MAJOR TYPES/APPROACHES IN RESEARCH

A. Quantitative Approach
1. Advantages
2. Disadvantages
3. Characteristics
Quantitative research deals in numbers, logic, and an objective stance. Quantitative
research focuses on numeric and unchanging data and detailed, convergent
reasoning rather than divergent reasoning [i.e., the generation of a variety of ideas
about a research problem in a spontaneous, free-flowing manner].
Its main characteristics are:
a. The data is usually gathered using structured research instruments.
b. The results are based on larger sample sizes that are representative of the
population.
c. The research study can usually be replicated or repeated, given its high
reliability.
d. Researcher has a clearly defined research question to which objective answers
are sought.
e. All aspects of the study are carefully designed before data is collected.
f. Data are in the form of numbers and statistics, often arranged in tables, charts,
figures, or other non-textual forms.
g. Project can be used to generalize concepts more widely, predict future results,
or investigate causal relationships.
h. Researcher uses tools, such as questionnaires or computer software, to collect
numerical data.

Characteristics of Quantitative Method in the Research Process

4. Data Gathering and Analysis
Data Gathering
Researchers often rely on quantitative data when they intend to quantify attributes,
attitudes, behaviors and other defined variables with a motive to either back or
oppose the hypothesis of a specific phenomenon by contextualizing the data
obtained via surveying or interviewing the study sample.

Methods used for quantitative data collection

a. Probability sampling
A definitive method of sampling carried out by utilizing some form of random
selection and enabling researchers to make a probability statement based on
data collected at random from the targeted demographic. One of the best things
about the probability sampling is it allows researchers to collect the data from
representatives of the population they are interested to study. Besides, the data
is collected randomly from the selected sample rules out the possibility of
sampling bias.

Three Major Types of Probability Sampling

 1. Simple random sampling: More often the targeted demographic is chosen
for inclusion in the sample.
2. Systematic random sampling: Any of the targeted demographic would be
included in the sample, but only the first unit for inclusion in the sample is
selected randomly rest are selected in the ordered fashion as if one out of every
10 people on the list.
3. Stratified random sampling: It gives an opportunity to select each unit from
a particular group of the targeted audience while creating a sample. It is useful
when the researchers are selective about including a particular set of people in
the sample, i.e. only males or females, managers or executives, people working
in a specific industry.

b. Interviews
Interviewing people is a common method used for data collection. However,
the interviews conducted to collect quantitative data are more structured
wherein the researchers ask only a standard set of questionnaire and nothing
more than that.

Three Major Types of Interviews

1. Telephone interviews: For years telephone interviews ruled the charts of data
collection methods. However, nowadays there is a significant rise in conducting
video interviews using the internet, Skype or similar online video calling
platforms.
2. Face-to-face interviews: It is a proven technique to collect data directly from
the participants. It helps in acquiring quality data as it provides a scope to ask
detailed questions and probing further to collect rich and informative data.
Literacy requirements of the participant are irrelevant as F2F interviews provide
ample opportunities to collect non-verbal data through observation or to explore
complex and unknown issues. Although it can be an expensive and time-
consuming method, the response rates for F2F interviews are often higher.
3. Computer Assisted Personal Interviewing (CAPI): It is nothing but a similar
setup of the face-to-face interview where the interviewer carries a desktop or
laptop along with him at the time of interview to upload the data obtained from
the interview directly into the database. CAPI saves a lot of time in updating
and processing the data and also makes the entire process paperless as the
interviewer does not carry a bunch of papers and questionnaires.
c. Surveys/Questionnaires
Surveys or questionnaires created using online survey software are playing a pivotal
role in online data collection be is quantitative or qualitative research. The surveys
are designed in a manner to legitimize behavior and trust of the respondents. More
often checklists and rating scale type of questions make the bulk of quantitative
surveys as it helps in simplifying and quantifying the attitude or behavior of the
respondents.

Two Major Types of Survey Questionnaires

1. Web-based questionnaire: This is one of the ruling and most trusted methods
for internet-based research or online research. In a web-based questionnaire the
receive an email containing the survey link, clicking on which takes the
respondent to a secure online survey tool from where he/she can take the survey
or fill in the survey questionnaire. Being a cost-efficient, quicker, and having a
wider reach, web-based surveys are more preferred by the researchers. The
major benefit of a web-based questionnaire is flexibility, respondents are free
to take the survey in their free time using either a desktop, laptop, tablet or
mobile.
2. Mail Questionnaire: In a mail questionnaire the survey is mailed out to a host
of sample population enabling the researcher to connect with the wide range of
audience. The mail questionnaire typically consists of a packet containing a
cover sheet that introduces the audience about the type of research and reason
why it is being conducted along with a prepaid return to collect data online.
Although, the mail questionnaire has a higher churn rate and compared to other
quantitative data collection methods certain perks such as reminders and
 incentives to complete the survey helps in drastically improving the churn rate.
One of the major benefits of the mail questionnaire is all the responses are
anonymous and respondents are allowed to take as much time as they want to
complete the survey and be completely honest about the response without the
fear of prejudice.
d. Observation
As the name suggests, it is a pretty simple and straightforward method of
collecting quantitative data. In this method, researchers collect quantitative data
through systematic observations by using techniques like counting the number
of people present at the specific event at a specific time and at a specific venue
or number of people attending the event in a designated venue. More often, for
quantitative data collection, the researchers have a naturalistic observation
approach which needs keen observations skills and senses for getting the
numerical data about the “what” and not about “why” and ”how”.

Types of Observation
1. Naturalistic Observation Approach
It needs keen observations skills and senses for getting the numerical data about
the “what” and not about “why” and “how”. This is done by observing people
in their normal environment.
2. Structured Observation
Researcher has to make careful observations of one or more specific behaviors
in a more comprehensive or structured setting. It focus only on very specific
behaviors of interest.

Naturalistic observation is used to collect both types of data qualitative and

quantitative but structured observation is more used to collect quantitative
rather than the qualitative data.

e. Document Review
 Document review is a process used to collect data after reviewing the existing
documents. It is an efficient and effective way of gathering data as documents
are manageable and are the practical resource to get qualified data from the past.
Apart from strengthening and supporting the research by providing
supplementary research data document review has emerged as one of the
beneficial methods to gather quantitative research data.

Three Primary Document Types

1. Public Records: Under this document review, official, ongoing records of an
organization are analyzed for further research. Example, annual reports policy
manuals, student activities, game activities in the university, etc.
2. Personal Documents: In contrast to public documents, this type of document
review deals with individual personal accounts of individuals actions, behavior,
health, physique, etc. Example, the height, and weight of the students, distance
students are traveling to attend the school, etc.
3. Physical Evidence: Physical evidence or physical documents deal with
previous achievements of an individual or of an organization in terms of
monetary and scalable growth.

Data Analysis

Data Preparation

The first stage of analyzing data is data preparation, where the aim is to convert raw data
into something meaningful and readable.

Step 1: Data Validation

The purpose of data validation is to find out, as far as possible, whether the data collection
was done as per the pre-set standards and without any bias. It is a four-step process, which
includes:

1. Fraud, to infer whether each respondent was actually interviewed or not.

 2. Screening, to make sure that respondents were chosen as per the research criteria.
3. Procedure, to check whether the data collection procedure was duly followed.
4. Completeness, to ensure that the interviewer asked the respondent all the questions,
rather than just a few required ones.

Step 2: Data Editing

Typically, large data sets include errors. For example, respondents may fill fields
incorrectly or skip them accidentally. To make sure that there are no such errors, the
researcher should conduct basic data checks, check for outliers, and edit the raw research
data to identify and clear out any data points that may hamper the accuracy of the results.

Step 3: Data Coding

This is one of the most important steps in data preparation. It refers to grouping and
assigning values to responses from the survey.

For example, if a researcher has interviewed 1,000 people and now wants to find the
average age of the respondents, the researcher will create age brackets and categorize the
age of each of the respondent as per these codes. (For example, respondents between 13-
15 years old would have their age coded as 0, 16-18 as 1, 18-20 as 2, etc.)

Quantitative Data Analysis Methods

After these steps, the data is ready for analysis. The two most commonly used quantitative
data analysis methods are descriptive statistics and inferential statistics.

Descriptive Statistics

Typically descriptive statistics (also known as descriptive analysis) is the first level of
analysis. It helps researchers summarize the data and find patterns. A few commonly used
descriptive statistics are:

1. Mean: numerical average of a set of values.

 2. Median: midpoint of a set of numerical values.
3. Mode: most common value among a set of values.
4. Percentage: used to express how a value or group of respondents within the data
relates to a larger group of respondents.
5. Frequency: the number of times a value is found.
6. Range: the highest and lowest value in a set of values.

Descriptive statistics provide absolute numbers. However, they do not explain the rationale
or reasoning behind those numbers.

5. Example of an Article
B. Qualitative Approach
1. Characteristics
2. An Example of a Qualitative Study
3. Qualitative approaches to research
3.1 Narrative Research
Narrative Research is a strategy of inquiry in which the researcher studies the
lives of individuals and asks one or more individuals to provide stories about
their lives (Reissman, 2008). This information is then often retold or restoricd
by the researcher into a narrative chronology. ln the end, the narrative combines
views from the participant's life with those of the researcher's life in a
collaborative narrative (Ciandinin & Connelly. 2000).
3.2 Phenomenological Research
Phenomenological Research is a strategy of inquiry in which the researcher
identifies the essence of human experiences about a phenomenon as described
by participants. Understanding the lived experiences marks phenomenology as
a philosophy as well as a method, and the procedure involves studying a small
 number of subjects through extensive and prolonged engagement lo develop
patterns and relationships of meaning (Moustakas, 1994). In this process, the
researcher brackets or sets aside his or her own experiences in order to
understand those of the participants in the study (Nieswiadomy. 1993).
3.3 Grounded Theory
Grounded Theory is a strategy of inquiry from sociology in which the
researcher derives a general, abstract theory of a process, action, or interaction
grounded in the views of participants. This process involves using multiple
stages of data collection and the refinement and interrelationship of categories
of information (Charmaz, 2006; Corbin and Strauss, 1990, 1998). Two primary
characteristics of the design are the constant comparison of data with emerging
categories and theoretical sampling of different groups to maximize the
similarities and the differences of information.
3.4 Ethnographic Research
Ethnographic Research is a strategy of inquiry in which the researcher studies
an intact cultural group in a natural setting over a prolonged period of time by
collecting primarily observational and interview data (Creswell, 2007b). The
research process is flexible and typically evolves contextually in response to the
lived realities encountered in the field setting (LeCompte & Schensul. 1999)
3.5 Case Study Research
Case Study Research is a strategy of inquiry in which the researcher explores
in depth a program, event, activity, process, or one or more individuals. Cases
are bounded by time and activity. The researchers collect detailed information
using a variety of data collection procedures over a sustained period of time
(Stake, 1995; Yin, 2009, 2012).
4. Measurement Issues of Qualitative Study
5. Data Gathering Analysis
C. Differences between Qualitative and Quantitative Research
The differences between qualitative and quantitative research are provided can be
drawn clearly on the following grounds:
1. Qualitative research is a method of inquiry that develops understanding on human
and social sciences, to find the way people think and feel. A scientific and empirical
research method that is used to generate numerical data, by employing statistical,
logical and mathematical technique is called quantitative research.

2. Qualitative research is holistic in nature while quantitative research is

particularistic.

3. The qualitative research follows a subjective approach as the researcher is

intimately involved, whereas the approach of quantitative research is objective, as
the researcher is uninvolved and attempts to precise the observations and analysis
on the topic to answer the inquiry.

4. Qualitative research is exploratory. As opposed to quantitative research which is

conclusive.

5. The reasoning used to synthesize data in qualitative research is inductive whereas

in the case of quantitative research the reasoning is deductive.

6. Qualitative research is based on purposive sampling, where a small sample size is

selected with a view to get a thorough understanding of the target concept. On the
other hand, quantitative research relies on random sampling; wherein a large
representative sample is chosen in order to extrapolate the results to the whole
population.

7. Verbal data are collected in qualitative research. Conversely, in quantitative

research measurable data is gathered.

8. Inquiry in qualitative research is a process-oriented, which is not in the case of

quantitative research.

9. Elements used in the analysis of qualitative research are words, pictures, and
objects while that of quantitative research is numerical data.

10. Qualitative Research is conducted with the aim of exploring and discovering ideas
used in the ongoing processes. As opposed to quantitative research the purpose is
to examine cause and effect relationship between variables.
 11. Lastly, the methods used in qualitative research are in-depth interviews, focus
groups, etc. In contrast, the methods of conducting quantitative research are
structured interviews and observations.

12. Qualitative Research develops the initial understanding whereas quantitative

research recommends a final course of action.

An ideal research is one, which is conducted by considering both the methods, together.
Although, there are some particular areas which require, only one type of research which
mainly depends on the information required by the researcher. While qualitative research
tends to be interpretative, quantitative research is concrete.

D. Mixed Qualitative and Quantitative Methods

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Creswell, J. W. (2014). Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Method

Approaches-Fourth Edition. USA: Sage Publications.

Fischler, A. S. Nova Southeastern University. Quantitative Research Methods. Retrieved

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