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Abstract
Some researchers have identified differences in There are various forms that leadership can take,
educational approaches depending on whether a each of which may be more or less appropriate for
modernist or postmodernist worldview is used. different educational contexts. Furthermore,
Furthermore, societies in different countries can education has seen various conceptual shifts as the
also take a predominantly modernist or attitude has changed from a modern to a
postmodern worldview, with Western countries postmodern outlook [33]. It is quite likely that, due
being primarily postmodernist. Given that to this shift, the appropriateness of various kinds of
situation, there may be leadership styles that are leadership have also changed. Thus, the goal of this
more appropriate to an educational context that is paper is to explore one style of educational
predominantly modernist or postmodernist. Even leadership appropriate for a postmodern society.
though postmodernism suggests no “best” style of Since there are many possible forms of leadership
leadership is possible, since that requires being that could be explored, only two such styles will be
able to objectively measure leadership examined: transactional and transformational
effectiveness, there may still be approaches that leadership. This paper will first look at these styles
are most consistent with the postmodernist of leaderships in more detail and then examine
worldview. This paper explores such a possibility, differences between modern and postmodern
examining differences between the worldviews and societies. Afterward, the differences between these
what factors are appropriate in each for two leadership styles in an educational setting will
educational leadership. Then, two case studies of be discussed through comparing two contexts:
different countries -- Canada for a postmodernist schools in Canada and Iran. With Canada
education, and Iran for a modernist education -- representing a postmodern society, and Iran a
are briefly presented so that the exploration modern society, it will be easier to see how these
becomes more concrete. two leadership styles play out in such contexts.
There have been various ways of thinking about This section will first explore two leadership
leadership, but one definition is the ability to styles - transactional and transformational - then
influence people to achieve some objective or goal examine what is meant by modern and postmodern
[8]. Leaders thus exercise their leadership to get society.
others (their followers) to accomplish the goal set
by the leader. Although it is the leader who defines 2.1. Transactional leadership
this goal, it does not have to be a goal that benefits
him or her [8]; it could be a goal that benefits the In transactional leadership, a leader attempts to
broader organization or system, or that benefits all motivate followers to act in a particular way
of the individuals involved. Leadership can also be through a system of reward and punishment [21].
differentiated from management [11], in which When followers act in a way that agrees with what
leaders have followers while managers have the leader wants to encourage, a reward is given.
employees; “follower” implies that there is a Likewise, a punishment is given in the opposite
willingness and inherent desire to be there, while case. In order to clarify what behavior is desired,
“employee” implies the loyalty is from payment and to have consistent reward and punishment,
expected for services or work rendered. Although a leaders require a set of rules and/or procedures [4].
successful organization requires strong leadership Furthermore, leaders require some way of
and management [15], there is greater interest in monitoring the behavior of their followers (or at
developing leadership than mere managership. This least identifying when good/bad behavior has
is particularly true when it comes to education. occurred) and a method of enforcing the rules
and/or procedures so that the appropriate reward
and punishment can be given. Hence, this style of 2.4. Types of power
leadership is meant for maximizing efficiency and
conformity, and is very effective at getting people Relationships between people may lead to
to accomplish specific tasks [21]. However, the different kinds of power. Rowlands [28] has
need to define specific expectations makes this identified four types of power: power over, power
style of leadership poor at adapting to change, with, power to, and power within. “Power over”
especially rapid change, and handling complex or occurs when someone takes power from another
dynamic problems for which goals and necessary and/or uses power to prevent others from gaining it.
tasks are poorly defined. Although often negative, this type of power is
typically expressed when there is a lack of
2.2. Transformational leadership alternative power structures or positive
relationships [31]. “Power with” occurs when
In transformational leadership, a leader attempts people find a common ground and use it to build
to identify what changes are needed in individuals collective strength. This type of power can lead to
and the group, and encourages others to transform growth in an individual’s knowledge, talent, and
their attitudes and behaviors so as to bring about ability to collaborate as well as resolve conflicts
that change [5]. In this style, followers are not between people with competing interests [2].
motivated through reward and punishment but “Power to” occurs when an individual attempts to
through a sense of self and connection. For change his or her perspective on life. As people
example, a leader could motivate another person by begin to recognize and understand their own
being a positive role model or giving him/her tasks strengths and weaknesses, “power” to represents
that would enable personal growth. Although a the power that is used to bring about personal
leader could work with each individual follower, growth through developing and acting on this
typically he or she creates a vision that describes understanding. Lastly, “power within” occurs when
the desired end state and means by which that state an individual attempts to develop his or her own
can be reached and then uses that vision to guide sense of self-knowledge and self-worth. This type
everyone else [21]. Thus, this style of leadership is of power is used by people to change their view of
meant for individual and collective growth, and is themselves and others, as well as the ability to find
good at handling complex or poorly defined tasks hope and fulfilment [10]. Table 1 shows several
for which creativity is required [24]. Since each examples of how these four types of power can
follower may require a different path for bringing manifest through different kinds of relationships.
about the necessary personal change, this style of
leadership is not good at encouraging Table 1. Examples of expressing power through
standardization or conformity to a set of rules or different capabilities in a variety of contexts
structures. (individual, household, group, etc.) [22, p. 161]
Context Power Over Power To Power With Power from
2.3. Leadership and power Within
Economic Women New International Increased
One way of defining power is a relationship Capacity increase immigrants women’s desire from
control of have groups work women for
through which influence can travel [13]. For their income increased together to equal rights
example, power in terms of leadership can be through access to collectively to resources.
analyzed in the relationships formed between a loans, income challenge
leader and his/her followers. Since any relationship saving, and earning discriminatio Immigrant
household opportunities n. groups have
can be used as a means of influence, there is always production. . increased
a dimension of power in leadership [31]. The self-esteem
dynamics of power in small-scale power structures, Ethnic Women have and
such as a single school or small group of people, minorities reduced recognition
increase burden from of their
can be analyzed using micropolitics [7]. their ability unpaid work individual
Micropolitics takes into account political to challenge and economic
circumstances on a micro-level, such that any discriminatio childcare. contributions
formal or informal authority individuals may have n against to the wider
resource and society.
is analyzed. For example, a leader may exercise market
some power over his or her follower and this access.
exercise of power could be considered an example Human / Women Struggling NGOs Increased
of the leader’s authority. Hence, identifying the Social increase students develop desire by
various forms of authority given to an individual, Capacity control over have coalitions so disabled
personal and increased they can individuals
and the relationships that exist between people, can household literacy jointly work to have
help to create a better picture of the overall power decision skills. for increased agency in
structures in the group. making. public decisions
until their own individual constraints (requirement modern, and then to postmodern; although
to work for the family) have been removed. structural and economic changes occur, these terms
are primarily used to describe the changes that
2.6. Empowerment and context occur in the way that the people within a society
view themselves [23]. A modern society views
In conceptualizing empowerment, it is important itself in terms of order and chaos. Order is the goal,
to discuss the role that the surrounding context can or desired state to achieve, while chaos is the
play. This is because power relationships can be source of problems that need to be fixed. As people
identified in such a way that the emphasis is intervene in the chaos they attempt to manage and
strongly placed on the individual, and external overcome it to bring about order. Such intervention
factors are ignored. For example, in the 1990’s can be peaceful and gradual or it can be violent and
empowerment of individuals was thought to occur destructive (i.e., revolutionary). In contrast, a
as a result of improving self-esteem or self-respect: postmodern society views itself as being
“There is a core to the empowerment process independent of metanarratives [23]. A
which consists of increases in self-confidence and metanarrative is a broad narrative meant to
self-esteem, a sense of agency and of “self” in a encompass and explain history and various goals; it
wider context, and a sense of dignity (being worthy creates a foundation for the society’s cultural and
of having a right to respect from others)” [28]. social practices, and is the context for future goals.
Another example of individual empowerment For example, one of the Christian metanarratives is
can be seen in various projects to improve that people are born with inherent sin and the
economic prospects, such as providing microcredit Christ interacted with humanity so as to remove
to women of poor families as a means of increasing this sin and lead others to eternal peace. In a
their decision-making power [26]. In these projects, postmodern society, all metanarratives are rejected
the goal is empowering individuals (often in terms as being incomplete and incorrect ways of looking
of “power over”) through directly affecting the at the world. Instead, multiple competing narratives
individuals and not the surrounding circumstances. are gathered and each studied so that people can
In the example of microcredit though, this follow whichever one they want or use each to
intervention was largely ineffective because the provide alternative ways of understanding the same
existing power structures were not changed (the situation [23]. Table 2 below provides a brief
microcredit was given and managed by other summary of some other differences between
males, such that there was no resulting increase in modern and postmodern societies.
the women’s decision-making power [1].
Ignoring the context, or attempting to change Table 2. Brief differences between modern and
power distribution without changing the existing postmodern societies [9, p. 203, cited in 23].
structures, is just one extreme. The opposite Modern Society Postmodern Society
extreme involves changing the environment Goals of strategies Specialization Integration
without doing anything for the individual. For Functional Bureaucracy Democracy
example, promoting equality in access to political arrangement
participation merely gives others the opportunity to Coordination and Disempowerment Empowerment
participate; individual conditions could still prevent Control
people from realizing this opportunity, such as poor Compute Organizational Internalized
health preventing engagement or limited finances Labor relations Structured No structure
requiring long work hours [20]. Motivation Encouragement and Ensure commitment
What seems necessary then is a combination Punishment
approach. It is important to provide individual Quality External Internalized (culture)
empowerment while also attempting to change the Performance- Individual A team approach
structures and processes so that this empowerment reward
can be realized on a larger scale [22]. However, the relationship
degree to which empowerment strategies Personal Continue to decline Creator
emphasize the individual, collective, or context relationships
may depend on whether one takes a predominantly
premodern, modern, or postmodern view. 3. Discussion
2.7. Modern and postmodern societies Bergquist [35] examined leadership structures
within premodern, modern, and postmodern
There are many different ways of describing or societies. In premodern society, leadership was
categorizing societies, and one that has been primarily through a great person [6] who is a man
particularly common in the West is “modern.” As a or woman that became a leader due to individual
society industrializes it changes from premodern to strength relative to the rest of society. This strength
typically arose due to background: circumstances organization; has organization; has oneself; has more
of birth led them to be in positions of power or more courage, skill, more skill at persistence and
and effectiveness at communication, capacity for risk-taking
access to elite training, education, and mentorship. creating and executing conflict
Since the background was necessary, it was not strategy and tactics management,
possible to systematically encourage or produce a than others; loyalty problem solving, and
great person. must be maintained to decision making
keep solidarity
In modern societies, the circumstances for
creating a great person became embedded within Vision Motivating, Goal- Servant
more inspiring than setting, Monitoring support and assist
social structures. Hence, structures, processes, and others; has clearer, translating goal into others in the realization
procedures are available for creating a more more compelling practical steps; of their own personal,
balanced and widespread expression of leadership image of goal; creating and accomplishing
[35]. Since it is the events and structures of society challenges involve accountability goals
unrealized goal, or
that enable people to lead, instead of individuals’ constant creation of
backgrounds, the emphasis changed to the system new goals
itself; for modern societies then, the goal is not to
create a great person but a great system [35]. As a Given what has been discussed so far about
consequence, leaders began focusing on improving leadership, power, and postmodernism, it seems
the quality of the system, through better regulation that transformational leadership is more appropriate
and efficiency. In other words, the style of for a postmodern society than transactional
leadership that was often adopted was transactional leadership. Should this be the case, there may be
leadership. various factors that could be used to identify
In postmodern societies, the circumstances for whether a group is capable of implementing
creating leaders in modern and premodern societies transformational leadership. These factors would
are highly analyzed and criticized. The goal shifted be more useful if they were independent of whether
to not creating leaders but instead finding ways of a society is postmodern, as it is theoretically
aligning the abilities and goals of individuals with possible to use transformational leadership in a
the current needs and circumstances, the outcome non-postmodern society. Bass and Riggio [5] have
being the search for the great context in which the suggested four major factors which, when present,
best use of people’s abilities can occur [35]. suggest transformational leadership is being used
Leaders can then be in any position, arise from any and/or is appropriate to use: idealized influence
circumstance, be developed through any type of (II), inspirational motivation (IM), individualized
system, but they are most effective when their consideration (IC), and intellectual stimulation (IS).
skills and abilities are applied to the most relevant II refers to the emotional component of leadership,
problems. As a result, the big challenge for such that a leader with II is a strong role model for
postmodern leadership is determining one’s own others and others have a desire to identify with and
strengths and weaknesses and that of others, emulate him or her [3]. IM refers to the ability for a
identifying what is needed to solve particular leader to inspire and motivate others. IC refers to
problems, and having the desire for personal the genuine concern for the needs and feelings of
growth [35]. In other words, transformational others, such that a leader with IC gives personal
leadership is most appropriate for a postmodern attention to others and brings out their best efforts
society; in particular, using transformational [13]. Lastly, IS refers to the concern for innovation
leadership to identify the best style of leadership to and creativity, such that leaders with IS challenge
use depending on the circumstances (e.g., see Table others to become more creative in their solutions to
3). problems [25].
Hence, a group could be examined in terms of
Table 3. Comparison between Premodern, Modern, whether the four listed factors are present, what
and Postmodern leadership [35]. kind of power their leadership emphasizes, and
PREMODERN MODERN POSTMODERN whether they have generally adopted a modern or
Great Person Great System Great Context postmodern mindset. This examination could
elite birth and/or produced by and person and system identify whether transformational leadership is
education maintains system interacts; right person
at right time in right more appropriate and whether there is more overlap
place between the type of society (modernist,
Wisdom Delegation/Supervi Learner postmodernist) and leadership style used
knowledgeable and sion no enduring wisdom; (transactional, transformational). Two examples of
experience; challenges Teacher/Mentor goal is to continually such an examination will now be conducted.
involve planning & Sharing wisdom acquire new wisdom
growing competencies with others
of others
Bravery Empowerment Entrepreneur
enemy is outside the enemy is inside the enemy is inside
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