I

nt
rod
uct
io
n
E
nvi
r
onme
nta
lDi
sp
ute
s

Whatdoweme anwh enwet alkabouta n“enviro

n ment
aldis
pute”?I
nt h
eli
terat
ureonmediat
io
na nd
en
vir
o n
men t
aldi
spu t
ere s
olut
ionwef i
ndan umb erofdi
ffere
ntdefin
iti
ons
.Mo or
ed ef
i
nesenvi
ronmenta
l
di
sp
utesas“..
.t
ens i
ons,di
sagreemen ts
, a
lter
ca ti
ons,de
ba t
es,compe t
it
io
ns,c
o n
test
s,conf
li
ct
s,orfi
ghts
ov
ers o
mee l
eme ntofthen at
u ral
environment.”Bl
a c
kburnandBrucedefi
ne“envi
ron
me n
talco
nfl
ict
”as
ar
i
sing“.
.
.whenon eormo repartie
sinvo l
vedi
nad ecis
io
nma kin
gp roces
sdisa
g r
eeaboutanact
ionwhichha
s
po
tenti
altohavea ni
mp actupo ntheen v
iron
me n
t.”Su
sskin
dreferstoenvi
ronment
aldi
spute
sas
“
..
.
disag
reementsa mongsta k
eh ol
dersinarangeo fpubl
icdis
puteswh i
chinvo
lveenvi
ron
me n
talqua
li
tyor
na
tural
resour
cema nageme nt
.”Bing
h am,inherreviewofa‘ d
ecadeo fexp
eri
ence’i
nresol
vi
ngenvir
onment
al
di
sp
utes,doesnotd ef
i
n e“envi
ro n
me ntaldi
spute”b u
tcategori
sesthedis
putesrevi
ewedint
osixbroad
ca
tegori
es:l
anduse ,
naturalr
es our
cema na
geme n tan
du seofpubli
clan
ds,waterr
esourc
es,
energy,
air
qu
ali
tyandtoxi
cs,wh i
chsh efurth
er subdi
vi
de sinto‘s
it
e-speci
fi
c’andgeneralp
oli
cycate
gori
es.

Fo
ro urp u
rposeswes halll
i
mitthescopeo fboth“env i
r
onmental
”a nd“di
sp
ute”
,soa stomo recle
arl
ydefi
ne
ourre
s earc
hfo cu
s.Atitsb r
o a
d es
t“enviro
nme nt
al”isanexpan
sivec on
ceptth
atmig htconnoteany
el
emen tofthenatur
a lenvi
ronme n
tin
cludin
gissueso fnat
ural
resourcemanage
me nt,energygener
ati
on,
devel
opme nt,
indu
stri
ali
sa t
ion.
Indee
dth eterm“envi
ro n
mental
”ma ye v
enbeunders
to odtoe x
tendbeyon
d
th
en atural
envir
onme nttoe nc
o mpas
sa spectsofthema n-madeo rbui
l
tenvi
ronment,asinthecaseof
he
r i
ta
g econservat
iono r“e
nvir
onment”a si
tisusedint h
eco n
texto fpl
ann
in
glaw.Ou rfocuswil
lbemore
sp
e ci
fi
c ,i
npartduetot hemo r
es pec
ifi
cd ef
ini
ti
ono fenvi
ronmentaldi
sput
eintheI
nd onesi
anEnvi
ronment
al
Manage mentAct1997, whic
hlimit
sit
se l
ftod i
spu
te srel
ati
ngtothei n
ci
denceorsuspe c
tedinci
denceof
en
v i
ronme n
talpol
l
uti
o no rdamage.Fo
ro urpurposest h
en,a
n“ e
nvironment
al
”di
sputeisad i
sputethat
r
elate
si nsomewa ytot heinci
dence,orsuspecte
di nci
denceofenv i
ron
mental
poll
uti
o nordamageofsome
ki
nd.

Whatth
endower efertoasa“di
spute”
?Mo ore’
sd ef
i
nit
io
nq uot
edabo vei
sab r
oado n
e,en
compassi
ng
con
fl
ic
tofseemingl
yanynatur
e.I
nc o
ntra
st,Browna n
dMa rr
i
otdefi
nea sadis
puteas“..
.
aclas
sork i
ndof
con
fl
ic
twh i
chma n
if
estsit
sel
findi
sti
nct,
justi
ci
ablei
ssues
.”I
nas i
mil
arvein,
CrowfootandWondol
l
e ck
di
st
ing
uis
hthes p
eci
fi
cn at
ureofa“dis
pute”fr
o mthemoregenera
l,n
o n-sp
eci
fi
cn a
tureof“co
nfl
i
ct”,whi
ch
th
eydescr
ibeas“.
..
th
ef un
dame n
talan
dongo i
ngdi
ffer
ences,
opposi
ti
o n,an
dsometi
me scoer
cio
namo ng
maj
orgrou
psinsoci
etyo v
erthei
rval
uesandbe ha
v i
our
stowardthenatura
lenvi
ron
me nt
”.A“di
spute
”isno
t
di
st
inc
tfromtheconfl
ic
tp r
ocess,b
utrat
heritisaspeci
fi
c,i
denti
fi
abl
ep ar
tofit,
namelya“sp
ecif
icconf
l
ict
epi
sod
ethatispar
tofac ont
in
u a
landl
arge
rs oci
etalco
nfl
i
c t
”.Bu
rgessandBurges
sma keasi
mil
ar
di
st
inc
ti
on,chara
cter
isi
ngenvi
ronment
alconfl
i
cta scent
ri
ngonentre
n ched
,lo
ng-te
rmd i
ffe
rence
sb et
ween
opp
osi
nggroups’u
nderl
yi
ngval
uesandbel
iefsontheproperr
elat
io
nshipbetweenhumansoci
etyandthe
na
tura
lenvi
ronment
.

E
nvi
r
onme
nta
ldi
sp
ute
smaybefu
rthe
rcat
ego
ri
se
daseit
herpr
iva
teorp
ubl
ici
nt
ere
st.
Pri
vat
ein
ter
est
e
nvi
r
onme
nta
ldi
sp
ute
sre
la
tetodamaget
oani
nd
ivi
du
alorgr
oupspr
oper
tyorp
ers
oncaus
edasare
sul
tof

I
apol
l
uti
ngoren
vi
ronment
al
lyd
amagingact
ivi
tyinapa r
ti
cul
arl
ocat
io
n.I
nc o
ntr
ast
,th
ec e
ntr
ali
ss
ueof
pub
li
ci
nter
esten
vi
ronment
ald
is
p u
tesisth
eimp actofenv
ir
onment
al
lydamagi
ngorp
oll
ut
in
gacti
vi
ti
eson
th
epubl
ici
nte
res
tinenv
ir
onment
alprese
rvat
ion.Wheresever
e,s
uchdamagemayth
reat
eness
enti
al
en
vir
onmen
talf
unc
tion
sin
tegr
alotheconti
nu
e dfunc
tion
in
go ft
heecos
ystem.

ADDRESSI
NGT HEquestforaforumford e
cid
ingthei
ncrea
sin
gvol
u meofdi
sput
esconcer
ni
ngenvi
ron
menta
l
damagehasoccup
iedmu chofthedi
scou r
seini
ntern
ati
onale
nvi
ronment
all
aw.Al
sofi
ndin
gspacei
nthi
s
di
scou
rseisth
ed eba
teo nreconci
l
in
gt heconfl
i
cti
ngcla
ims/i
nt
erestso
fstate
s,non
-st
a t
eactor
sand
vi
cti
msofma ssto
rtsari
singfr
ome nv
ironmentall
awviol
at
ions
.Suchre
conci
li
ati
oncou
ldhapp
enonl
y
th
roughanappro
pri
ateforumf o
rdis
put eres
o l
ut
ion.
Contempor
arychr
onic
ler
sofenvi
r
o n
mental
conc
erns
havear
ti
cula
tedthedi
s i
l
l
us i
onmentwi
t hthei
n t
ernat
io
nall
egal
sys
t emandi
tsfun
cti
onal
it
ie
sinadd
res
sin
g
th
eg r
owingconce
rnsregardi
ngtheenviro
nme nt
aldeg
radat
ion
.

Onec oncernthath a
so ccupiedmu chdiscussi
onsp ac
ei na l
lth
ef oraa talll
evelso fint
e rn
a t
ional
par
ticipati
onh a
sb eent h
einsuffici
entresponseoftheinte rn
ationall
eg alsystemt od i
sp ut
e sandconfl
ict
s
th
ata ri
seint r
ade,comme rcea ndinvestme n
t,especi
a l
l
ywi ththewa yt h
ed isputesh aveb eenma nagedand
r
esolved.Ph
il
ipeS and
sr emarkedt hattheintern
ati
o na
lco mmu ni
tyc ouldnol ongera l
lowt heinter
nati
onall
egal
or
de rtoc o
n ti
nuetob esel
f-c ontai
nedands el
f-ref
e r
entialreg
imet hatwo ul
dn otr eacho uttome l
dt h
e
l
arg
e rso ci
etali
ntereststh
a tareo ft
enn otir
reconcil
abl
e .Wh a
tS andswa sreferringtowa stheinsu
lated
i
nternati
onallawregimet h
a tdidn o
tma kes paceforrecon ci
l
ingthea pp aren
tlyc onfl
icti
ngin t
erests
,
i
ncl
ud i
ngt h
eme t
ho d
o l
ogytoa dd r
essthed i
sputes.Suchinsuff
ici
e n
c yint helegalsy s
teme speci
al
lywith
r
egar dtothed i
sputes et
tl
e men tme ch
anismlargel
yma dei tnon-parti
c i
pativefo rtheg roupsthatare
ot
he rwisestakehol
de r
sinthee nvir
onme ntal
c oncer
ns.the r
eisa nabse nceo fno rmati
v estructur
ewi t
h
r
egar dtodisputeresolut
ionintrans-boundaryenvir
onme ntaldi
sputes. Ratherita i
mst os howt henormati
ve
i
nsuffi
ciencyintheme thodol
o g
ya d
optedt oaddressthec ontentoft hed i
sputer es o
luti
onme ch
anis
msa nd
pr
ese ntADRme thodsasane ffecti
veme t h
odologyforreso l
ut
iono fen vi
ronme ntaldis
p utes.I
tbeg i
nswit
ha
br
iefd i
scussi
ono nthec ha
ra ct
e ri
sati
ono fanenvir
o n
me nta l
di
spu t
ea n dthed i
fficult
iesinthee x
isti
ngleg
al
r
egime .Thi
sisfoll
owe dbyab ri
e fovervi
ewo fthed i
sputes ettl
eme nts tr
u ct
u r
ei ninternati
o n
all
aw. I
tthen
di
scus s
esth eme chani
smo fc oncil
i
ati
on,ma ndator
ya ndo pti
onal
, e
x emp l
ifi
edth roughaf ewi nte
rnati
onal
en
vironme ntali
nstr
ume nts
. Fur
th erthe
reisad i
scussiono nthePe r
ma ne ntCo urto fArbitr
ationOp t
ional
Rul
esf orCon ci
l
iat
ioninEnvironme n
talDisput
e s
,20 01(herein
afterrul
e s,20 01
).T henex tpartdis
cu s
sesthe
mech ani
smo farbi
trati
o n
,ma ndatoryando pti
onal
,ase xemp l
if
iedthrou ghs t
atep ra c
ti
c einaf ew
ar
bitrati
onsli
ket heMo xPl
a ntAr bi
tr
ation,andtheInt
ernat i
onalTri
buna lf
o rtheL awo ft heS ea(I
TLOS)
ar
bitrati
ons.Furt
he rther
eisad i
scussi
ono ntherules
,2 001 an
dh owt h eyc o
u l
db eo fi
n creasedutil
i
tyby
cus
to mizi
ngt he
mf ord i
sputesli
k ethetrans-boundar
yf r
e shwaterd i
spu t
e s.

I
I
Cha
racte
ri
sat
io
nofani
nt
ern
ati
ona
l
en
vir
onment
ald
is
put
e

Char
ac t
eri
s a
ti
o noft h
ed i
sputehasbeenfur
theraffect
edb ythenormati
veins
uffi
ci
encywi thi
nt h
e
def
in
iti
ono f‘
enviro
n mentaldi
sput
e ’
.Fo
rexamp l
e,Bi
l
d e
r’
sd e
fin
iti
onofa ni
nter
nati
onalenvi
ronme nt
aldi
sput
e
asanydi
sag r
eeme ntor c
onfli
ctbetweensta
tesrelati
ngtothea l
ter
ation
,thr
oughhuma nint
e r
v e
nti
on,of
nat
uralen
v i
ronmenta l
syst
e mswa shi
ghl
yrest
rict
iveinit
simplementati
on,l
i
mit
ingi
tt oi
n t
e r
-go v
ernment
al
conf
l
icts.
Itwa smu chinl
inewiththeTra
ilS
me l
terAr b
it
rati
on,which
,thoughadis
puteb etwe eni
ndi
vid
ual
vi
cti
msa ndan on-govern
me ntal
po l
l
uter
,over
lookedpri
vateinte
rnati
onall
awremediesintheo rd
ina
ry
nat
ional
cou r
tsa n
dmo ve
dt oarbi
trat
ion
.Sando p
inedthatwhil
einte
rnati
onal
envir
onme ntal
lawe merge
das
adi
sti
nctd i
sci
p l
i
neo fleg
alknowledgei
tconti
nuedtob or
rowitstemp l
ateontheli
nesofp ubl
icin
terna
ti
onal
l
aw,wh i
chlarg
e l
ypre s
entsits
elfasl
awo fnat
ions.R e
fer
rin
gt otheexist
in
gli
ter
a t
ureont hesu b
jecthe
poi
ntedoutthatGe rman-l
anguagetreat
ise
so nin
ternati
onale
n vi
r
onme nt
all
awc ont
inuetob et i
tl
ed
‘
envi
ronmen t
all
a wo fnat
ions’Suc
hinsuf
fi
cie
nc ytur
n e
dthelegalr
egimen o
n-par
tic
ipati
vef orthegrou
ps
tha
ta r
eot her
wiset hepri
ncip
a l
stakeh
old
ersinthee n
vir
onmentalconcer
ns.
Thenorma t
iveinsuff
ic
ienc
yas
poi
ntedoutintheli
te r
atur
es ampl
ea cces
sedforthisres
earchpaperisthr
ee-f
old

i
.d
if
fi
cul
t
ywi
thc
har
act
eri
za
ti
ono
fth
edi
sp
utea
s‘e
nvi
r
onme
nta
ldi
sp
ute
’

i
i.
la
rge
lyn
on-
par
ti
ci
pat
iv
eproc
essbeca
useo
fth
ede
fi
ni
ti
on
ali
ns
uff
i
cie
ncyi
nl
imi
ti
nge
nvi
r
onme
nta
l
d
is
pute
stoi
nt
er-
gov
ern
me n
tal
conf
l
ict
s.

i
i
i.
abs
enceofa
napp
rop
ri
atef
orum,
thee
xis
ti
ngopt
io
nsb
ein
gop
ti
ona
lan
dth
eme
cha
ni
smb
ein
gac
ti
vat
ed
o
nl
yuponth
ecommona
gre
ementbe
tweenst
ate
s.

I
I
I
T
hedi
spu
teset
tl
eme
nts
tru
ctu
rei
n
i
nt
ern
ati
ona
ll
aw
Ar
ti
cle33oftheUni
tedNat
ion
sChar
ter,
1945pr
ovid
estha
tthedi
sput
esoughttobesett
le
dthr
ough
pa
cif
icmeansl
ikeneg
oti
ati
on,
enqu
ir
y,medi
ati
on,
conci
l
i
ati
on,a
rbi
tra
ti
onandadjud
icat
io
nbyajud
ici
al
i
nst
it
uti
onapartfr
omresor
ti
ngtor
egi
onal
agenci
esorar
ran
gements
.Manyi
nterna
tio
nalen
vi
ro
nmental
ag
reement
sg i
vemeani
ngtoth
isar
ti
cl
ebyin
c l
ud
in
gad i
spu
tereso
lu
ti
oncl
auseinthei
rtr
eat
yadmi
ni
str
ati
on
st
ruc
tures
.Thestr
uctur
esth
athav
ebeenputi
nplac
einmostofth
etre
ati
esc a
nb ebr
oadl
yca
tegor
iz
ed
un
dertwoheads:

i
.t
heuseo
fdi
pl
oma
ti
cmea
nswher
epart
ie
sre
tai
ncon
tro
lov
ert
hedi
sput
einsofara
sthe
ymayacce
ptor
r
ej
ectapr
opo
seds
ett
l
eme
nt,
li
ke,
fac
t-f
in
di
ng
,medi
at
ion
/co
nci
l
i
ati
on,
negot
ia
tio
n,con
sul
t
ati
on,
in
qui
ry
;an
d,

i
i
.th
ele
gal
mea
nst
hatr
esu
lti
nbi
nd
in
gde
cis
io
nso
nth
edi
sp
ute
,l
ik
e,a
rbi
tr
ati
ona
ndj
udi
ci
al
set
tl
eme
nt.

T
her
eisathi
rdcat
egor
ytha
tenc
apsul
at
esth
erol
eofth
eregi
on
ala
rra
ngeme
ntsan
dinte
rna
ti
ona
l
o
rgan
iz
a t
io
nsasmedi
at
orsan
dconc
il
i
ator
sth
ele
galco
nseq
uenc
esofth
eeff
ort
softh
iscat
ego
ryde
pen
ds
u
ponthel
angu
ageandco
nte
ntoft
hetre
atye
sta
bl
is
hin
gthati
ns
ti
tu
tio
n.

Whi
leneg
o t
iat
io
na ndconsul
tat
ionh
avebeenknownforth
eirsucce
ssasdi
spu
teavoi
dan
c eandsometi
mes,
se
ttl
ementmethodsandalsotha
tmostenvi
ronment
alag
reeme n
tshav
ethemasprel
i
min
a r
ytier
sint
h e
di
sput
eresol
uti
onproces
s ,t
heeval
uat
ionofth
e s
eme t
hodsisnotof
tend
evol
vedasatempl
ateforf
u t
ure
su
cheffo
rts.Su
chs i
tua
ti
o ncoul
dbeatt
rib
utedtothefa
ctthatthetr
eat
ie
s/ag
reement
st h
atspeci
fythe
pr
ocessdonotspeci
fytheinst
it
uti
on
alarr
angement
stobef ol
l
owedforn
egot
iat
io
norconsul
tati
on;
thus
pr
ecio
usl
itt
lei
sa v
a i
l
abl
ea sdocumen
tedma t
eri
alf
orsi
mil
are f
for
tsi
nfut
ure
,apar
tfr
omn oth
ingmuch
kn
owna b
o u
ttheme tho
dologyofne
goti
ati
on.

Commiss
ion
so fi
nq u
ir
yprovi
deame a n
sf orf
actfi
ndi
ngacti
vi
t yi
nrel
ationtothedispu t
e .T
hesedi
sput
e
res
ol
uti
ontechni
qu e
shavebeenfurthergrou
pedonthestandardofth
e i
rpresenceina nyinter
nati
ona
l
i
nstr
ument–e i
therasama n
datorydis
p ut
es et
tl
ement(ei
thercompul
so r
yo ratthere qu e
stofoneofth
e
par
ti
es)orasano pti
ona
lrec
oursetoad i
spu
tesettl
ementpr
o cedur
e,all
owingapa rtyt oaccep
tsubmis
si
on
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thertoarbitr
ati
o no rtheIn
tern
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onal
Cour
tofJusti
ce(ICJ),
oral
lo
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esuponmutual
agreementtos ubmitth
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rd i
s put
etoc o
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li
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I
tcoul
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sputer e
s ol
uti
ontech
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quescouldbecla
s si
fi
edo ntheb asisofthe
irdet
ai
li
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ionsprovi
deadetai
l
e dstructu
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et obea dopt
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choi
ceofth
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utesettl
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oth ersmightle
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eementbetweenth epart
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.

I
V
Co
nci
l
ia
ti
on
Conc
il
i
ati
onasadi
sput
eresol
ut
iontec
hni
quehasbeenacommonfea
tur
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ir
onmen
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atie
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Thet
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vesti
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gthefact
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e
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teandthe
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rthfor
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opos
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ereso
lu
ti
onofth
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ute.
There
sul
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ecommendat
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ei
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rmakesuchco
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li
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ermand
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oryorop
tio
nal
.

 Ma
nda
tor
yco
nci
l
i
ati
on

The1992Bio
dive
rs i
tyCo nve
ntionma n
datedc o
ncil
i
ati
onwh enth eparti
eswe reunabl
et ore s
ol
vet hei
r
di
sputethr
oughan yothermethod ,o
rfoundsuchotherme thodu nacceptabl
etot h
em. Fu r
ther
,andmo re
i
mp o
rtant
ly,
thec onventi
onin
c l
ud es
anannexwithdetai
ledruleso ntheestabl
ish
me nto fac on
cil
i
a t
ion
commissi
on.Whi
leu nf
ortunat
elys uc
hcommi ss
ionhasnoty etb ecomear eali
ty,
ithasb eeninthediscu
ssi
on
amongststa
teso ften
,me nt
ionbe i
ngmadeo fthedi
scussi
o nint hecontextoftheFrenc hnucl
eartesti
ng.
Otherexampl
eso ftheme nt
ion/prese
nceo fconci
l
i
ationasad i
sp ut
eresoluti
ontechni
q ueinenvi
ronmental
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sputesi
ncl
udeT heCo nven
ti
o no nth
eProtecti
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o motiono ftheDiversi
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xpressio
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2002a n
dthePerma nentCourto fArbi
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ati
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onalRul
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li
ati
ono fDisp
ute srel
a t
in
gt othe
Natur
alResour
cesa nd/orEnv
ironme n
t,2002.Arti
cl
e2 5oft hec onventi
ona l
l
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t i
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di
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uti
onthroug
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,joi
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c eso forme di
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requ
estthecreati
o nofac o
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iati
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nt h
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dp rovid
et he
np arti
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ter esol
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n
prop
o s
althe
ymu ste xamin
eing oodfai
th.

S
omec on
v e
n t
io
nsp rov
idethatuponaf ai
lu
retore sol
vet hed i
spu
teb yanyotherme an
so rafail
ur
eo n
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ehal
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pta nyotherme a
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eme n
tu n
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eaty,t
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s p
utemaybe
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iat
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pu t
e–ins uchcir
cu mstan
ces,t
he
o
therpar
tyisboundtos u
bmitthed i
sputetothec onci
l
iationprocedu
re.Examplesofthi
sa pproac
hcoul
dbe
f
oundi
nthe1992Un it
edNati
o nsCli
mateCh ang
eCo nventi
o n(UNCCC) .
10Art
icl
e14,cla
u s
e5o ftheUNCCC
r
efe
rstotheprocessofconcil
i
a t
ionuponrequestbyt hep arty
.Fur
thercl
a us
e6g ivesdetail
ed
r
ecommendati
onso nth
ec onst
itut
ionofc o
ncil
i
ationcommi ssion.
Anotherexampleisthe1994S econ
d
S
ulp
hurProt
o c
ol.
T heprot
ocolspecif
iesadisp
uter esol
utiontechni
ques i
mil
artotheUNCCCi narti
cl
e9.Th
e
p
rovi
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onsofarti
cle9statethatexceptintheeve ntwhe retheparti
eshaveresortedtoe i
therth
e
j
ur
is
d i
ct
ionofI
CJo rtoa r
bi
trati
on,theparti
esshall
,afterthes pe
cif
iedperi
odwi t
hinwhichthesettl
ement
o
fthedi
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veda t
,submitthedi
spu t
et oc oncil
i
ati
on.Theproto
co la
lsoprovide
dfordeta
il
s
o
nthestr
u c
tureoft h
ec on
cil
i
a ti
onprocess

V
  Op
ti
ona
lco
nci
l
i
ati
on

Th
ereareal
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eati
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atma keth
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i
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icl
e33oftheUni
tedNat
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tern
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Conv
enti
on,
1997st
atesthatthep
arti
es
,uponafai
l
uretorea
chanegoti
at
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ati
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o
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epos
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.

VI
Ap
pro
ach
est
oDi
spu
teR
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n

Acommonl
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VI
I
P
erman
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ontat
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VI
I
I
Ar
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Arbi
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ple10oftheR ioDe c
lar
ati
on“Envi
ro
nmental
issu
esareb es
thandl
edwit
hthe
pa
rti
ci
pati
ono fall
concern
e dci
tizens,attherel
evan
tlev
el.Ef
fect
iveacce
sst oju
dici
al
andadmin
istr
ati
ve
pr
ocee
dings,
includ
ingredr
essandr emed y,
shal
lbeprov
ide
d.”F
urt
hersta
tesco ul
dwaiv
etherequi
r
e mento
f
ex
haus
ti
o nofl
o calr
eme di
es,whi
c hco u
ldfaci
li
tat
eresol
ut
ionofth
ed i
spu
tee spec
ial
l
ybecaus
eitwo u
ld
br
in
gal
lpa r
ti
esa ccess
ingjust
icea toneforum.

Anot
herimport
a ntfea
tur
eo ft
heru
les
,ofspeci
ali
mpo r
tanc
etoenvi
ronmenta
ldis
pu te
s,i
st h
ep o
we rofth
e
ar
bit
raltr
ib
u n
altoissu
einte
ri
mo r
der
s.Art
ic
le2 6re
fl
ectsthespi
ri
tofpri
nci
pl
e15o ftheRioDecl
ar
a t
ion,
whi
chs ay
sthatp re
cauti
ona
ryappr
oachsh
al
lb ewid
elyappl
i
edbystate
sa cc
ordi
ngt othei
rcapabi
l
iti
es.T
he
ru
le
s,forexamplearti
cl
e26(1
),
66aresen
si
ti
v etotherespo
nsi
bil
i
tyoford
eri
ngimme di
ateme as
uresto
cor
rectorarre
sta nyi
mme d
iat
e/i
r
rever
si
bl
ed amagetoenvi
ronment
.Despi
tethei
n ter
esti
ngstr
uctureof
th
erul
e sandthep o
ssi
bil
i
tyoft
hePCAE n
vi
ronme n
talRul
espre
sent
in
ga nopti
onforamo redi
vers
e
re
pres
e nt
atio
na tthedi
sput
eproce
ss,an
dalsothei
nsti
tuti
onal
adva
ntagesth
atPCAo ff
ers,f
ewirri
tan
ts
re
main.

i
.T
heRulesshar
eacommo nwe akn
esswit
ht h
eotheri
nst
it
uti
onals
y s
temsforset
tl
eme n
tofinte
rnat
io
nal
d
is
putes–ab s
enceofcompulso
ryju
ri
sdi
cti
on.Al
lt
hea d
vant
ag e
softheRule
s,toge
therwitht
he
i
ns
ti
tuti
onal
resour
cesofthePCA( P
CAisana f
for
dabl
earbi
tr
ati
ono pt
ion
,astheoper
atin
gc o
stsofth
e
P
CA’sI
ntern
a t
io
nalB
ure
a uarecover
edunderth
ebudgetofth
eUn i
tedNati
ons)
67cannotoffs
etthe
a
bsenc
eo fcompul
sor
yjuri
sdi
cti
onthati
sana n
ath
emaf o
rint
ernat
iona
ldi
sputeset
tl
eme n
t,andof
e
scal
atedconcer
ntoenvi
ronmental
di
spute
s.PCA’
sjuri
sdi
ct
ioncoul
d,asofnow,on
lybetri
ggere
dbythe
s
ubmis
sionofth
edis
pute.Si
ncetheforu
mn eed
ssuppor
tfromotherenf
orceabl
ei
nstr
uments,St
atescou
ld
a
greeuponi
nsert
in
gaclauseintotr
eati
esrequ
ir
in
gs u
bmiss
ionofdi
spute
stoa r
bi
trat
ionatPCA.

i
i
.Non
-St
ateAct
orswoul
dsti
l
lha
vetor
el
yonsomef
ormo
fSt
ates
pon
sor
shi
ptopar
ti
ci
pat
einth
edis
put
e
r
eso
lu
ti
onpro
ces
s,esp
eci
al
lycat
ego
ri
eswi
thNGOsa
ndCi
vi
lS
oci
et
yPr
ess
ureGro
ups.
Whil
etheRu
le
sit
sel
f

demons
tra
tefl
ex
ibi
l
i
tyandau
tono
my,on
emajord
if
fi
cul
tywi
thth
ewo r
ki
ngoftheR
ule
scoul
dbe,es
pec
ial
l
y
withr
egar
dtoth
eNSAs,de
fra
yi
ngth
ecost
sofarb
it
rat
ion
.TheR
ule
sstatet
hatea
chpar
tysha
llb
eari
ts
owncost
sofarb
it
rat
io
n.Suc
hsymmet
ri
cRul
esstr
uct
ure,
aff
ect
in
gall
thepar
ti
esi
dent
ic
al
lymaybei
n

X
II
I
pr
i
nci
plearef
lect
io
nofthepr
in
cip
le
sofar
bit
rat
io
nandma k
eiteas
ierforp
art
iestoagr
eetoa
rbi
tr
ati
on.
Nev
ert
h e
les
siti
sdif
fi
cul
tfo
rpart
ie
s,e
speci
al
l
ydevel
opi
ngcoun
tri
es
, NGOsandin
div
idu
al
stopa
yfort
he
ar
bi
tra
tion
.Wh i
l
ethePCApro
vid
esafi
nan
ci
alas
sis
tan
cefund,i
ti
sava i
l
abl
eonl
ytocount
ri
est
hata
re

memberso
fthePCAandal
sol
is
tedasai
drec
ipi
en
tsbyth
eOrgan
iza
ti
onfo
rEcon
omicCoo
per
ati
onan
d
Deve
lopme
nt(OECD)qua
li
fy
.Costa
ll
oca
ti
onmechani
smth
uscou
ldbeahi
nd
ran
cetotheP
CA’
savowed
pu
rposebe
comin
gau n
if
ie
dforu
mf o
renvi
ro
nmenta
ldi
spu
tesr
eso
lut
ion
.

i
ii
.Whi
leth
erul
esonint
eri
mme as
uresi
sas i
gn
if
ic
antst
eptowar
dsaddr
essi
ngtheposs
ibl
eir
rev
ers
ibl
eha
rm
toenv
iro
nmentpend
in
gdisp
uteresol
ut
io
n,di
ff
ic
ult
ie
scoul
dcro
pupbecauseoftheenf
orc
ementconc
ern
s
r
e g
ard
ingi
nter
imord
ers.
Wh i
l
ee n
vir
onmentar
bi
tra
ti
ontr
ib
unal
scoul
dmorefr
equentl
yi
ssuei
nter
im
measu
res/o
rder
s,t
herecou
ldbedif
fi
cul
ti
esi
nenfo
rci
ngth
em,esp
eci
al
lybecau
set h
eNewY or
kConven
ti
on
onRecogn
it
io
na n
dEnfor
cementofFor
ei
gn

Ar
bitr
alAwards,1
958doesnotspeci
fi
call
ya ppl
ytointeri
mo rde
rs/a
wards.T
heref
orel
ocal
cour
tsin
di
f
feren
tjuri
sdi
ctio
nsmightapp
lyvary
ingco nsi
dera
tionswithreg
ardtoenfo
rcement/
non-
enf
orcementof
i
nt
erimorder
s.
As ig
nif
i
c a
ntfeat
ureoftheP CAE nvi
ronmentalRul
esi
sthedis
cret
ionava
il
abl
ewiththe
ar
bi
tral
tri
bunaltoapp
o r
ti
oneachoftheco stsamongstthep ar
ti
es,i
fi
td e
ter
minestha
tsu
ch
ap
porti
onmentisrea
sonabl
e,i
ntheci
rcums tanc
e softhecase.Themannerofexe
rcis
eofthi
sdi
s c
ret
ion
co
uldbeafil
l
i
pt oinc
rease
du s
eo far
bi
trationasad i
sputesettl
ementmechani
smintr
ansn
ati
onal
en
vir
onmentaldi
sput
es.Th
eR ul
escanbeo fsign
ifi
cantuti
li
tyinaddr
ess
ingtr
ans-b
o u
ndar
ywaterdis
pute
s
Tr
ans-b
o u
ndaryfre
sh-water
dis
p ut
esared efi
nedasad is
putethat

1
)oc
cur
sbe
twe
ent
woo
rmo
res
tat
esc
onc
ern
in
gani
nt
ern
ati
on
ald
rai
na
geb
asi
n;

2
)conc
ern
sfre
shsur
fac
ewater(e.
g.
,r
ive
rs,
lak
es)andg
round
waterres
ourc
es(e.
g.
,a
qui
fer
s)wit
hres
pect
t
ofou
rmai
nwa t
erut
il
i
zat
io
nissu
es:(
a)al
l
ocati
on(e.
g.
,o
wnershi
pandsov
erei
gn
tyri
ght
s);
(b)q
uant
it
y(e.
g.
,
d
amsandd
ive
rsi
ons
);(
c)qu
ali
ty(
e.g
.,p
oll
ut
io
n);an
d(d)r
ig
htsofuse(e
.g.
,i
nf
ras
tru
ctu
re,i
r
ri
gat
ion
,and
h
ydr
opowe
r);
and

3
)ex
hi
bi
tsas
uff
i
cie
ntl
yhi
ghl
ev
elo
fco
nfl
i
ctu
ali
nt
era
cti
onb
etwe
ent
hed
is
put
in
gst
ate
s.

H
owe ver
,i
tisp erti
nenttono t
eth a
tthe r
eisanin
creasi
nginci
denceoftrans
-b oun
daryfr
eshwaterdi
sput
es.
P
eterH.Gl
ieckc hro
nicl
in
gt hewa te
rc onf
li
ctssta
tedthatover150water-re
latedconfl
i
ctshavebeen
r
ecorde
db etwe en1900-2010.7160%o fthewo r
l
d’si
ntern
a t
io
n a
lri
verbasi
nsc urr
ent
lyl
ackanytypeo f
c
ooperati
vema nageme ntf
rame workthatmightassi
sti
npreventi
ngorresol
v i
ngfutu
reconfl
i
cts.
Wh i
l
et h
e
c
orepri
nci
pleso fin
ternati
onalwaterlawarecommo nl
yviewedash a
vingcustomarystat
us,th
eir
i
nt
erpre
tati
on srefl
ecteddiver
gentviews,ofte
nc ont
radi
ctor
y.Furt
heramu l
ti-l
ater
alwatertr
eatyfai
le
dto
t
akeoffdespi
t ebei
ngine xi
stencefornear
lytwode c
a d
es.
T r
ans-bou
ndaryfr
e shwate
rdisput
es(TFDs)hav
e
n
othadmu chjudici
aldel
ine
a t
ion,th
erefor
eS ta
tesarerel
uctanttosubmitTFDsto‘l
egal
’reso
luti
onbyan
i
nt
ernat
ional
c ourtandmo stoftenattempttoresol
vesuchdis
p u
tesbywa yo fbi
la
teral
negoti
ati
onornon-
b
in
dingthi
rd-partymec h
a n
ismssucha smediat
ion
,conci
li
ati
on,andgoodo f
fi
ce s
.

X
IV
H
owever
,bi
l
atera
lnon
-bi
ndi
ngmechan
is
msma yal
soprov
einef
fec
tivei
nreso
lvi
ngdi
sp
utess
in
cethe
y
c
ann
otass
uretheset
tl
ementofadi
spu
te;aneg
otia
tedset
tl
ementmayref
lec
tthepar
ti
es’
rel
at
iv
e
n
ego
ti
ati
ngpower;i
ti
sin
heren
tl
ypol
it
ic
alandth
eref
oresu
bjec
ttoe xt
ern
alpr
essu
res
;andt
hepar
ti
esma
y
n
otha
veaccesstote
chni
cal
exper
ti
sere
quir
edforth
ereso
lut
io
no fadi
sput
e.

X
V
I
nt
er-
sta
tea
rbi
tr
ati
ono
fTF
Dst
hro
ught
he
P
CArul
es
T
headva
ntag
eofi
nte
rst
atear
bit
rat
io
nasadis
ti
nc
tdis
put
eresol
ut
ionmechan
is
mforTFDsl
iesi
nthefa
ct
t
hati
tfu
lf
il
l
spar
ti
es
’des
ir
efordes
ig
nedfo
rqui
ck,
pra
cti
cal
andeff
i
cientr
esol
ut
io
n.Fur
ther
,arb
it
rat
io
n
a
ppear
stobeamor
eprac
tic
almeth
odofdi
spu
ter
esol
ut
io
nasmo s
tT F
Dsare‘
mult
i-
scal
arand
c
ompreh
ensi
vep
rob
le
ms’i
nwh i
ch‘
ju
sti
cei
sinman
ywayscon
tin
gent
’onfact
orsot
hertha
nlaw.

T
hePCArulesa r
eauniqu
esetofru
lesthatco u
ldbeusedwith
outar e
fere
ncetoana ppl
ic
abl
etreatyor
c
onven
tion
.Th i
sfeat
urei
sofpart
ic
ularappealbecau
semo stTF
Dsa ri
sei
nsit
uati
onswh er
etherehasbeen
n
oall
ocat
iono fwate
rsetouti
nanagreeme nt.
Therul
esc o
mbin
et headva
ntage
so fap er
manentandmuch-
f
avou
redme chani
smofthePCAwiththead-hocp r
ocessofar
bitra
ti
on.Fur
the
r,si
ncetherei
sli
ttl
efavou
r
a
mongstStatesforcr
eati
onofanewf o
rumi nenvi
ron
me nt
alconte
xt,th
ePCAa ndtherul
esareanapt
a
lt
ern
ativ
ef orthere
sol
uti
onofth
eT FDs.
T herul
es,h
owe ver
,needtobeadapt
edt othereso
lu
tionofth
e
T
FDsgi
ventheu ni
quenatu
reofth
esed i
sputes,asno
tarisi
ngoutoforconn
ectedwithanyin
ternat
ion
al
a
gree
me n
to rc o
nvent
ion
.Afewfeature
so ftherul
esthatnee
dt obecusto
misedforTFDsres
oluti
onar
e:

i
.Whil
ethei
mp o
rta
nc eofcon
fi
denti
al
i
tyasanar
bit
ral
fea t
urei
nthecon
texto
fthes e
nsi
tiv
einfor
ma t
io
n
wi
thi
ntheTFDscann
o tbegai
nsai
d,as
tri
ctpr
esumpti
oninfavo
urofcon
fi
dent
ia
li
tyinenvi
ronmenta
l
di
sp
u t
esgoesagai
nstthepr
evail
i
ngtr
endoftr
ansp
arentdeci
si
ona
lpro
cessopentopubl
icscru
ti
nyand
pa
rti
cip
ati
oninenv
ir
o nment
ald
ispu
tes,
espec
ial
l
yrel
atedtoTFDs.
Keepi
ngi
nli
newiththepract
iceofI
TLOS
,
an
dt h
eWT Od i
sp
utes et
tl
ementmecha
nis
ms,th
eawa r
d softh
earbi
tr
alt
ri
buna
lsestab
li
shedunderth
ePCA
co
uldal
sobema d
epu bl
ic
.

i
i
.Withreg
ardtoth
ecompo
sit
iono
fthet
ri
bun
a l
,P
CAalr
eadyh
asali
sto
farbi
tr
ato
rss
peci
al
i
zedin
e
nvi
ronmental
di
sput
es.
Whi
leth
eRule
spr
ovi
deforac
cessi
nge
xper
ti
se,
fro
mt h
eli
sto
fexpe
rtsspe
cif
i
ed
u
ndertheRul
esaswel
la
sel
sewher
e,i
twoul
dbeadvi
sa
bl
etoin
clu
deatech
ni
calex
per
tonth
et r
i
bunal
.F
or
e
xamp l
e,t
heIn
dusWate
rsT
reatyb
etwee
nIn
diaandP
aki
sta
nprov
ide
stha
tonemembero
fthearb
it
ral
t
ri
bunals
hal
lbea‘h
ig
hl
yqua
li
fi
edeng
in
eer
’

i
i
i.
Thepro
visi
onofami
cuscuri
aewit
hi
ntherul
esco
ul
dbeo fsi
gn
if
ican
tval
uetoreso
lut
ionofTF
Ds.
P
art
ici
pat
ionofno
n-st
ateactor
sthr
oughami
cusbr
ief
sisofi
mme n
sehel
pinass
essi
ngtheful
lo
rang
eof
i
ss
ues,
needsandi
nter
estsofal
ls
take
hol
ders
,suc
hbri
efshel
pi
nincor
por
ati
ngthein
tere
stsofth
osemo
st
a
ffe
ctedbytheout
come.Therul
esc
oul
dthere
for
ebecustomi
zedtoens
urethi
r
dp a
rtypar
tic
ipa
ti
onwi
th
in
t
heres
olu
ti
o noft
heTFDs.S
u c
hpart
ic
ipat
io
ncoul
dbeli
mit
edtospeci
fi
ci
ssuesandpar
ti
cul
arfact
s.

i
v.I
nthec
ontex
tofTFDseff
ect
iv
eparti
ci
pat
io
no fadi
ver
sesetofsta
kehol
der
swouldensu
retha
tlo
cal
cu
stomsan
dpract
ic
eso fwat
erus
ea n
dshar
in
ga ref
act
oredi
ntothedi
sput
ereso
lu
ti
o npro
cess
.Onl
y
maki
ngav
ail
ab
lear
bi
tral
d o
cumen
tstoaccr
edi
tedthi
r
dpart
iescoul
densu
resuc
he f
fecti
vepar
ti
ci
pat
ion
.

X
VI
Co
ncl
us
ion
Th
er u
le
sbar
ri
ngtheir
ri
ta
ntsar
eanimport
antmetho
dol
o g
yforreso
lut
io
no fen
viro
nment
aldi
sp
utes
.PCA
co
uldtr
ul
ybeauni
fi
edfor
umforarbi
tr
ati
onofenvi
r
onme n
tal
dispu
tesi
fthecri
ti
cis
mme nt
io
nedabov
e
co
uldbead
dre
ssedandsuc
haddre
ssreadi
ntother
ul
es.Ther
eisnodi
vis
ionontheopi
ni
onth
atarb
it
rat
io
n
ha
sb ee
nasi
gni
fi
cantcon
tri
but
orth
eresol
uti
onofmanyenvi
ronmen
taldi
sput
es,th
earbi
tr
alr
egi
meshav
e
wor
k e
dtowar
dsensur
in
gprot
ecti
onandconse
rvat
io
no fen
vir
onmentandnatu
ralr
esou
rces
.

T
hePCAE nvi
ronmenta
lRul
esisals
oap ion
eerininter
nati
onal
lawdevel
opme n
tinthesensethati
tisoneset
o
fopti
onalr
ulestha
thavecreatedas t
andi
nga ndspaceforavari
et
yo fNSAsindis
putereso
luti
on.More
i
mpor
tantl
yinawo r
ldtha
tisincr
ea s
ing
lybec
o mingpronetoi
rrev
ersi
bl
ed amagetoitsenvi
ro
nme n
t, t
he
P
CAE n
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X
VII
B
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X
VII
I