Bio 14 Integrative Biology Laboratory

EXERCISE 6
CELL TYPES AND TISSUES

INTRODUCTION

The cell theory suggests that all living organisms are made up of cells. Cells are the basic structural and
functional units of life. Cell differ in size, shape, and function. These functions are correlated with the functions
they perform. According to structure, cells are generally classified as either prokaryotic or eukaryotic.
According to function, animal cells are either somatic or reproductive.

Multicellular organisms are made up of several cells. Cells that perform the same function are called tissues.
Cells of a tissue maybe of several kinds. Tissues are in turn grouped together to form organs, organs group
together to form a system and all these comprise an organism

OBJECTIVES

1. To identify the visible parts of an animal and plant cell under the microscope;
2. To describe the major parts of cells and their functions; and
3. To identify and describe characteristics of major animal and plant tissues.

MATERIALS

Light compound microscope

Prepared slides of the following:
Simple squamous epithelium Skeletal muscle tissue
Simple cuboidal epithelium - Kidney Cardiac muscle tissue
tubule (x. s.)
Simple columnar epithelium - Frog’s Smooth muscle tissue
intestine or stomach
Bone (x. s.) Human blood smear
Hyaline cartilage (x. s.) Frog/ toad blood smear
Adipose tissue Frog’s ovary (x. s.)
Nerve cell (l. s.) Human sperm cell smear
Aristolochia stem (x. s.) Pinus stem (x. s.)
Corn stem (x. s.)

PROCEDURE

Lab Work 1. Animal Tissues

I. Somatic Tissues
1. Epithelial tissues
The epithelium is characterized by compact arrangement of cells and presence of basement
membrane. The basement membrane is thin and permeable, and it binds the epithelium
together and separates it from the underlying connective tissue. The epithelia may be
composed of one layer of cells (simple) or two or more layers (stratified). Epithelia tissues
function in four major ways:
• It protects underlying tissues; e.g. our skin, linings of digestive tract
Exercise 6. Cell Types and Tissues

• It absorbs; e.g. linings of the small intestine

• It secretes; e.g. endocrine glands, mucous glands, intestinal tract, pancreas, liver
• It excretes; e.g. sweat glands – excreting waste products such as urea

Epithelial tissues have no blood supply (avascular). Blood vessels do not penetrate epithelial
tissues thus nutrients and oxygen are supplied through diffusion from underlying tissues.

Observe the following simple epithelia:

a) Simple squamous epithelium

These are thin and flat, irregularly shaped cells. they line the heart, blood and lymphatic
vessels, body cavities, and alveoli (air sacs of the lungs). Examine a prepared slide of
simple squamous epithelium under the LPO and HPO and identify all visible parts, and
draw.

b) Simple cuboidal epithelium

These are cube-shaped cells that line the kidney tubules and cover the ovaries and
secretory parts of certain glands. Examine a prepared slide of kidney tubule under the
microscope. Note the shape of the cells. se the HPO to closely examine the wall of the
tubules. Identify all visible parts, and draw.

c) Simple columnar epithelium

These are elongated, with the nucleus generally near the bottom and often ciliated on
the outer surface. Examine the slide of the frog’s intestine. These folds are lined with
columnar cells. Switch to HPO and carefully examine the folds, identify all visible parts,
and draw.

2. Connective tissues
The connective tissues bind parts together and fill in spaces. These also provide support for
other types of tissue. These tissues have fewer cells and more intercellular substances (matrix
or ground substance) than the epithelial tissues. The matrix is variable in type and amount; it
is one of the differentiating features of the various types of connective tissues.

In vertebrates, connective tissue proper includes both connective tissues composed of fibers
and fixed and wandering cells suspended in a syrupy ground substance, and dense connective
tissue (tendons and ligaments) largely composed of tightly packed fibers. Other types of
connective tissue include the vascular tissues; blood, lymph and tissue fluid. Vascular tissue is
found in a fluid ground substance called the plasma.

a) Cartilage is a semi-rigid connective tissue embedded in a gel-like matrix. Look for these
parts:
• Chondrocytes or chondriocytes – cartilage cells
• Lacunae (singular: lacuna) – cavities containing the cells

Examine a cross-section of a hyaline cartilage under LPO and HPO. Identify all visible
parts under the HPO and draw.
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Exercise 6. Cell Types and Tissues
b) Bone (Osseous) tissue – the matrix is calcified with calcium salts organized around
collagen fibers arranged in concentric rings (lamella). The rings have:
• Lacunae – cavities where bone cells are lodged
• Osteocytes – bone cells
• Canaliculi – small canals that connect the lacunae and distributes the cellular
materials
• Osteon or Haversian system – entire elongated cylinder unit of the rings; the
osteon is the structural and functional unit of a bone

Examine a cross-section of the bone. Under the LPO, carefully observe the different
structures. Under the HPO, focus on a single Haversian system, identify all the parts,
and draw.

c) Blood is made up of the fluid portion (plasma) and the formed elements (cells,
corpuscles, and fragments). Three kinds of cells are: 1) erythrocytes or red blood
corpuscles, 2) leukocytes or white blood cells and 3) thrombocytes or blood platelets.

Examine a prepared slide of a human blood smear and a frog blood smear. Focus them
under the LPO and HPO. In tabular form, take note of the differences in terms of shape
and the presence of nucleus.

d) Adipose is an example of a loose connective tissue. This tissue stores lipid (fat); it
cushions, supports, insulates, and acts as filler tissue. In histological section, they look
like large soap bubbles (or signet rings) with its nucleus and cytoplasm pushed to one
side.

Examine a prepared slide of adipose tissue under the LPO and HPO. Take note of the
shape and appearance of the cells and record.

3. Muscular tissues
Muscles are the most common tissue in the body of higher animals. Muscle tissue is composed
of elongated cells called muscle fibers, specialized for contraction. This specialized function of
contraction is exclusive for muscle tissues. Muscle tissues may exhibit syncytium (the
multinucleated appearance) and striations or striae (transverse bands in muscle fibers).

a) Skeletal muscle tissue

Secure a prepared slide of skeletal muscle, examine it under the LPO and HPO, identify
all visible parts, and draw. The muscle fibers maybe seen as elongated, multinucleated
fibers with alternating dark and light bands.

b) Cardiac muscle tissue

Examine the cross-section of the cardiac muscle under the LPO and HPO, identify all
visible parts, and draw. Note the light and dark bands like those exhibited in skeletal
cells. observed that the fibers seem to anastomose with the adjacent ones, i.e.
interconnecting branched fibers. In the intervals along the fibers, find the thin dark
intercalated disk which is a characteristic of the cardiac muscle.

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Exercise 6. Cell Types and Tissues
c) Smooth or visceral muscle tissue
Examine a cross-section of a frog’s stomach under the LPO. Move the slide to focus on
a spindle-shaped fiber which has a nucleus at the center of the widest portion of the
cell body. Examine some smooth muscles under the HPO, identify all visible parts, and
draw.

4. Nervous Tissues
The nerve cells, known as neurons, are concerned with the transmission of impulses,
specialized to receive and transmit impulses from one part of the body to the other parts. The
nervous tissue is made up of two elements: neuron (nerve cell) and neuroglial cells.

Under the LPO and HPO, examine the cross-section of a nerve fiber and take note of all the
visible parts, and draw
• cell body – contains the nucleus ad the thread-like processes which make up the nerve
fiber.
• These processes are the axons and dendrites.

II. Reproductive Tissues

The reproductive cells are produced by the gonads of multicellular animals. The male gonads or testes
produce the spermatozoa or sperm cells; the female gonads or ovaries produce the ovum or egg cell.

1. Ovum or egg cell

Examine under LPO the frog’s ovary. Note the cells at different stages of development. Examine
a mature ovum as seen under the HPO and identify the vitelline membrane (cell membrane)
cytoplasm with yolk, germinal (nucleus) and germinal spot (nucleolus).

2. Spermatozoa or sperm cells

Examine a prepared slide of human sperm cells’ smear under HPO. Identify the head, the
middle piece (or midpiece), and the flagellum or tail (the long whip-like structure used for
movement).

Lab Work 2. Plant Tissues

Plant tissues may be classified based on their origin, structure, and function. The two major types of plant
tissues based on origin are:

1. Meristematic or embryonic tissues – tissues in which cells actively divide. They are responsible for the
production of more cells. Old cells come from these group of young cells. The new cells produced are
typically small, each with a proportionately large nucleus in the center and tiny vacuoles or no vacuoles
at all. As they mature, they assume different shapes and sizes related to the cell’s ultimate function.
2. Permanent tissues – tissues derived from the meristems that have already assumed various shapes
and sizes related to their specific functions as they develop and mature. They are usually non-dividing
cells, with a few exceptions.

Meristematic tissues based on their location in the body of the plants are:

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Exercise 6. Cell Types and Tissues
a. Apical meristems – found at the tips of shoots and roots. They increase in length as the apical
meristems produce new cells. Three primary meristems develop from each apical meristem,
namely: protoderm, ground meristem and procambium. The tissues produced are called
primary meristems.
b. Lateral meristems or cambia – meristems that increase the girth or dimeter of the plant. They
are found along the sides of roots and stems. Two types of lateral meristems are usually
present in dicot plants. These are the vascular cambium and cork cambium.
c. Intercalary meristems – usually found in the vicinity of nodes (leaf attachment areas), which
occurs at intervals along stems. These are short-lived meristems since they are eventually
transformed into permanent tissues.

Permanent tissues based on types of cells present:

a. Simple permanent tissues – these tissues are mostly composed of only one kind of cell. These
cells are uniform in function and structure.

b. Complex permanent tissues – these tissues are composed of several kinds of cells working
together to perform a specific function in the body.

Simple Permanent Tissues

Kinds of Simple Permanent Tissues

1. Parenchyma – these are the most abundant of all the cell types found in almost all major parts of
higher plants. The cells are more or less spherical in shape when newly produced, but when they
mature, they push against each other and their thin, pliable walls are flattened at the points of contact.
As a result, they assume various shapes. They are usually big and thin walled, with large vacuoles and
air spaces in between the cells. Parenchyma tissues with extensive connected air spaces are referred
to as aerenchyma, while parenchyma cells containing numerous chloroplasts are called chlorenchyma.

Parenchyma tissues generally function for food and waste storage. The edible parts of most fruits and
vegetables consist largely of parenchyma.
2. Collenchyma – this tissue is composed of thick-walled cells of uneven thickness. Collenchyma cells
often occur just beneath the epidermis. Typically, they are longer than they are wide, and their cell
walls are pliable as well as strong. They are usually smaller than parenchyma cells.
3. Sclerenchyma – characterized by cells that are thick and tough-walled. These are normally
impregnated with lignin. Most sclerenchyma cells are dead at maturity. They, however, function as
supporting tissues in plants.

Two types of sclerenchyma cells are:

a. Sclereids – may be distributed randomly in other tissues. For example, the gritty texture in
chico and pears is due to sclereids, or stone cells, present in the fruit.
b. Fibers – may be found in association with different tissues. They are usually much longer than
broad and have tiny cavity or lumen in the center of the cell.
4. Epidermis – this is the outermost layer of cells found in all young plant organs. This is usually one cell
thick although may be of several layers in some.

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Exercise 6. Cell Types and Tissues
Most epidermal cells secret a fatty substance called cutin. It forms a protective layer called cuticle.
Hairs or trichomes of different nature occur on the epidermis of above=ground plants. They may
consist of one to several cells. Some maybe glandular in nature, just like the trichomes found in
oregano plants.

Leaves also have numerous small pores or stomata bordered by pairs of specialized epidermal cells
called guard cells. Guard cells differ in shape from other epidermal cells due to the presence of
chloroplast within.

Some epidermal cells may be modified as glands that secrete protective covering.
5. Cork – serve as the outermost covering of old stems and old roots of woody dicot plants. This consist
of several layers of dead cells when mature. Their cell walls are impregnated with a waxy substance
called suberin, which renders them impermeable to substance such as water. This results in their death
upon maturity.

6. Secretory tissues – composed of secretory cells that produce hormones or waste products no longer
important to plant.

Among the most common secretory tissues are those that secret nectar in flowers, oil in citrus,
menthol in mint leaves, and mucilage, latex, and resins in pine trees.

• Use prepared slides for the cross-section of the stems of Aristolochia and Pinus. Be able to identify
the outermost tissues consisting of several layers and the secretory cells that are filled with resins in
the stem of a pine tree. Draw and label.

Complex Permanent Tissues

These are the tissues that occur in definite positions in a plant’s body and are associated with definite
functions. There are two type of complex tissues in the body of a plant; xylem and phloem. The xylem is
concerned primarily with the transport of water and minerals from the soil to the various parts of the plant.
The phloem is responsible for the translocation of food manufactured by the leaves to all parts of the plant.

Xylem

This is composed of four cell types namely:

1. Xylem fibers – similar in appearance to ordinary sclerenchyma fibers.

2. Xylem parenchyma – smaller in size than ordinary parenchyma cells.
3. Vessels – long tubes made up of individual cells that are open at each end and are joined end
to end to form the tubes. They are shorter and much wider than tracheids.
4. Tracheids – more or less elongated cells with oblique and tapering end walls. They are angular
in cross-section and are dead at maturity.
Tracheids and vessel elements make up the so called tracheary elements of the xylem.
Tracheary elements are grouped into 5 types based on structure. They are the following:
a. Spiral – helical or spiral appearance of the thickening
b. Scalariform – thickening appear ladder-like
c. Pitted type – with rounded depressions or pore-like structures called pits

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Exercise 6. Cell Types and Tissues
d. Reticulate – thickenings appear webbed or net-like
e. Annular – cell wall thickenings in ring-like forms

Phloem

A complex permanent tissue composed of:

1. Companion cells – small, nucleated parenchymatous cells that are usually associate with some
sieve tubes.
2. Phloem fibers – look like ordinary sclerenchyma fibers.
3. Phloem parenchyma – look like ordinary parenchyma cells.
4. Sieve tube elements – elongated cells joined end to end, forming sieve tubes. Their end walls
or cross walls have a large number of small pores called sieve plates. Sieve tubes are living
cells that do not have nuclei. Their walls are not lignified.

• Examine a prepared slide of corn under the LPO and HPO. Notice the skull-like structures scattered
throughout the stem. These are the vascular bundles. The vascular bundle is composed of the phloem
and xylem. It is bounded by a mass of sclerenchyma fibers. Draw and label.

QUESTIONS
1. Research on the function(s) of the shape found on the tissues observed; NOT of the tissue or
the organ.
2. On the cross-section of Aristolochia, what tissue covers the outermost part of the section?
What is the difference between the epidermis and the periderm?
3. On the cross-section of Pinus stem, what are secretory cells? What substances do secretory
cells in pines produce?

References

Campbell, NA, Reece JB, Mitchell LG, Taylor MR. 2003. Biology: Concepts and Connections, 4th ed. Pearson Education
Asia, Ltd. Singapore. 781 pp.

Evangelista, E. V. and Evangelista, L. T. (2009). Worktext in General Botany. C & E Publishing, Inc. 181 pp.

Rizzo, DC. 2006. Fundamentals of Anatomy and Physiology. Delmar Learning. 518 pp.

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