tablet PC then allowed for writing and

reading for language beginners because it allowed editing in a much faster rate than that of a

notebook or personal computer. For adult learners, ‘Kindle’ which was an electronic device to

download books wirelessly was highly useful for reading. Finally, another point relevant for the

present review is when Godwin-Jones highlighted language studies- Mobile and Immersive

Learning for Literacy in Emerging Economies (MILLEE), County Meath Project, Fluenz

Mandarin that engaged readers with recent language learning developments via the use of mobile

applications worldwide. Whereas MILLEE consists of e-learning gamers for mobile phones that

used English language as the medium of instruction for learners of English in India, County

Meath Project was a language study in which Irish was taught in the Dublin area. On the other

hand, Fluenz Mandarin was a language-related application for wireless devices available in a

Windows Mobile version. Granted, the article resumed in bringing about networks and

opportunities and explicated that 4G, which was a network that employs data-sending through IP

packets, would help CALL proponents to employ such services to language learning labs.
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Diverse learners’ needs

A paper by Warschauer (2000) discussed the consequences of a new stage of global

capitalism, called informationalism, and its impact for English language teaching with a focus on

three issues. One of the issues addressed was that new information technologies would jumpstart

notions of literacy, making online navigation and research, interpretation and authoring of

hypermedia, and synchronous and asynchronous on-line communication critical skills for

learners of English. Witnessing changes in the way languages were being learned, the author

pointed out that harnessing the potentials of information technologies was fundamental in

determining whether literacy rate of learners would be influenced by these technologies. These

changes were in response to the research by New London Group (1996) which highlighted that

‘immersion in situated practice’, ‘overt instruction’, ‘critical framing’, and ‘transformed practice’

were required by learners to discover new media and discourses. In his article, one additional

area that requires attention is with regards to research using wireless technologies to reach

students with different demographics.

Probably a follow-up discussion of Warshauer (2000), Chapelle (2001) later suggested

conceptual foundation in answering questions about technology in second language teaching,

testing, and research. A chapter that was relevant to the current review was when Chapelle

discussed the impact of CALL on learners and classroom materials, gearing towards how

previous initiatives have called for the latest development of CALL today. Then, Chapelle

strongly argued on how Computer Aided Instruction (CAI) and Computer Based Training (CBT)

could be integrated with CALL so that learners who were tactile and visual-oriented can benefit

from such computer-based assessments, despite some language educators who did not feel oblige

to be in cohort with Chapelle. In addition, she explored possible research especially those going
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in-depth revealing learners’ perception and how empirical findings pertaining to the use of

technological revamp could assist students’ language learning.

Possibly drawing conclusions from these two authors, Zoetewey (2009) later recognized

the needs of the learners to have a wireless English as a Second Language (ESL) classroom and

designed a qualitative study. Based on the assumption that learners experienced learning through

sufficient technologies, the research sought to present the case of a laptop computer writing

classroom for non-native speakers of English at a university. Stakeholders’ (ESL students,

instructors, and administrators) preferences for wireless ESL classrooms were viewed. Data were

obtained from content analysis of over fifty classrooms’ documents (grant proposals, budgetary

reports, policy documents), pre-interview and pre-focus group questionnaires from participants,

students, instructor and administrator one-one-one interviews, an instructor focus group and

instructors ‘ and students’ written reflections about the wireless ESL classroom, and thirty eight

hours of observations. Different priorities emerged; repositioning furniture at the beginning of

the class might be time well-spent, instructors and administrators preferred laptop ownership

initiatives and that they needed visible displays that promoted surveillance. The acquisition of a

projector and flexible furniture placements were also needed by these stakeholders. Then, at the

end of the study, the heuristics for outfitting and ordering wireless classrooms were outlined.

Language use

Focusing on the importance of linguistic and sociolinguistic functions of Arabic English

code-switching, Al-Khatib & Sabbah (2008) explored mobile text messages to look at code-

switching elements from the sociolinguistic perspective. The research sought to hypothesize

whether social functions in mobile phone interactions would be displayed the same way they are
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discovered in oral-switching research. Having 46 undergraduate and post-graduate students as

the respondents, the research employed qualitative and quantitative analyses. Text-building

mechanisms were analyzed and interpreted with reference to the sociocultural background of the

text users. From 403 text messages collected, only 100 messages were analyzed based on their

clarity. Whereas a self-report questionnaire was used to gain data on language use and language

attitude, key informant interviews were conducted with a narrowed down group to get

information on what language is used and for what purposes. Results revealed that the factors of

code-switching between English and Arabic with ‘Arabic Roman scripts’ included ease and

swiftness of writing and limited space in Arabic messages. In addition, qualitative analysis

entailed that code-switching was influenced by the relationship of interlocutors and cultural

features of the Arabic language. Lowering language barriers and consolidating cultural identity

were also why code switching between Arabic and English occurred.

Not only are mobile phones employed to look at the language use in different contexts,

but they are also used for vocabulary learning. Specifically, the article published by Cavus &

Ibrahim (2009) explored the use of wireless technologies in language learning with regards to the

potential of using Short Message Service (SMS) text messaging in learning new technical

English words through the use of mobile learning tool (MOLT) targeted at 45 freshmen. MOLT

which was used as a system for the researchers to send 48 SMS text messages allowed the

subjects to receive the message, read and learn the new words at any place. These 48 messages

were categorized randomly in Group A, B and C with each group receiving the same 16

messages three times in 9 days. Through random selection, the participants were ensured of their

mobile phones availability and that they carried mobile phones at all times. The experimental

study had two aims; 1) to look at the usage of MOLT and obtain feedback on what they thought
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of it, 2) to determine the student success on using MOLT. In analyzing the learning abilities of

the students, a pretest and posttest asking the meanings of the words were conducted with the

expectation that the students would learn the words and score more marks. Then, at the end of

the experiment, the students filled out a written survey on what they thought of MOLT. By

measuring the knowledge of students before and after the experiment, the research illustrated that

the students liked and benefited from learning new words with the help of SMSs.

A paper written by Fallahkhair, Pemberton, and Griffiths (2007) described the

development processes for a cross-platform ubiquitous language learning service via interactive

television (iTV) and mobile phone. 14 paid participants of different age and nationalities were

the participants on voluntary basis to evaluate the service. Discussing a multi-method evaluation

to gauge usability, the researches used observations, interview, questionnaire and card sorting to

ascertain the perceived usefulness and desirability of television and mobile phone assisted

language learning environment (TAMALLE) system. In evaluating TAMALLE system, a

session was conducted in which the users were recorded by cameras without any disruption and

that the users’ interaction with the system was simulated on iTV interface before they could

evaluate the system using International Organization for Standardization (ISO) Metrics

questionnaire. Three different genres of installed in the system were news, a soap opera and

magazine programme about house hunting and language learning materials to support the users’

watching were also developed. The result revealed an overall positive response from language

learners and although there were some reported difficulties in reading text and on-screen display

mainly on the iTV side of the interface, TAMALLE was perceived to be a usable, useful and

desirable tool to support informal language learning in new contexts and cultural environment.
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Literacy rate

Plester, Wood, and Joshi (2009) delved into whether there is an association between the

knowledge of text message (SMS) abbreviations (textisms) and its relationship to improving

school literacy among pre-teen children. The study had two questions to be answered; 1) Were

there any associations between texting and ways of reading and spelling? 2) What were the

children’s use of specific forms of textism and the association of these forms and various literacy

elements?. Eighty eight children who owned mobile phones were the participants of the study

based from their socio-economic urban and suburban characteristics. In measuring textism

knowledge, these children who composed messages they might write if they were in a number of

scenarios had their messages code for the types of textism utilized. The ratio of textisms to the

totality of words was also calculated to determine the density of textism use. In addition, the

children were given a short questionnaire about their mobile phone used. As a result, the ratio of

textisms to total words used was positively correlated with word reading, vocabulary, and

phonological awareness measures. In addition, there was no destruction of children’s use of

Standard English. A recommendation outlined by the authors were highly practical; a look at

how socioeconomic background of children with wireless-owned devices with textisms

methodology affecting literacy rate is highly applauded.

Naish (2005) published a research conducted by European Union (EU) entitled ‘m-

learning’ which was conducted by Learning Skills Development Agency (LSDA) in the UK,

aiming at engaging the youth aged 16-24 to education. With regard to mobile learning (m-

learning) and specifically targeting at the literacy rate enhancement. The study which included

216 young participants from Sweden, Italy and the UK, had an even number of male and female

respondents. Prior to the research, it was noted that at least 89 percent of them were reported to
 Impact of Wireless Technology 13

have literacy or numerical needs, with 59 respondents had dropped out of school, 19 respondents

were at risk of doing so, 32 respondents were homeless, nine were travelers, three had been

young offenders while the remaining left as a hard-to-reach groups. The respondents were

divided into groups consisting 20 people and each had a guiding mentor. Using Personal Digital

Assistants (PDAs) and PDA-like phones (the Sony P800), the research employed 2.5G networks

standard. The methodology used were through two games; ‘mediaBoard’ and ‘driving theory test

game’. The ‘mediaBoard’ game had the participants going out with their phones, following a

map on the website and taking photos and clips, which they could embed onto the map for

people in the group to view. Using Multimedia Messaging Systems (MMS) to transfer and

receive the data, the players worked collaboratively. Once they were compiled, the final

enhanced map on the web page was edited. Another game- ‘driving theory test game’ had the

knowledge of the participants tested through roadsigns multi-choice questions. The interactive

game taught them of calculating the stopping distance of their car. The results had positive

implications in that 15 percent of the mentors increased their perception of the literacy and

numerical skills of the individuals. The respondents were enthusiastic about mobile learning,

with 62 percent reported that they were keen to take part in future learning after utilizing mobile

learning. It was observed that PDA, laptop or Personal Computer (PC) was preferred among

friends or people of their age, rather than the traditional learning in classrooms.

Discussion

Because the research found was inadequately rigorous to provide reliable evidence, the

review was considered inconclusive. On the other hand, there was some evidence to indicate that

CALL positively impact language learners, but the ways in which wireless technology is

integrated into the curriculum with the quality and avid teaching are both fundamental to the
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success of any CALL program. There were still some thought-provoking results, although the

review was unable to draw any strong conclusions.

One study indicated that although there was no significant improvement on

pronunciation, podcasting was perceived positively and feedback from teachers was appreciated,

suggesting that students need visual feedback and constant pronunciation practice. Whereas one

study noticed that content delivery via mobile phones had positive effects on pronunciation,

another study using mobile phones but with content and pictorial annotation was found to have

assisted learners with lower verbal and higher visual ability. In addition, learners with higher

verbal and visual ability were assisted with written and pictorial annotation using the same

content with mobile phones. While another study revealed that learners favored and benefited

from SMS text messaging system in learning technical English words, another study found that

SMS text messaging system was highly associated with word reading, vocabulary and

phonological awareness, thus supporting the theory that CALL promotes the teaching of

language skills into tasks to give direction and coherence (Chapelle, 2001). One study found

interactive television and mobile phones as desirable tools to promote language learning among

ESL learners in different socio-cultural contexts. The possibility for learners to learn with the use

of wireless technologies was shown by one research that focused on the needs of the classroom’s

stakeholder and demonstrated that they perceived furniture repositioning, laptop ownership,

visible displays, project and mobile devices were the needs of the students, instructors and

administrators. In contrast, another research which used mobile learning, i.e., through PDA and

laptop enhanced learners’ literacy rate.

It would be difficult to forecast the exact implications of this review, as the research on

which it is based does not have a lot influence in demonstrating evidence. Nevertheless, there are
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a number of issues that have been brought up by the review, at least wireless technology can be

assumed to be beneficial and have a defined role in the learner's language education.

Future undertakings on the present discipline could also be worth investigating. First, an

exploratory study going in-depth into looking at what instructional technology designers look for

in designing a mobile-assisted language learning (MALL) is highly recommended. With this

research in mind, it envisages informed decisions on the criteria or requirements that

instructional technology designers consider in planning application for language learning

purposes. Qualitative research method can be employed for the study. Next, a research delving

into podcasting and its impact on peer-feedback in academic writing among advanced ESL

learners can be implemented qualitatively. In addition, another study which has ESL beginner

students compare their experience in mobile blogging and podcasting in improving their

academic writing skills could be relevant to this study. In effect, these two future investigations

could bridge the gap between the kinds of experience ESL students have in using wireless

technology and writing acquisition theory (Patricia & Chrystalla, 2007). Furthermore, a mixed

method research could be conducted to compare a wireless ESL classroom that cuts across

cultures, e.g., a comparison of a wireless ESL classroom in a university in Japan and Malaysia.

In return, stakeholders, who include students, instructors and administrators, could voice out

their priorities in an ELS wireless environment which can support language learning.
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