Brandon Behring

9/7/08

Quantum Mechanics # 1
1 (a) (i)
|(ψ, φ)|2 ≤ (ψ, ψ)(φ, φ).
Proof: Assume ψ 6= 0, otherwise we are done. From the defini-
tion of the inner product we know
0 ≤ |φ − λψ|2
= (φ − λψ, φ − λψ)
= (φ, φ) − λ(φ, ψ) − λ∗ (ψ, φ) + λλ∗ (ψ, ψ).

Minimize this expression by setting the partial derivative with

respect to λ∗ to 0 to get
−(ψ, φ) + λ(ψ, ψ) = 0.
This suggest we use λ ≡ (ψ, φ)/(ψ, ψ) which is well defined as
(ψ, ψ) 6= 0.
Inserting this into our relation gives us

(ψ, φ) (φ, ψ) (φ, ψ) (ψ, φ)

0 ≤ (φ, φ) − (φ, ψ) − (ψ, φ) + (ψ, ψ)
(ψ, ψ) (ψ, ψ) (ψ, ψ) (ψ, ψ)
(φ, ψ)
= (φ, φ) − (ψ, φ).
(ψ, ψ)

That is, (ψ, φ)(φ, ψ) = |(ψ, φ)|2 ≤ (ψ, ψ)(φ, φ).

(b)
||(ψ + φ)|| ≤ ||ψ|| + ||φ||
Proof: Using z + z ∗ = 2Re(z) where z ∈ C and Re(z) ≤ |z|
and the Schwarz inequality |(ψ, φ)| ≤ ||ψ|| ||φ|| we have
||φ + ψ||2 = (φ + ψ, φ + ψ)
= ||φ||2 + 2Re ((φ, ψ)) + ||ψ||2
≤ ||φ||2 + 2|(φ, ψ)| + ||ψ||2
≤ ||φ||2 + 2||φ|| ||ψ|| + ||ψ||2
= (||ψ|| + ||φ||)2
.
Taking the square root of both sides yields the triangle inequality.

1
(b) When does equality hold in the Schwarz inequality, |(ψ, φ)| = ||ψ|| ||φ||?
Solution: Equality holds if and only if ψ is a multiple of φ (or vice-
versa). That this is sufficient is clear,
|(ψ, λψ)| = |λ||(ψ, ψ)| = ||ψ|| ||λψ||.
To see that this is neccessary, assume |(ψ, φ)| = ||ψ|| ||φ||. If either
ψ = 0 or φ = 0 then we are done. So, assume ψ 6= 0 and let
λ ≡ (ψ, φ)/||ψ||2 and θ = φ − λψ. Then ψ is orthogonal to θ

(ψ, θ) = (ψ, φ − λψ)

= (ψ, φ) − λ(ψ, ψ)
= (ψ, φ) − λ(ψ, ψ)
(ψ, φ)
= (ψ, φ) − ||ψ||2
||ψ||2
= (ψ, φ) − (ψ, φ) = 0.

From our assumption,

|λ| = |(ψ, φ)|/||ψ||2 = ||ψ|| ||φ||/||ψ||2 = ||φ||/||ψ||.

We note for any two orthogonal vectors, we have

||x + y||2 = ||x||2 + ||y||2 + 2(x, y) = ||x||2 + ||y||2 .

Since φ = λψ + θ

||φ2 || = ||λψ + θ||2

= λ2 ||ψ||2 + ||θ||2
= ||φ||2 + ||θ||2 .

Therefore, ||θ|| = 0, so θ = φ − λψ = 0. Therefore, φ = λψ. For the

case of the triangle inequality we have equality, ||φ+ψ|| = ||φ||+||ψ|| ,
for non-zero vectors if and only if they are proportional to each other
by a real number, ψ = aφ for some a ∈ R. That is, when the triangle
degenerates to a line To see that this is sufficient, observe
||φ + ψ|| = ||φ + aφ|| = (1 + a)||φ||
and
||φ|| + ||ψ|| = ||φ|| + |a|||φ|| = (1 + a)||φ||.
It is now clear why a must be real.
To see that is neccessary we note that Re(z) = |z| iff x ∈ R and the
equality case of the Cauchy-Schwarz inequality.

2
2 Let u1 = 1, u2 = sin x, u3 = cos x, u4 = sin2 x, u5 = cos2 x, u6 = sin 2x and
u7 = cos 2x. We can use the following trigonometric identities

1 − cos 2θ
sin2 θ =
2
and
1 + cos 2θ
cos2 θ =
2
to see u4 = 1/2u1 − 1/2u7 and u5 = 1/2u1 + 1/2u7 . Therefore, the vector
space has dimension 5 with basis u1 , u2 , u3 , u6 , u7 .
P
3 The trace of an operator A, TrA = n hun |A|un i, is independent of the
particular orthonormal basis {|un i} that is chosen for its evaluation.
Solution: Let us choose another basis
P wn . Since this is also complete
orthonormal basis we can write I = i |wi ihwi |

X X
hun |A|un i = hun |wi ihwi |A|wj ihwj |un i
n i,jn
X
= hwj |un ihun |wi ihwi |A|wj i
i,jn
X
= hwj |wi ihwi |A|wj i
i,j
X
= δij hwi |A|wj i
i,j
X
= hwi |A|wi i
i

Since i is a dummy variable we conclude that the trace is independent of

the representation of A.
4 Show that    
1 0 0 1
I= , σx = ,
0 1 1 0
   
0 −i 1 0
σy = , σz = .
i 0 0 −1
is a basis for GL(2, C).
Solution: Let us take the following basis for GL(2, C)
   
1 0 0 1
u1 = , u2 = ,
0 0 0 0

3
    
0 0 0 0
u3 = , u4 = .
1 0 0 1

Now, linear independence is clear and it is P

also clear that an arbitrary
element of GL(2, C) can be written as M = ai ui for ai ∈ C. Now, we
observe
I + σz
u1 =
2
σx + iσy
u2 =
2
σx − iσy
u3 =
2
I − σz
u4 = .
2

Since these are all linear combinations, we can use the fact that ui spans
our vector space to show that I and σi also spans our vector space.
5 We first verify that (A, B) = Tr(A† B) is an innerproduct.

(i) The trace sends an operator into a complex number, (A, B) ∈ C

(ii) (B, A) = Tr(B † A). Taking the adjoint of both sides gives us (B, A)∗ =
Tr(B † A)† . It is clear from the definition that (TrA)† = TrA† . Along
with (AB)† = B † A† , we see (B, A)∗ = Tr(A† B) = (A, B)
P P P
(iii) Noticing
P that n hun |BP+ C|un i = n hun |B|un i + n hun |C|un i
and n hun |aA|un i = a n hun |A|un i, we easily see

(A, bB + cC) = Tr(A† (bB + cC))

= Tr(bA† B + cA† C)
= bTr(A† B) + cTr(A† C)
= b(A, B) + c(A, C).

(iv) We must show (A, A) ≥ 0 with equality holding only if A = 0. We

have

(A, A) = Tr(A† A))

= hun |A† A|un i
= hAun |Aun i.

Since, hAun |Aun i ≥ 0 and vanishes if and only if Aun = 0 for all A,
then (A, A) ≥ 0 with equality only holding with A = 0.

4
 Observe that I and σi are all hermitian. Also, we observe Tr(I) = 2,
Tr(σi ) = 0. Now, we see that (I, I) = Tr(I) = 2 and (I, σx ) = 0. The
rest of the traces are
    
0 1 0 1 1 0
(σx , σx ) = Tr = Tr = 2,
1 0 1 0 0 1

    
0 1 0 −i i 0
(σx , σy ) = Tr = Tr = 0.
1 0 i 0 0 −i

    
0 1 1 0 0 −1
(σx , σz ) = Tr = Tr = 0,
1 0 0 −1 1 0

    
0 −i 0 −i 1 0
(σy , σy ) = Tr = Tr = 2,
i 0 i 0 0 1

    
0 −i 1 0 0 i
(σy , σz ) = Tr = Tr = 0,
i 0 0 −1 i 0

and finally
    
1 0 1 0 1 0
(σz , σz ) = Tr = Tr = 2,
0 −1 0 −1 0 1

So, (σi , σj ) = 2δij and we have an orthogonal basis.

6 We start with  
0 1 0
M = 1 0 1 .
0 1 0

To find the eigenvalues we must√solve |M − λI = λ(1 − 2λ2 ) = 0. So we

have three eigenvalues λ = 0, ± 2.
The eigenvector u0 corresponding to λ = 0 can be found by solving
    
0 1 0 a 0
(M − 0I3 )u0 =  1 0 1  b  =  0 .
0 1 0 c 0

The first row and third row gives us b = 0 and the middle row gives
a = −c. So the first is u0 = (1, 0, −1).

5
 √
For the eigenvector u−√2 corresponding to λ = − 2 can be found by
solving
 √    
√ 2 √1 0 a 0
(M + 2I3 )u√2 =  1 2 √1   b  =  0 .
0 1 2 c 0
√ √
The first row gives us 2a+b =√0 and the second row gives us a+ 2b+c =
0√ and the third
√ gives us b + 2c =. Combining
√ first and last
√ gives us
2a = −b = 2c, or a = c. Now, b = − 2a, so u−√2 = (1, − 2, 1) .
√
Lastly, the eigenvector u√2 corresponding to λ = 2 can be found by
solving
 √    
√ − 2 1
√ 0 a 0
(M − 2I3 )u√2 =  1 − 2 1
√
 b  =  0 .
0 1 − 2 c 0
√ √
The first row gives us 2a√= b and the second row gives us a− 2b+c = 0
and the third gives us b =√ 2c. Combining√ the last two gives us a−2c+c =
0, or a = c. Then, b = 2a, so u√2 = (1, 2, 1) . We can now normalize
are basis by setting v1 ≡ √12 u0 , v2 ≡ 12 u−√2 and v3 ≡ 12 u√2 . Now
(vi , vj ) = δij . We know have a complete orthonormal basis for the vector
space R3 , verifying the spectral theorem for M .
We also have the projection operators
   
1 1 0 −1
1
1
|v1 ihv1 | = 0  1 0 −1 = 0 0 0 .
2 2
−1 −1 0 1

   √ 
1 1 − 2 1
1 √  √
1 √ √
|v2 ihv2 | = − 2 1 − 2 1 = − 2 2
√ − 2 
4 2
1 1 − 2 1

and
   √ 
√1 √ √1 2 √1
1
1
|v3 ihv3 | =  2  1 2 1 =  2 √2 2 .
4 2
1 1 2 1

Then, we verify
X
|vi ihvi | = I3 .
i

6
7 The symmetrizer S, is defined for an arbitrary function φ(x) as
1
Sφ(x) = [φ(x) + φ(−x)].
2

Then we check that this is indeed a projection operator

S 2 φ(x) = S(S(φ(x))
 
1
= S [φ(x) + φ(−x)]
2
 
1 1 1
= [φ(x) + φ(−x)] + [φ(x) + φ(−x)]
2 2 2
1
= [φ(x) + φ(−x)] = Sφ(x)
2
.

Similarly, the antisymmetrizer A, is defined for an arbitrary function φ(x)

as
1
Aφ(x) = [φ(x) − φ(−x)].
2
Then we check that this is indeed a projection operator

A2 φ(x) = A(A(φ(x))
 
1
= S [φ(x) − φ(−x)]
2
 
1 1 1
= [φ(x) − φ(−x)] − [φ(−x) − φ(x)]
2 2 2
1
= [φ(x) − φ(−x)] = Aφ(x).
2

This can be seen more elegantly by noticing a function is symmetric if

φ(x) = φ(−x) and antisymmetric if φ(x) = −φ(−x). Once a function has
been (anti-) symmetrized it is a (anti)-symmetric function and further acts
of (A), S do nothing to the function. That is A2 = A and S 2 = S.

P eigenvectors |ai i form a complete basis. Then we

8 Take an operator A whose
can define f (A) = i f (ai )|ai ihai | with A|ai i = ai |ai i and hai |ai i = δij .
Define fn (A) ≡ An , then

(An )(Am ) = fn (A)fm (A)

X
= fn (ai )fm (aj )|ai ihai |aj ihaj |
i,j

7
 X
= fn (ai )fm (aj )δij |ai ihaj |
i,j
X
= fn (ai )fm (ai )|ai ihai |
i
X
= ani am
i |ai ihai |
i
X
= am+n
i |ai ihai |
i
X
= fm+n (ai )|ai ihai |
i
= fm+n (A) = Am+n .

9 Let hψ|A|ψi = hψ|B|ψi for all ψ ∈ V . Prove that A = B, in the sense that
hφ1 |A|φ2 i = hφ1 |B|φ2 i.
Solution: Let |ψi = a|φ1 i + b|φ2 i for arbitrary a, b, |φ1 i, and |φ2 i.
Then
hψ|A|ψi = hψ|B|ψi
= |a|2 hφ1 |A|φ1 i + |b|2 hφ2 |A|φ2 i
+ a∗ bhφ1 |A|φ2 i + b∗ ahφ2 |A|φ1 i
= |a|2 hφ1 |B|φ1 i + |b|2 hφ2 |B|φ2 i
+ a∗ bhφ1 |B|φ2 i + b∗ ahφ2 |B|φ1 i

From our assumption, we can cancel out the first two terms to arrive at
a∗ bhφ1 |A|φ2 i + b∗ ahφ2 |A|φ1 i = a∗ bhφ1 |B|φ2 i + b∗ ahφ2 |B|φ1 i.

Let a = b = 1, then
hφ1 |A|φ2 i + hφ2 |A|φ1 i = hφ1 |B|φ2 i + hφ2 |B|φ1 i
and if a = 1, b = i
−ihφ1 |A|φ2 i + ihφ2 |A|φ1 i = −ihφ1 |B|φ2 i + ihφ2 |B|φ1 i.

Dividing by i,

−hφ1 |A|φ2 i + hφ2 |A|φ1 i = −hφ1 |B|φ2 i + hφ2 |B|φ1 i.

Adding up these lines gives us

hφ2 |A|φ1 i = hφ2 |B|φ1 i

for arbitrary φ1 and φ2 , which proves our assertion.

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10 (i) Since we have three independent events, the probability of life in any
given solar system is P (A&B&C) = P (A)P (B)P (C) = pqr = 10−6 .
(ii) Let si be the solar systems in our universe U . Take the statement A
to be that ∃si ∈ U such that si contains life. Then, the negation,
¬A, is ∀si ∈ U si does not contain life. The fallacy in part (i) as a
proof of life not existing in the universe is the improper negation of
A by not switching the ∃ to ∀.
Now,for any given star, the probablity of there being no life is 1−pqr.
Whether there is life on a star or not is indepedent of whether there
is life on any other star. Let the S event of there
Qn being no life on a
N
planet as Bi . Then, P (¬A) = P ( i Bi ) = i Bi = (1 − pqr)N is
the proabibility that life does not exists in any solar system. Then,
11
P (A) = 1 − P (¬A) = 1 − (1 − pqr)N = 1 − (1 − 10−6 )10 . While this
is close to one for normal sized N ; it does, slowly, converge to 0 as
N approaches ∞. See the attached graph for a visual demonstration
of this.
11 (i) Assume that the coin is fair, that is p = q = .5. Then the probablity of
getting 5 heads out of 10 flips is then
10! 5 10−5 252
p q = 10 = 0.246.
5!5! 2
For n = 100 we have
100! 50 100−50 252
p q = 10 = 0.0795892.
50!50! 2
This probability approaches 0 as n becomes large.
(ii) If we have 10 coins and the ratio of heads to talls is from .445 to
.555, the only possible ratio is 5 out of ten. So, we have the same
proability from part (i). If we have 100 tosses, we have between 45
to 55 heads. Then, the Probability is then

55
X 100!
(.5)100 = 0.728747.
r=45
r!(100 − r)!

For fun, now try this with 1000 coins

555
X 1000!
(.5)1000 = 0.997787.
r=455
r!(1000 − r)!

And for 10,000, the sum approaches equals ”one” by the precision of
Mathematica.

9
12 Prob 1.17 Note- This problem is done at the end of the book; however, I
feel dishonest replicating the solution as I do not feel like I could have
independently came up with it. Be forgiving if my own solution contains
laws.
Imagine that for any moment t ∈ [0, t] we flip a loaded coin with proba-
bility of heads, p = λt/N , and tails, q = 1 − p. If the coin lands heads, a
particle is emitted and if tails there is no action. Then the probability at
any point being given by a binomial binomial distribution. Let us examine
what happens as we take an infinite number of trials, that is as N → ∞
we have

N!
P (nr = n, t) = pn (1 − p)N −n
n!(N − n)
 n
N! λt λt
= (1 − )N −n
n!(N − n)! N N
n
 
N! (λt) λt
→ (1 − )N
(N − n)!N n n! N
n
(λt) −λt
→ e
n!

N!
That (N −n)!N n approaches 1 can be proved by analysis; but plotting this

for various n is sufficient for current purposes.

(λt)n −λt
So, now the probability of having n after time t is then P (n, t) = n! e .
The expectated number of particles after time t is now

X
hni = nP (n, t))
n
X (λt)n
= e−λt n
n
n!
d X (λt)n
= e−λt λt
d(λt) n n!
d λt
= e−λt λt e = λt.
d(λt)
.

10