PIPE

DEFINITION OF PIPE:
 Pipe is a hollow tube with round cross section for the conveyance of
products.
 The products include fluids, gas, pellets, powders and more.
 The word pipe is used as distinguished from tube to apply to tubular
products of dimensions commonly used for pipeline and piping
systems.

PIPE OR TUBE:
 In the world of piping, the terms pipe and tube will be used.
 Pipe is customarily identified by "Nominal Pipe Size" (NPS), with
wall thickness defined by "Schedule number" (SCH).
 Tube is customarily specified by its outside diameter (O.D.) and wall
thickness (WT), expressed either in Birmingham wire gage (BWG)
or in thousandths of an inch.
 The principal uses for tube are in Heat Exchangers, instrument lines
and small interconnections on equipment such as compressors,
boilers etc..
Pipe: NPS 1/2-SCH 40 is even to outside diameter 21,3 mm with a wall
thickness of 2,77 mm.
Tube: 1/2" x 1,5 is even to outside diameter 12,7 mm with a wall
thickness of 1,5 mm.

MATERIALS OF PIPE:
 Engineering companies have materials engineers to determine
materials to be used in piping systems.
 Most pipe is of carbon steel (depending on service) is manufactured
to different ASTM standards.
 Carbon-steel pipe is strong, ductile, weldable, machinable,
reasonably, durable and is nearly always cheaper than pipe made
from other materials. If carbon-steel pipe can meet the
requirements of pressure, temperature, corrosion resistance and
hygiene, it is the natural choice.
 Iron pipe is made from cast-iron and ductile-iron. The principal uses
are for water, gas and sewage lines.
 Plastic pipe may be used to convey actively corrosive fluids, and is
especially useful for handling corrosive or hazardous gases and
dilute mineral acids.
  Other Metals and Alloys pipe made from copper, lead, nickel, brass,
aluminium and various stainless steels can be readily obtained.
These materials are relatively expensive and are selected usually
either because of their particular corrosion resistance to the process
chemical, their good Heat Transfer, or for their tensile strength at
high temperatures.
 Copper and copper alloys are traditional for instrument lines, food
processing and Heat Transfer equipment.
 Stainless steels are increasingly being used for these.

LINED PIPE:

Some materials described above, have been combined to form lined pipe
systems.
For example, a carbon steel pipe can be internally lined with material able
to withstand chemical attack permits its use to carry corrosive fluids.
Linings (Teflon®, for example) can be applied after fabricating the piping,
so it is possible to fabricate whole pipe spools before lining.
Other internal layers can be: glass, various plastics, concrete etc., also
coatings, like Epoxy, Bituminous Asphalt, Zink etc. can help to protect the
inner pipe.
Many things are important in determining the right material. The most
important of these are pressure, temperature, product type, dimensions,
costs etc..

SPECIFICATION OF PIPE:
 Nominal Pipe Size:
 Nominal Pipe Size is a North American set of standard sizes
for pipes used for high or low pressures and temperatures.
 The name NPS is based on the earlier "Iron Pipe Size" (IPS)
system.
 That IPS system was established to designate the pipe size.
 The size represented the approximate inside diameter of the
pipe in inches.
  Pipe Schedule

 Schedule number means the wall thickness of the pipe

 today we know a range of wall thicknesses, namely:

SCH 5, 5S, 10, 10S, 20, 30, 40, 40S, 60, 80, 80S, 100, 120, 140,
160, STD, XS and XXS

 MATERIAL
 Carbon steel
 Stainless steel
 Alloy steel: Alloy steel is steel that is alloyed with a variety
of elements in total amounts between 1.0% and 50% by weight to
improve its mechanical properties. Alloy steels are broken down
into two groups: low-alloy steels and high-alloy steels.

 LENGTH WISE
 SINGLE RANDOM LENGTH PIPE :18’ -25’
 DOUBLE RANDOM LENGTH PIPE :38’-44’

 MANUFACTURING METHOD
 SEAMLESS PIPE ;PLUG MILL PROCESS(process )
  ERW (OR) WELDPIPE ; ELECTRIC RESISTANCE WELDED

 END TYPE
 Plane
 Bevel(angle of bevel is 37.5±2.5)
 Threaded

PIPE FITTINGS
 Buttweld (BW) fittings whose dimensions, dimensional tolerances et cetera
are defined in the ASME B16.9 standards. Light-weight corrosion resistant
fittings are made to MSS SP43.
 Socket Weld (SW) fi7ttings Class 3000, 6000, 9000 are defined in the ASME
B16.11 standards.
 Threaded (THD) fittings Class 2000, 3000, 6000 are defined in the ASME
B16.11 standards.

TYPES OF FITTINGS
 Inline fittings(Eg: Elbow, Tee,Cross,Redueser,)
 Online fittings(Eg: Olets)
 End Closures(End caps,Plugs)

BUTTWELD FITTINGS:

Elbow:
The function of a elbow is to change direction or flow in a piping system.
By default, there are 5 opportunities, the 45°, 90° and 180° elbows, all
three in the "long radius" version, and in addition the 90° and 180°
elbows both in the "short radius" version.
REDUCING ELBOW

MITERED ELBOW

Four Weld 90° Long Radius Miter Elbow

Tees straight and reducing
 The primary purpose of a Tee is to make a 90° branch from the
main run of pipe.
 Standard there are 2 possibilities, on behalf of the equal tee and
reducing tee.
 The equal tee (or straight tee) is used as the branch has the same
diameter as the run-pipe.
 The reducing tee is used as the branch has a smaller diameter as
the run-pipe.
 Used for branching

CROSS TEE

Reducer:
 Reducers be applied, to change from pipe diameter in one direction.
  Standard there are 2 possibilities, the concentric reducer, is usually
used in vertical pipe lines, and the eccentric reducer that is used in
horizontal pipe lines.

Concentric Eccentric
TF & BF
On an isometric view, in a horizontal line, with a eccentric reducer must
be declared, or the flat side at the bottom or top must be assembled.
Perhaps, you have ever seen on a drawing, the abbreviation "TF" or "BF".
This stands for respective "top flat" and "bottom flat"

For example:
1. Bottom flat eccentric reducer are often be used in pipe racks to keep
the pipeline at the same elevation, after a pipe size change. When a
concentric or a flat on top eccentric reducer in a pipe rack will be
used, the support detail, probably change.
2. Top flat eccentric reducer are often be used in pump suction lines to
avoid accumulation of gas pockets.Eccentric reducers can avoid small
"dead spots" that exist behind concentric reducers.
Some draughtsmen also specify the size difference T between the center
lines. As a eccentric reducer in a vertical line is used, it may also be
important, which side should be oriented to the north, south, east or
west.
CAP
 Basically a cap will be applied, to shut down the end of a pipe.
 The Cap, as it is shown in the image below, is available for all pipe
dimensions, and is sometimes also used for other purposes.

 The large variations of caps, are the so-called ellipsoidal or dished

heads.
 There are used to close pipes of large diameters, and are similar to
those used for constructing vessels.
Often you can see on a vessel drawing the name "Klöpperboden" ASME
F & D, and it is a German name for a special head. F & D stands as an
abbreviation for flanged and dished, and this form is also known as
torispherical head defined.
"Korbbogenboden", is also an german indication that you can find on a
vessel drawing.
This head is similar to the ellipsoidal head.

Stub End
 A Stub End always will be used with a Lap Joint flange, as a backing
flange; both are shown on the image below.
 This flange connections are applied, in low-pressure and non critical
applications, and is a cheap method of flanging.
In a stainless steel pipe system, for example, a carbon steel flange
can be applied, because they are not come in contact with the
product in the pipe.
  Stub Ends are available in almost all pipe diameters. Dimensions
and dimensional tolerances are defined in the ASME B.16.9
standard.
 Light-weight corrosion resistant Stub Ends (fittings) are defined in
MSS SP43.
Swage Nipples
Swage nipples are often used in small diameter pipe systems, and are
similar to buttweld reducers. They are concentric and eccentric available,
with various ends. The most common types are:
 PBE = Plain Both Ends
 BBE = Beveled Both Ends
 TBE = Treaded Both Ends

Size range NPS 1/8 - NPS 8. Manufactured from A106 Grade B seamless
pipe or cold drawn bar which is heat treated in accordance with
ASTM A234. Choice of raw material dependant upon size and reduction.
Available wall thickness: standard (STD), extra strong (XS), schedule
160, or double extra strong (XXS).

OLETS

Types of Branch Connection Fittings

Weldolet is the most common of all branch connections, and
is welded onto the outlet pipe. The ends are bevelled to
facilitate this process, and therefore the weldolet is considered
a butt-weld fitting. Weldolet's are designed to minimize stress
concentrations and provide integral reinforcement.

Sockolet utilizes the basic Weldolet® however the branch

affixes by way of a socket inside the olet. The bore matches
the outlet bore, and the existence of a counter bore roughly
the size of the OD of the outlet provides a socket where the
pipe can sit, facilitating installation and welding. The
Sockolet® is considered a socket fitting, and manufactured in
3000#, 6000# and 9000# classes.

Thredolet utilizes the basic Weldolet® however the branch

affixes by way of a thread just inside the top of the olet. The
bore matches the outlet bore, and the existence of this
threading facilitates installation, as no welding is necessary.
The Thredolet® is considered a threaded fitting,
andmanufactured in 3000# and 6000# classes.

Latrolet, used for 45° lateral connections, is available butt-

weld to meet specific reinforcement requirements, and 3000#
or 6000# classes for Socket Weld and threaded applications.
 Elbolet is used on 90° Long Radius Elbows (can be
manufactured for Short Radius Elbows) for thermowell and
instrumentation connections. Available butt-weld to meet
specific reinforcement requirements, and 3000# and 6000#
classes for Socket Weld and threaded applications.

Nipolet is a one piece fitting for valve take-offs, drains and

vents. Manufactured for Extra Strong and Double Extra Strong
applications in 3.1/2in to 6.1/2in lengths. Available with male-
socket-weld or male threaded outlets.

Sweepolet is a contoured, integrally reinforced, butt-weld

branch connection with a low stress intensification factor for
low stresses and long fatigue life. The attachment weld is
easily examined by radiography, ultrasound and other
standard non-destructive techniques. Manufactured to meet
your specific reinforcement requirements.

SOCKET WELD FITTINGS:

Full-coupling
A Full Coupling, joins pipe two pipe or to a nipple etc..
 Half-coupling
The Half Coupling can be directly welded to the run pipe, to make a
branch connection.

Reducing coupling
The Reducing Coupling joints two different outside diameters of pipe.

Reducer insert
Socket Weld Reducer Inserts are manufactured to MSS SP-79. They
enable quick and economic combinations of pipeline reductions to be
made using standard Socket Weld fittings.

Union (MSS SP-83)

It is a screwed joint design and it consists of three interconnected pieces:
two internally threads and a centerpiece that draws the ends together
when rotated. Unions should be screwed tight before the ends are welded
to minimize warping of the seats.

Elbow 90°
This Elbows make 90° changes of direction in the run of pipe.

Elbow 45°
This Elbows make 45° changes of direction in the run of pipe.

Tee Straight
This Tee makes 90° branch from the main run of pipe.
 Cross
Crosses makes 90° branch from the main run of pipe.

Cap (End Cap)

Seals the end of pipe.

THREADED FITTINGS

Elbow 90°
This Elbows make 90° changes of direction in th
run of pipe.
 Tee
This Tee makes 90° branch from the main run o
pipe.

Cross
Crosses makes 90° branch from the main run o
pipe.

Elbow 45°
This Elbows make 45° changes of direction in th
run of pipe.

Full-coupling
A Full Coupling, joins pipe two pipe or to a nippl
etc..
 Cap (End Cap)
Seals the threaded end of pipe.

Half-coupling
The Half Coupling can be directly welded to the ru
pipe, to make a branch connection.

Square head plug

Seals the threaded end of fitting.

Hex head plug

Seals the threaded end of fitting.
 Round head plug
Seals the threaded end of fitting.

Hex head bushing

Can be used to reduce a threaded fitting.

Union (MSS SP-83)

Unions are primarily used for maintenance and
installation purposes. It is a screwed joint design
and it consists of three interconnected pieces. Tw
internally threads and a centerpiece that draws th
ends together when rotated.
FLANGES

Types of Flanges

The most used flange types in Petro and chemical industry are:

 Welding Neck Flange

 Slip On Flange

 Socket Weld Flange

 Lap Joint Flange

 Threaded Flange

 Blind Flange

WELDING NECK FLANGE

 Welding Neck Flanges are easy to recognize at the long tapered

hub, that goes gradually over to the wall thickness from a pipe or

fitting.

 The long tapered hub provides an important reinforcement for use

in several applications involving high pressure, sub-zero and / or

elevated temperatures. The smooth transition from flange thickness

to pipe or fitting wall thickness effected by the taper is extremely

beneficial, under conditions of repeated bending, caused by line

expansion or other variable forces.

 These flanges are bored to match the inside diameter of the mating

pipe or fitting so there will be no restriction of product flow. This

prevents turbulence at the joint and reduces erosion. They also

 provide excellent stress distribution through the tapered hub and

are easily radiographed for flaw detection.

 This flange type will be welded to a pipe or fitting with a single full

penetration, V weld (Buttweld).

SLIP ON FLANGE

 The calculated strength from a Slip On flange under internal

pressure is of the order of two-thirds that of Welding Neck flanges,

and their life under fatigue is about one-third that of the latter.

 The connection with the pipe is done with 2 fillet welds, as well at

the outside as also at the inside of the flange.0.

 The X measure on the image, are approximately:

Wall thickness of pipe + 1.6 mm.

  This space is necessary, to do not damage the flange face, during

the welding process.

 A disadvantage of the flange is, that principle always firstly a pipe

must be welded and then just a fitting. A combination of flange and

elbow or flange and tee is not possible, because named fittings have

not a straight end, that complete slid in the Slip On flange.

Details of Slip On flange

1. Slip On flange 2. Filled weld outside

3. Filled weld inside 4. Pipe

Socket Weld flange

 Socket Weld flanges were initially developed for use on small-size

high pressure piping.

 Their static strength is equal to Slip On flanges, but their fatigue

strength 50% greater than double-welded Slip On flanges.

 The connection with the pipe is done with 1 fillet weld, at the

outside of the flange. But before welding, a space must be created

between flange or fitting and pipe.

 ASME B31.1 1998 127.3 Preparation for Welding (E) Socket Weld

Assembly says:
 In assembly of the joint before welding, the pipe or tube shall be

inserted into the socket to the maximum depth and then withdrawn

approximately 1/16" (1.6 mm) away from contact between the end

of the pipe and the shoulder of the socket.

 The purpose for the bottoming clearance in a Socket Weld is usually

to reduce the residual stress at the root of the weld that could occur

during solidification of the weld metal. The image shows you the X

measure for the expansion gap.

 The disadvantage of this flange is right the gap, that must be made.

By corrosive products, and mainly in stainless steel pipe systems,

the crack between pipe and flange can give corrosion problems. In

some processes this flange is also not allowed. I am not an expert

in this matter, but on the internet, you will find a lot of information

about forms of corrosion.

Details of Socket Weld Flange

1. Socket Weld flange 2. Filled weld 3. Pipe

X = Expansion gap
Lap Joint flange

 Lap Joint Flanges have all the same common dimensions as any

other flange named on this page however it does not have a raised

face, they used in conjunction with a "Lap Joint Stub End".

 These flanges are nearly identical to a Slip On flange with the

exception of a radius at the intersection of the flange face and the

bore to accommodate the flanged portion of the Stub End.

 Their pressure-holding ability is little, if any, better than that of

Slip On flanges and the fatigue life for the assembly is only one

tenth that of Welding Neck flanges.

 They may be used at all pressures and are available in a full size

range. These flanges slip over the pipe, and are not welded or

otherwise fastened to it. Bolting pressure is transmitted to the

gasket by the pressure of the flange against the back of the pipe lap

(Stub End).

Lap Joint flanges have certain special advantages:

 Freedom to swivel around the pipe facilitates the lining up of

opposing flange bolt holes.

 Lack of contact with the fluid in the pipe often permits the use of

inexpensive carbon steel flanges with corrosion resistant pipe.

 In systems which erode or corrode quickly, the flanges may be

salvaged for re-use.

Details of Lap Joint Flange

 1. Lap Joint flange 2. Stub End

3. Butt weld 4. Pipe or Fitting

Stub End

 A Stub End always will be used with a Lap Joint flange, as a backing

flange.

 This flange connections are applied, in low-pressure and non critical

applications, and is a cheap method of flanging.

In a stainless steel pipe system, for example, a carbon steel flange

can be applied, because they are not come in contact with the

product in the pipe.

 Stub Ends are available in almost all pipe diameters. Dimensions

and dimensional tolerances are defined in the ASME B.16.9

standard. Light-weight corrosion resistant Stub Ends (fittings) are

defined in MSS SP43.

Lap Joint Flange with a Stub End

.Threaded flange

 Threaded Flanges are used for special circumstances with their main

advantage being that they can be attached to the pipe without

welding. Sometimes a seal weld is also used in conjunction with the

threaded connection.

 Although still available in most sizes and pressure ratings, screwed

fittings today are used almost exclusively in smaller pipe sizes.

 A threaded flange or fitting is not suitable for a pipe system with

thin wall thickness, because cutting thread on a pipe is not possible.

Thus, thicker wall thickness must be chosen...what is thicker ?

Details of Threaded flange

1. Threaded flange 2. Thread 3. Pipe or Fitting

Blind flange

 Blind Flanges are manufactured without a bore and used to blank

off the ends of piping, Valves and pressure vessel openings.

 From the standpoint of internal pressure and bolt loading, blind

flanges, particularly in the larger sizes, are the most highly stressed

flange types.

 However, most of these stresses are bending types near the center,

and since there is no standard inside diameter, these flanges are

suitable for higher pressure temperature applications.

Details of Blind flange

1. Blind flange 2. Stud Bolt 3. Gasket 4. Other flange

Flange faces:
Different types of flange faces are used as the contact surfaces to seat

the sealing gasket material. ASME B16.5 and B16.47 define various types

of flange facings, including the raised face, the large male and female

facings which have identical dimensions to provide a relatively large cont

act area.

Other flange facings covered by these standards include the large and

small tongue-and-groove facings, and the ring joint facing specifically for

ring joint type metal gaskets.

Raised Face (RF)

The Raised Face flange is the most common type used in process plant

applications, and is easily to identify. It is referred to as a raised face

because the gasket surfaces are raised above the bolting circle face. This

face type allows the use of a wide combination of gasket designs,

including flat ring sheet types and metallic composites such as spiral

wound and double jacketed types.

The purpose of a RF flange is to concentrate more pressure on a smaller

gasket area and thereby increase the pressure containment capability of

the joint. Diameter and height are in ASME B16.5 defined, by pressure

class and diameter. Pressure rating of the flange determines the height of

the raised face.

The typical flange face finish for ASME B16.5 RF flanges is 125 to 250 µin

Ra (3 to 6 µm Ra).
Raised Face height

For the height measures H and B of all described dimensions of flanges on

this website, with exception of the Lap Joint flange, it is important to

understand and remember the following:

In pressure classes 150 and 300, the height of raised face is

approximately 1.6 mm (1/16 inch). In these two pressure classes, almost

all suppliers of flanges, show in their catalog or brochure, the H and B

dimensions including the raised face height. (Fig. 1)

In pressure classes 400, 600, 900, 1500 & 2500, the height of raised face

is approximately 6.4 mm (1/4 inch). In these pressure classes, most

suppliers show the H and B dimensions excluding the raised face height.

(Fig. 2)

Flat Face (FF)

The Flat Face flange has a gasket surface in the same plane as the bolting

circle face. Applications using flat face flanges are frequently those in

which the mating flange or flanged fitting is made from a casting.

Flat face flanges are never to be bolted to a raised face flange. ASME

B31.1 says that when connecting flat face cast iron flanges to carbon steel

flanges, the raised face on the carbon steel flange must be removed, and

that a full face gasket is required. This is to keep the thin, bittle cast iron

flange from being sprung into the gap caused by the raised face of the

carbon steel flange.

Ring-Type Joint (RTJ)

The Ring Type Joint flanges are typically used in high pressure (Class 600

and higher rating) and/or high temperature services above 800°F

(427°C). They have grooves cut into their faces which steel ring gaskets.

The flanges seal when tightened bolts compress the gasket between the
flanges into the grooves, deforming (or Coining) the gasket to make

Zintimate contact inside the grooves, creating a metal to metal seal.

An RTJ flange may have a raised face with a ring groove machined into it.

This raised face does not serve as any part of the sealing means. For RTJ

flanges that seal with ring gaskets, the raised faces of the connected and

tightened flanges may contact each other. In this case the compressed

gasket will not bear additional load beyond the bolt tension, vibration and

movement cannot further crush the gasket and lessen the connecting

tension.

Tongue-and-Groove (T&G)

The Tongue and Groove faces of this flanges must be matched. One

flange face has a raised ring (Tongue) machined onto the flange face

while the mating flange has a matching depression (Groove) machined

into it's face.

Tongue-and-groove facings are standardized in both large and small

types. They differ from male-and-female in that the inside diameters of

the tongue-and-groove do not extend into the flange base, thus retaining

the gasket on its inner and outer diameter. These are commonly found on

pump covers and Valve Bonnets.

Tongue-and-groove joints also have an advantage in that they are self-

aligning and act as a reservoir for the adhesive. The scarf joint keeps the

axis of loading in line with the joint and does not require a major

machining operation.

General flange faces such as the RTJ, T&G and the F&M shall never be

bolted together. The reason for this is that the contact surfaces do not

match and there is no gasket that has one type on one side and another

type on the other side.

Male-and-Female (M&F)

With this type the flanges also must be matched. One flange face has an

area that extends beyond the normal flange face (Male). The other flange

or mating flange has a matching depression (Female) machined into it's

face.

The female face is 3/16-inch deep, the male face is1/4-inch high, and

both are smooth finished. The outer diameter of the female face acts to

locate and retain the gasket. Custom male and female facings are

commonly found on the Heat Exchanger shell to channel and cover

flanges.
Gaskets
 To realize a leak-free flange connection gaskets are necessary.

 Gaskets are compressible sheets or rings used to make a fluid-

resistant seal between two surfaces. Gaskets are built to operate

under extreme temperature and pressures and are available in a

wide range of metallic, semi-metallic and non-metallic materials.

 The principle of sealing, for example, is the compression from a

gasket between two flanges. A gaskets fills the microscopic spaces

and irregularities of the flange faces and then it forms a seal that is

designed to keep liquids and gases. Correct installation of damage

free gaskets is a requirement for a leak-free flange connection.

On this website gaskets ASME B16.20 (Metallic and semi-metallic gaskets

for Pipe flanges) and ASME B16.21 (Nonmetallic flat gaskets for pipe

flanges) will be defined

Types of gaskets

Materials for gaskets can be divided into three main categories:

• Non-Metallic types• Semi-Metallic types•

Metallic types
Non-Metallic gaskets are usually composite sheet materials are used with

flat-face and raised-face flanges in low Pressure Class applications. Non-

metallic gaskets are manufactured from arimid fiber, glass fiber,

 elastomer, Teflon® (PTFE), graphite etc.. Full-face gasket types are

suitable for use with flat-face flanges. Flat-ring gasket types are suitable

for use with raised face flanges.

ASME B16.21 covers types, sizes, materials, dimensions, dimensional

tolerances, and markings for non-metallic flat gaskets.

Non-Metallic gaskets types

Semi-Metallic gaskets are composites of metal and non-metallic materials.

The metal is intended to offer strength and resiliency, while the non-

metallic portion provides conformability and sealability. Often used semi-

metallic gaskets are spiral wound and camprofile, and a variety of metal-

reinforced graphite gaskets.

Semi-metallic are designed for almost all operating conditions and high-

temperature and pressure applications, and are used on raised face,

male-and-female, and tongue-and-groove flanges.

ASME B16.20 covers materials, dimensions, dimensional tolerances, and

markings for metallic and semi-metallic gaskets.

 Typical Spiral Wound gasket

Metallic gaskets are fabricated from one or a combination of metals to the

desired shape and size. Often used metallic gaskets are ring-type-joint

gaskets (RTJ). They are always applied to special, accompanying flanges

which ensure good, reliable sealing with the correct choice of profiles and

material.

Ring Type Joint gaskets are designed to seal by "initial line contact" or

wedging action between the mating flange and the gasket. By applying

pressure on the seal interface through bolt force, the "softer" metal of the

gasket flows into the microfine structure of the harder flange material,

and creating a very tight and efficient seal.

ASME B16.20 covers materials, dimensions, dimensional tolerances, and

markings for metallic and semi-metallic gaskets.

Types of RTJ gaskets

 Often used Semi-Metallic gaskets

Here below you will find a short description of a number of semi-metallic

gaskets, which are largely used.

Spiral Wound gaskets

The spiral wound gasket depends upon the mechanical characteristics of a

formed metal spiral strip, rather than the compressive virtues of more

traditional gasket materials. This makes it particularly suitable for low or

fluctuating bolt loads. The sealing strips, or fillers, are usually graphite,

although other materials such as Teflon® (PTFE) may be used, the

windings are always stainless steel. For this type of gasket to work the

spiral must not be over compressed, hence one of two types of

compression control is usually used.

The completed gasket is fitted into a steel ring of specific thickness. When

the gasket is fitted into a flange and the bolt load is applied, flange

closure is governed by the outer steel ring of the gasket. To further

improve the pressure rating of the spiral wound gasket, a steel ring may

be added to the inside. This gives an additional compression limiting stop

and provides a heat and corrosion barrier protecting gasket windings and

preventing flange erosion. It is customary to select inner ring material to

be the same as the metal winding.

ASME B16.20 which covers spiral wound gaskets requires the use of solid

metal inner rings in: Pressure Class 900, nominal pipe sizes 24 and

larger, Pressure Class 1500 from nominal pipe sizes 12 and larger,

Pressure Class 2500 from nominal pipe sizes 4 and larger and all PTFE

filled gaskets. In the same standard is also described how a spiral wound

gasket should be characterized, below you will find a image on it.

 Marking Spiral Wound Gaskets

Camprofile gaskets

Camprofile or "Grooved" gaskets have proven themselves in all industrial

applications. Camprofile gaskets are found in industrial power plants and

in the primary circuits in nuclear installations. Used either between

flanges or in Heat Exchanger units in nuclear applications. The Petro and

chemical industry benefit too, as the gaskets are used in applications

where high pressures and temperatures are maintained and consequently

high bolt loads need to be controlled.

Camprofile gaskets consist of a metal core (generally Stainless Steel) with

concentric grooves on either side with sealing materials. The sealing

layers (depending on the service duty) can be Graphite, PTFE (Teflon®),

CAF or Metal (e.g. Aluminium or Silver). Camprofile's can be used without

 sealing layers to provide an excellent seal but there is a risk of flange

surface damage - especially at high seating loads. The sealing layers

protect the flange surfaces from damage in addition to providing an

effective seal.

Metal Jacketed gaskets

Metal Jacketed gaskets, as the name suggests, are comprised of a

metallic outer shell with either a metallic or non-metallic filler. The filler

material gives the gasket resilience, while the metal jacket protects the

filler and resists pressures, temperatures and corrosion.

They are traditionally used for Heat Exchanger applications, pumps and

Valves, however the resilience and recovery properties of these gaskets

are limited. Metal Jacketed gaskets require smooth flange surface

finishes, high bolt loads and flange flatness in order to seal effectively.

There are many different styles of jacketed gaskets available.

Metallic gaskets for RTJ Flanges

The ring type joint was initially developed for use in the petroleum

industry, where high pressure/temperature applicationsnecessitated the

need for a high integrity seal. They are mainly used in the oil field on

drilling and completion equipment. Ring type joints are also commonly

used on Valves and pipework assemblies, along with some high integrity

pressure vessel joints.

Most applied type is style R ring that is machined to tight manufacturing

tolerances in accordance with the relevant standards, to ensure correct

installation in standard API 6B and ASME B16.5 Ring Type Flanges.

Oval and Octagonal RTJ's with the same ring size designation can be
interchangeable in standard flanges with flat bottomed ring grooves. For

the old style round bottomed grooves Oval RTJ's only can be used.

Materials of construction are selected to match the flange material and to

be resistant to the corrosive and erosive media. In addition, the material

hardness of the RTJ's is less than the hardness of the flanges to ensure

the RTJ is deformed and not the flanges when assembled. Non-standard

size RTJ's are specifically designed to be installed in flanges designed

around a specific application rather than a standard flange.

BOLTS:
  To connect two flanges with each other, also bolts are necessary.

 The quantity will be given by the number of bolt holes in a flange,

diameter and length of bolts is dependent of flange type and

Pressure Class of flange.

 The most used bolts in Petro and chemical industry for ASME B16.5

flanges are Stud Bolts. Stud Bolts are made from a threaded rod

and using two nuts. The other available type is the machine bolt

that using one nut. On this site only Stud Bolts will be discussed.

 Dimensions, dimensional tolerances etc. have been defined in the

ASME B16.5 and ASME 18.2.2 standard, materials in different ASTM

standards.

 On the Stud Bolts page you will find more details concerning

materials and dimensions.

Types of Bolts

In Petro and chemical industry for flange connections Stud Bolts and Hex

Bolts are used. The Stud Bolt is a threaded rod with 2 heavy hexagon

nuts, while the Hex Bolt has a head with one nut. Nuts and head are both

six sided.

Stud Bolts

The quantity of bolts for a flange connection will be given by the number

of bolt holes in a flange, diameter and length of bolts is dependent of

flange type and Pressure Class of flange.

Stud Bolt length are defined in ASME B16.5 standard. The length in inches

is equal to the effective thread length measured parallel to the axis, from

the first to the first thread without the chamfers (points). First thread is
defined as the intersection of the major diameter of the thread with the

base of the point.

Notes:
 The length of metric Stud Bolts measured parallel to axis, is the
distance from each Stud Bolt, including the point.
 To allow the use of hydraulic tensioning equipment, larger dimension
studs shall be often one diameter longer than "standard".
That bolts to have plastic end cap protection.

Threads of Stud Bolts

Bolts threading are defined in ASME B1.1 Unified Inch Screw Threads, (UN

and UNR Thread Form). The most common thread is a symmetrical form

with a V-profile. The included angle is 60°. This form is widely used in the

Unified thread (UN, UNC, UNF, UNRC, UNRF) form as the ISO / metric
threads.

The advantage of a symmetrical threads is that they are easier to produce

and inspect compared with non-symmetrical threads. These are typically

used in general-purpose fasteners.

Thread series cover designations of diameter/pitch combinations that are

measured by the number of threads per inch (TPI) applied to a single

diameter.

Standard Thread Pitches

 Coarse thread series (UNC/UNRC) is the most widely used thread

system and applied in most of the screws, bolts and nuts. Coarse

threads are used for threads in low strength materials such as iron,

mild steel, copper and softer alloy, aluminium, etc.. The coarse thread

is also more tolerant in adverse conditions and facilitate quick

assembly.

 Fine thread series (UNF/UNRF) is commonly used in precision

applications and in there where require a higher tensile strength than

the coarse thread series.

 8 - Thread series (8UN) is the specified thread forming method for

several ASTM standards including A193 B7, A193 B8/B8M, and A320.

This series is mostly used for diameters one inch and above.

Hex Nuts

Hex nuts (dimensional data) are defined in ASME B18.2.2, and even as

bolts the threading in ASME B1.1. Depending on a customer specification,

nuts must be both sites chamfered or with on one side a washer-face.

Dimensions of above mentioned nuts, can be found on page Heavy Hex

Nuts of this website.

Note: the height of a nut for Stud Bolts are the same as the diameter of

the thread rod.

Materials for Stud Bolts

Dimensions from Stud Bolts are defined in the ASME B16.5 standard. The

material qualities for studs are defined in the different ASTM standards,

and are indicated by Grade. Frequently used grades are A193 for thread

rods and A194 for the nuts.

ASTM A193 covers alloy and stainless steel bolting material for pressure

vessels, Valves, flanges, and fittings for high temperature or high

pressure service, or other special purpose applications.

ASTM A194 covers a variety of carbon, alloy, and martensitic and

austenitic stainless steel nuts. These nuts are intended for high-pressure

or high-temperature service, or both.

Below you will find as an example a table with materials and grades for

flanges, thread rods (bolts) and nuts, arranged on design temperature,

flanges, thread rods and recommended nuts.

 DESIGN GRADE GRADE
FLANGES
TEMPERATURE THREAD RODS NUTS

ASTM A 182

Gr. F304, F304L, A320 Gr. B8

-195° to 102°C A194 Gr. 8A
F316, Class 2

F316L, F321, F347

ASTM A 350
-101° to -47°C A 320 Gr. L7 A 194 Gr. 7
Gr. LF3

ASTM A 350
-46° to -30°C A 320 Gr. L7 A 194 Gr. 7
Gr. LF2

-29° to 427°C ASTM A 105 A 193 Gr. B7 A 194 Gr. 2H

ASTM A 182
428° to 537°C A 193 Gr. B16 A 194 Gr. 2H
Gr. F11, F22

ASTM A182
538° to 648°C A 193 Gr. B8 Class 1 A 194 Gr. 8A
Gr. F11, F22

ASTM A182

649° to 815°C Gr. F304 H, A 193 Gr. B8 Class 1 A 194 Gr. 8A

F316 H

DESIGN GRADE GRADE

FLANGES
TEMPERATURE THREAD RODS NUTS
Note: Materials in the table above are being provided for guidance

purposes

Marking of Stud Bolts

Thread rods and nuts must be marked by the manufacturer with a unique

identifier to identify the manufacturer or private label distributor, as

appropriate. Below a number of ASTM examples.

VALVES

Valves are mechanical devices that controls the flow and pressure within a
system or process. They are essential components of a piping system that
conveys liquids, gases, vapors, slurries etc..
Different types of valves are available: gate, globe, plug, ball, butterfly,
check, diaphragm, pinch, pressure relief, control valves etc. Each of these
types has a number of models, each with different features and functional
capabilities. Some valves are self-operated while others manually or with
an actuator or pneumatic or hydraulic is operated.
Functions from Valves are:
 Stopping and starting flow
 Reduce or increase a flow
 Controlling the direction of flow
 Regulating a flow or process pressure
 Relieve a pipe system of a certain pressure

There are many valve designs, types and models,

with a wide range of industrial applications. All
satisfy one or more of the functions identified
above. Valves are expensive items, and it is
important that a correct valve is specified for the
function, and must be constructed of the correct
material for the process liquid.
Regardless of type, all valves have the following
basic parts: the body, bonnet, trim (internal
elements), actuator, and packing. The basic parts of
a valve are illustrated in the image on the right.
 Gate valves:

Gate valves are primarily designed to start or stop flow, and when a
straight-line flow of fluid and minimum flow restriction are needed. In
service, these valves generally are either fully open or fully closed.
The disk of a Gate valve is completely removed when the valve is fully
open; the disk is fully drawn up into the valve Bonnet. This leaves an
opening for flow through the valve at the same inside diameter as the
pipesystem in which the valve is installed. A Gate valve can be used for a
wide range of liquids and provides a tight seal when closed.
Gate valves are available with different disks or wedges. Ranging of the
Gate valves is usually made by the type of wedge used.
The most common were:
 Solid wedge is the most commonly used disk by its simplicity and
strength.
A valve with this type of wedge can be installed in each position and it
is suitable for almost all liquids. The solid wedge is a single-piece solid
construction, and is practically for turbulent flow.
 Flexible wedge is a one-piece disc with a cut around the perimeter to
improve the ability to correct mistakes or changes in the angle between
the seats.
The reduction will vary in size, shape and depth. A shallow, narrow cut
gives little flexibility but retains strength.
 A deeper and wider cut, or cast-in recess, leaves little material in the
middle, which allows more flexibility, but compromises strength.

 Split wedge is self-adjusting and selfaligning to both seats sides. This

wedge type consists of two-piece construction which seats between the
tapered seats in the valve body. This type of wedge is suitable for the
treatment of non-condensing gases and liquids at normal temperatures,
particularly corrosive liquids.
Most common wedges in Gate valves

Advantages and disadvantages of Gate valves

Advantages:
 Good shutoff features
 Gate valves are bidirectional and therefore they can be used in two
directions
 Pressure loss through the valve is minimal
Disadvantages:
 They can not be quickly opened or closed
 Gate valves are not suitable for regulate or throttle flow
 They are sensitive to vibration in the open state
Globe valves:

A Globe valves is a linear motion valve and are primarily designed

to stop, start and regulate flow. The disk of a Globe valve can be totally
removed from the flowpath or it can completely close the flowpath.
Conventional Globe valves may be used for isolation and throttling
services. Although these valves exhibit slightly higher pressure drops than
straight=through valves (e.g., gate, plug, ball, etc.), they may be used
where the pressure drop through the valve is not a controlling factor.
.
Tee Pattern Globe valve design is the most
common body type, with a Z-shaped diaphragm.
The horizontal setting of the seat allows the stem
and disk to travel perpendicular to the horizontal
line. This design has the lowest coefficient of flow
and higher pressure drop. They are used in severe
throttling services, such as in bypass lines around
a control valve. Tee-pattern Globe valves may
also be used in applications where pressure drop
is not a concern and throttling is required.

Angle Pattern Globe valves design is a

modification of the basic Tee Pattern Globe valve.
The ends of this Globe valve are at an angle of 90
degrees, and fluid flow occurs with a single 90
degrees turn. They have a slightly lower
coefficient of flow than wye-pattern Globe valves.
They are used in applications that have periods of
pulsating flow because of their capability to handle
the slugging effect of this type of flow.
Wye Pattern Globe valves design, is an
alternative for the high pressure drop, inherent in
Globe valves. Seat and stem are angled at
approximately 45 degrees, what gives a straighter
flowpath at full opening and offer the least
resistance to flow. They can be cracked open for
long periods without severe erosion. They are
extensively used for throttling during seasonal or
startup operations. They can be rod through to
remove debris when used in drain lines that are
normally closed.
 Flow direction of Globe valves
For applications with low temperature, Globe valves are normally installed
so that the pressure is under the disc. This contributes an easy operation
and helps protect the packing.
For applications with high temperature steam service, Globe valves are
installed so that the pressure is above the disk. Otherwise, the stem will
contract upon cooling and tend to lift the disk off the seat.
Advantages and disadvantages of Globe valves
Advantages:
 Good shutoff capability
 Moderate to good throttling capability
 Shorter stroke (compared to a gate valve)
 Available in tee, wye, and angle patterns, each offering unique
capabilities
 Easy to machine or resurface the seats
 With disc not attached to the stem, valve can be used as a stop-check
valve
Disadvantages:
 Higher pressure drop (compared to a gate valve)
 Requires greater force or a larger actuator to seat the valve (with
pressure under the seat)
 Throttling flow under the seat and shutoff flow over the seat
 Typical Applications of Globe valves
The following are some of the typical applications of Globe valves:
 Cooling water systems where flow needs to be regulated
 Fuel oil system where flow is regulated and leaktightness is of
importance
 High-point vents and low-point drains when leaktightness and safety
are major considerations
 Feedwater, chemical feed, condenser air extraction, and extraction
drain systems
 Boiler vents and drains, main steam vents and drains, and heater
drains
 Turbine seals and drains
 Turbine lube oil system and others

Ball valves
A Ball valve is a quarter-turn rotational motion valve that uses a ball-
shaped disk to stop or start flow. If the valve is opened, the ball rotates
to a point where the hole through the ball is in line with the valve body
inlet and outlet. If the valve is closed, the ball is rotated so that the hole
is perpendicular to the flow openings of the valve body and the flow is
stopped.
Types of Ball valves
Ball valves are basically available in three versions: full port, venturi port
and reduced port. The full-port valve has an internal diameter equal to
the inner diameter of the pipe. Venturi and reduced-port versions
generally are one pipe size smaller than the line size.
Ball valves are manufactured in different body configurations and the
most common are:
 Top entry Ball valves allow access to valve internals for maintenance by
removal of the valve Bonnet-cover. It is not required to be removed
valve from the pipe system.s
 Split body Ball valves consists of a two parts, where one part is smaller
as the other. The ball is inserted in the larger body part, and the
smaller body part is assembled by a bolted connection.
The valve ends are available as butt welding, socket welding, flanged,
threaded and others.

Ball valves applications

The following are some typical applications of Ball valves:
 Air, gaseous, and liquid applications
 Drains and vents in liquid, gaseous, and other fluid servicess
 Steam service
Advantages and disadvantages of Ball valves
Advantages:
 Quick quarter turn on-off operation
 Tight sealing with low torque
 Smaller in size than most other valves
Diaadvantages:
 Conventional Ball valves have poor throttling properties
 In slurry or other applications, the suspended particles can settle and
become trapped in body cavities causing wear, leakage, or valve
failure.

Plug valves
A Plug Valve is a quarter-turn rotational motion Valve that use a tapered
or cylindrical plug to stop or start flow. In the open position, the plug-
passage is in one line with the inlet and outlet ports of the Valve body. If
the plug 90° is rotated from the open position, the solid part of the plug
blocks the port and stops flow. Plug valves are similar to Ball valves in
operation.
Types of Plug valves
Plug valves are available in a non lubricated or lubricated design and with
several styles of port openings. The port in the tapered plug is generally
rectangular, but they are also available with round ports and diamond
ports.
Plug valves are also available with cylindrical plugs. The cylindrical plugs
ensure greater port openings equal to or larger than the pipe flow area.
Lubricated Plug valves are provided with a cavity in the middle along
there axis. This cavity is closed at the bottom and fitted with a sealant-
injection fitting at the top. The sealant is injected into the cavity, and a
Check Valve below the injection fitting prevents the sealant from flowing
in the reverse direction. The lubricant in effect becomes a structural part
of the Valve, as it provides aflexible and renewable seat.
Nonlubricated Plug valves contain an elastomeric body liner or a sleeve,
which is installed in the body cavity. The tapered and polished plug acts
like a wedge and presses the sleeve against the body. Thus, the
nonmetallic sleeve reduces the friction between the plug and the body.

Plug valve Disk

Rectangular port plugs are the most common port shape. The rectangular
port represents 70 to 100 percent of the internal pipe area.
 Round port plugs have a round opening through the plug. If the port
opening is the same size or larger than the inside diameter of the pipe, a
full port is meant. If the opening is smaller than the inside diameter of the
pipe, a standard round port is meant.
Diamond port plug has a diamond-shaped port through the plug and they
are venturi restricted flow types. This design is suitable for throttling
service.
Typical applications of Plug valves
A Plug Valve can be used in many different fluid services and they
perform well in slurry applications. The following are some typical
applications of Plug valves:
 Air, gaseous, and vapor services
 Natural gas piping systems
 Oil piping systems
 Vacuum to high-pressure applications
Advantages and disadvantages of Plug valves
Advantages:
 Quick quarter turn on-off operation
 Minimal resistance to flow
 Smaller in size than most other valves
Disadvantages:
 Requires a large force to actuate, due to high friction.
 NPS 4 and larger valves requires the use of an actuator.
 Reduced port, due to tapered plug.

Butterfly valves
A Butterfly valve is a quarter-turn rotational motion valve, that is used to
stop, regulate, and start flow.
Butterfly valves are easy and fast to open. A 90° rotation of the handle
provides a complete closure or opening of the valve. Large Butterfly
valves are usually equipped with a so-called gearbox, where the
handwheel by gears is connected to the stem. This simplifies the
operation of the valve, but at the expense of speed.
Types of Butterfly valves
Butterfly valves has a short circular body, a round disc, metal-to-metal or
soft seats, top and bottom shaft bearings, and a stuffing box. The
construction of a Butterfly valve body varies. A commonly used design is
the wafer type that fits between two flanges. Another type, the lug wafer
design, is held in place between two flanges by bolts that join the two
flanges and pass through holes in the valve's outer casing. Butterfly
valves are even available with flanged, threaded and butt welding ends,
but they are not often applied.
Butterfly valves possess many advantages over gate, globe, plug, and ball
valves, especially for large valve applications. Savings in weight, space,
and cost are the most obvious advantages. The maintenance costs are
usually low because there are a minimal number of moving parts and
there are no pockets to trap fluids.
Butterfly valves are especially well-suited for the handling of large flows
of liquids or gases atrelatively low pressures and for the handling of
slurries or liquids with large amounts ofsuspended solids.
Butterfly valves are built on the principle of a pipe damper. The flow
control element is a disk of approximately the same diameter as the
inside diameter of the adjoining pipe, which rotates on either a vertical or
horizontal axis. When the disk lies parallel to the piping run, the valve is
fully opened. When the disk approaches the perpendicular position, the
valve is shut. Intermediate positions, for throttling purposes, can be
secured in place by handle-locking devices.
 Typical applications of Butterfly valves
A Butterfly valve can be used in many different fluid services and they
perform well in slurry applications. The following are some typical
applications of Butterfly valves:
 Cooling water, air, gases, fire protection etc.
 Slurry and similar services
 Vacuum service
 High-pressure and high-temperature water and steam services
Advantages of Butterfly valves
 Compact design requires considerably less space, compared to other
valves
 Light in weight
 Quick operation requires less time to open or close
 Available in very large sizes
 Low-pressure drop and high-pressure recovery
Disadvantages of Butterfly valves
 Throttling service is limited to low differential pressure
 Cavitation and choked flow are two potential concerns
 Disc movement is unguided and affected by flow turbulence
Check valves
Check valves are "automatic" valves that open with forward flow
and close with reverse flow. The pressure of the fluid passing
through a system opens the valve, while any reversal of flow will
close the valve. Exact operation will vary depending on the type of
Check valve mechanism. Most common types of Check valves are
swing, lift (piston and ball), butterfly, stop and tilting-disk.
 1. Types of Check valves
Swing Check valve
A basic swing Check valve consists of a valve body, a
bonnet, and a disk that is connected to a hinge. The disk
swings away from the valve-seat to allow flow in the
forward direction, and returns to valve-seat when
upstream flow is stopped, to prevent backflow.
The disc in a swing type Check valve is unguided as it
fully opens or closes. There are many disk and seat
designs available, in order to meet the requirements of
different applications. The valve allows full, unobstructed
flow and automatically closes as pressure decreases.
These valves are fully closed when flow reaches zero, in
order to prevent backflow. Turbulence and pressure drop
in the valve are very low.
Lift Check valve
The seat design of a lift-Check valve is similar to a Globe
valve. The disc is usually in the form of a piston or a ball.
Lift Check valves are particularly suitable for high-pressure
service where velocity of flow is high. In lift Check valves,
the disc is precisely guided and fits perfectly into the
dashpot. Lift Check valves are suitable for installation in
horizontal or vertical pipe-lines with upward flow.
Flow to lift Check valves must always enter below the seat.
As the flow enters, the piston or ball is raised within guides
from the seat by the pressure of the upward flow. When the
flow stops or reverses, the piston or ball is forced onto the
seat of the valve by both the backflow and gravity.
Pressure Relief Valves
A pressure Relief Valve is a safety device designed to protect a
pressurized vessel or system during an overpressure event.
An overpressure event refers to any condition which would cause pressure
in a vessel or system to increase beyond the specified design pressure or
maximum allowable working pressure (MAWP).
The primary purpose of a pressure Relief Valve is protection of life and
property by venting fluid from an overpressurized vessel.
Many electronic, pneumatic and hydraulic systems exist today to control
fluid system variables, such as pressure, temperature and flow. Each of
these systems requires a power source of some type, such as electricity
or compressed air in order to operate. A pressure Relief Valve must be
capable of operating at all times, especially during a period of power
failure when system controls are nonfunctional.
The sole source of power for the pressure Relief Valve, therefore, is the
process fluid.
Once a condition occurs that causes the pressure in a system or vessel to
increase to a dangerous level, the pressure Relief Valve may be the only
device remaining to prevent a catastrophic failure. Since reliability is
directly related to the complexity of the device, it is important that the
design of the pressure Relief Valve be as simple as possible.
The pressure Relief Valve must open at a predetermined set pressure,
flow a rated capacity at a specified overpressure, and close when the
system pressure has returned to a safe level. Pressure Relief Valves must
be designed with materials compatible with many process fluids from
simple air and water to the most corrosive media. They must also be
designed to operate in a consistently smooth and stable manner on a
variety of fluids and fluid phases.

Spring Loaded Pressure Relief Valve

 The basic spring loaded pressure Relief Valve has been developed to
meet the need for a simple, reliable, system actuated device to
provide overpressure protection.
 The Valve consists of a Valve inlet or nozzle mounted on the
pressurized system, a disc held against the nozzle to prevent flow
under normal system operating conditions, a spring to hold the disc
closed, and a body/Bonnet to contain the operating elements. The
spring load is adjustable to vary the pressure at which the Valve will
open.
 When a pressure Relief Valve begins to lift, the spring force
increases. Thus system pressure must increase if lift is to continue.
For this reason pressure Relief Valves are allowed an overpressure
allowance to reach full lift. This allowable overpressure is generally
10% for Valves on unfired systems. This margin is relatively small
and some means must be provided to assist in the lift effort.
 Most pressure Relief Valves, therefore, have a secondary control
chamber or huddling chamber to enhance lift. As the disc begins to
lift, fluid enters the control chamber exposing a larger area of the
disc to system pressure.
 This causes an incremental change in force which overcompensates
for the increase in spring force and causes the Valve to open at a
rapid rate. At the same time, the direction of the fluid flow is
reversed and the momentum effect resulting from the change in
flow direction further enhances lift. These effects combine to allow
the Valve to achieve maximum lift and maximum flow within the
allowable overpressure limits. Because of the larger disc area
exposed to system pressure after the Valve achieves lift, the Valve
will not close until system pressure has been reduced to some level
below the set pressure. The design of the control chamber
determines where the closing point will occur.
The difference between the set pressure and the closing point
pressure is called blowdown and is usually expressed as a
percentage of set pressure.
 Pressure Relief Valve Bellow Type

Balanced Bellows Valves and Balanced Piston Valves

When superimposed back pressure is variable, a balanced bellows or
balanced piston design is recommended. A typical balanced bellow is
shown on the right. The bellows or piston is designed with an effective
pressure area equal to the seat area of the disc. The Bonnet is vented to
ensure that the pressure area of the bellows or piston will always be
exposed to atmospheric pressure and to provide a telltale sign should the
bellows or piston begin to leak. Variations in back pressure, therefore, will
have no effect on set pressure. Back pressure may, however, affect flow.

Other designs of Relief Valves

Safety Valve.
A safety Valve is a pressure Relief Valve actuated by inlet static pressure
and characterized by rapid opening or pop action. (It is normally used for
steam and air services.)
 Low-Lift Safety Valve
A low-lift safety Valve is a safety Valve in which the disc lifts
automatically such that the actual discharge area is determined by the
position of the disc.
Full-Lift Safety Valve
A full-lift safety Valve is a safety Valve in which the disc lifts
automatically such that the actual discharge area is not determined by
the position of the disc.
Relief Valve
A Relief Valve is a pressure relief device actuated by inlet static pressure
having a gradual lift generally proportional to the increase in pressure
over opening pressure. It may be provided with an enclosed spring
housing suitable for closed discharge system application and is primarily
used for liquid service.
Safety Relief Valve
A safety Relief Valve is a pressure Relief Valve characterized by rapid
opening or pop action, or by opening in proportion to the increase in
pressure over the opening pressure, depending on the application and
may be used either for liquid or compressible fluid.
 Conventional Safety Relief Valve
A conventional safety Relief Valve is a pressure Relief Valve which has
its spring housing vented to the discharge side of the Valve. The
operational characteristics (opening pressure, closing pressure, and
relieving capacity) are directly affected by changes of the back pressure
on the Valve.
 Balanced Safety Relief Valve
A balanced safety Relief Valve is a pressure Relief Valve which
incorporates means of minimizing the effect of back pressure on the
operational characteristics (opening pressure, closing pressure, and
relieving capacity).
Pilot-Operated Pressure Relief Valve
A pilotoperated pressure Relief Valve is a pressure Relief Valve in which
the major relieving device is combined with and is controlled by a self-
actuated auxiliary pressure Relief Valve.
Power-Actuated Pressure Relief Valve
A poweractuated pressure Relief Valve is a pressure Relief Valve in which
the major relieving device is combined with and controlled by a device
requiring an external source of energy.
Temperature-Actuated Pressure Relief Valve
A temperature-actuated pressure Relief Valve is a pressure Relief Valve
which may be actuated by external or internal temperature or by pressure
on the inlet side.
Vacuum Relief Valve
A vacuum Relief Valve is a pressure relief device designed to admit fluid
to prevent an excessive internal vacuum; it is designed to reclose and
prevent further flow of fluid after normal conditions have been restored.

Rupture Disk
A rupture disk is a device designed to function by the bursting of a
pressure-retaining disk.
This assembly consists of a thin, circular membrane usually made of
metal, plastic, or graphite that is firmly clamped in a disk holder. When
the process reaches the bursting pressure of the disk, the disk ruptures
and releases the pressure.
Rupture disks can be installed alone or in combination with other types of
devices. Once blown, rupture disks do not reseat; thus, the entire
contents of the upstream process equipment will be vented.
Rupture disks are commonly used in series (upstream) with a Relief valve
to prevent corrosive fluids from contacting the metal parts of the valve. In
addition, this combination is a reclosing system.
The burst tolerances of rupture disks are typically about ±5% for set
pressures > 40 psig.

Purposes of Rupture Disks

A rupture disk is a sensitive relief device designed to rupture at a pre-
determined pressure and temperature. It is a means of providing
protection for personnel and equipment. As such, it must be a fail-safe
device. Rupture disks are used where instantaneous and full opening of a
pressure relief device is required. These devices are also utilized where
"zero" leak-age is required of a relief device. These devices can also be
used in series as "quick opening" valves.
Rupture disks may be used either in primary relief, in secondary relief, in
series with a Relief valve, or for other functions like "quick opening"
valves.
Primary Relief
If used for primary relief, the rupture disk is the only device utilized for
pressure relief. As such, it has the advantages of being leak tight, an
instantaneous response time, minimum pressure drop, lowest cost, very
high re-liability, and minimum maintenance. It has the disadvantage that
it must be replaced after each rupture occurrence, and allows venting
until system pressure equals downstream pressure.
Secondary Relief
When used in a secondary relief capacity, the rupture disk provides a
backup vent to a primary relief device, usually a Relief valve. Its purpose
here is usually to provide additional protection against an unlikely but
possible major event that would exceed the capacity of the primary relief
device.
Control Valve

Control valves automatically regulate pressure and/or flow rate, and are
available for any pressure. If different plant systems operate up to, and at
pressure/temperature combinations that require Class 300 valves,
sometimes (where the design permits), all control valves chosen will be
Class 300 for interchange-ability. However, if none of the systems
exceeds the ratings for Class 150 valves, this is not necessary.
Globe valves are normally used for control, and their ends are usually
flanged for ease of maintenance. Depending on their type of supply, the
disk is moved by a hydraulic, pneumatic, electrical or mechanical
actuator. The valve modulates flow through movement of a valve plug in
relation to the port(s) located within the valve body. The valve plug is
attached to a valve stem, which, in turn, is connected to the actuator.

I
 Valve Types and typical Applications
Service and Function
Valve type Isolation Pressure Directional
Throttling
or stop Relief change
Gate YES NO NO NO
Globe YES YES NO YES (note 1)
Check (note 2) NO NO NO
Stop check YES NO NO NO
Butterfly YES YES NO NO
Ball YES (note 3) NO YES (note 4)
Plug YES (note 3) NO YES (note 4)
Diaphragm YES NO NO NO
Safety Relief NO NO YES NO
Isolation Pressure Directional
Throttling
Valve type or stop Relief change
Service and Function

STEAM TRAP

A steam trap is an automatic device used to discharge condensate, air

and other non-condensable gases from steam piping or steam heating
equipment without permitting live steam to escape.