Content Buku Ajar Research

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CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH
A. INTRODUCTION
Doing a research is indispensable for university

students like you because it can enhance your
analytical and critical skills. Do you know why
people research? There are some reasons for
researching such as to fulfil curiousity, to know
casuality, to increase quality, to test efficiency, and
to satisfy discovery.
For the first reason, as we all know that humans are characterized to be
curious about things. However, in answering questions about phenomena or
problems in society and their surroundings some people still use non-scientific
reasons. It is your task to help them solve the problems. Knowing reasons for
reseaching can help you find alternatives , investigate or explain problems or
phenomena in society with scientific reasons. You can also apply or reflect this
reasoning in your background of study based on the problems, issues or
phenomena you are concerned with.
In this chapter you will learn about reasons for researching,purposes and
functions of research, characteristics of research, and scope of literature,
linguistics, and educational reseach. By the end of this chapter, you are
expected to be able to:
1) Explain at least 5 reasons for researching with examples

2) Explain objectives of research
3) Explain functions of research
4) Describe characteristics of Research
5) Explain scope of literary, linguistic, and educational research
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B. MATERIAL DESCRIPTION
1.1. Defining Research
In our daily life we conduct informal research all

the time. We examine various models and their
options before buying a car, and we check out
another person informally before proposing or
accepting a first date. We sometimes search the
classified ads to find a job. Research is then not
something new to us. In the classroom, we begin
thinking about a serious and systematic activity,
one that involves the library, the Internet, or field
research.
A research paper, like a personal essay, requires you to choose a topic you
care about and are willing to to invest many hours in thinking about. However,
unlike a personal essay or short report, you will develop your ideas by
gathering an array of information, reading sources critically, and collecting
notes. As you pull your project together, you will continue to express personal
ideas, but now they are supported by and based on the collective evidence and
opinions of experts on the topic.(Lester,2005)
Research is a disciplined attempt to address or solve problems through the

collection and analysis of primary data for the purpose of description,
explanation, generalization and prediction (Anderson, 1998: 6).Research, in
the academic use of term, is the systematic gathering, presenting, and
analyzing of data.
1.2. Why research?
1.2.1. To fulfil curiousity
Since humans were born, they have been

given curiousity, the feeling or desire to
know something. Human as a part of the
milieu try many ways to know themselves,
other people surround them, and their
environment. Human’s curiousity has
brought them to search the secret of nature
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although the knowledge gained though the searching does not always yield
practical meaning or usage that can be applied in their daily lives. A child gives
full rein to their curiousity by asking his parents many questions; - the
questions which are sometimes illogical and strange, such as why is the leaf
green in color?, why is it dark at night?, why do people die?Why does a horse
have four legs, etc.
In the ancient time, our ancestors might have asked the same questions.
Some questions dealing with uncommon facts or unusual events such as why
the moon and the sun exist, why the moon shines, why there is lightning and
thunder were usually associated with magic and as a result of influence of
supernatural power.
Since humansare always curious, they always

try to search the answers to their curiousity.On
the other hand, humans’ possessing mind,
intellect, or reason distinguishes them from
animals. Humans could make houses from
simple materials with different types and designs
which change from time to time, while animals
make their houses or nests merely from simple
materials with the same types and forms.
Because of the effort to seek for the answers of their curiousity, humans
try to explain what actually happen. The explanation about this phenomenon
can be divided into scientific and non-scientific explanation. Scientific
explanation is explanation which is based on scientific reasons, whereas non-
scientific explanation is explanation which does not use scientific
reasons.(Basuki, 2006,p.14).
Humans’ knowlege which was just simple in the past has gradually changed
since humans began to endeavor their mind. If in the past thunderclap was
explained as the sound of gods, now
people can explain that it occurs because
of the movement of electron from the
clouds which have positive electricity to
the clouds which have negative electricity.
During the movement, the electricity
wave splits the air and closes that results
in loud sounds.
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This explanation does not happen instantly, but gradually as people get the
new facts and ideas. The new facts and ideas are usually gained by a
coincidence, through healthy mind, intuition, trial and error, generalization of
experiences, authority, or by speculation. Thus, non-scientific explanation can
be divided into explanation based on a coincidence, intuition, speculation,
authority, trial and error, and generalization of experience.
1.2.2. To know causality
Lester (2004) argues that causal

arguments explain that a conditon
exists because of specific circumstance.
It means that something has caused or
created this situation, and we need to
know why. For example, a teacher’s
investigation uncovered reasons why
most of hisstudents did poorly in
grammar test.
He had some questions in his mind whether his students were lazy, whether
they did not understand the grammar lesson, whether the way he taught was
not interesting, or whether they did not like grammar class. These questions
merited his investigation, so he gathered evidence from his teaching activities
as well as data drawn from interviewing some of his students, giving
questionaire, critical reading, and accumulated test results.
1.2.3. To increase quality
Let’s read the following story taken

from MitSloan Management Review
Magazine posted Bery,L.Leonard,
Valerry A.Zeithaml, and A.
Parasuraman (1990). The Downtown
Chicago Marriott hotel had been open
for fifteen years before its management
determined that two-thirds of all guest
calls to housekeeping were to request
ironing boards. This discovery prompted the idea of simply placing irons and
ironing boards in all of the hotel’s guest rooms, an idea that would cost
$20,000.
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The hotel manager reviewed the capital budget and saw that $22,000 was
earmarked to replace black-and-white television sets in the bathrooms of
concierge-level guest rooms with color sets. The manager then inquired how
many VIP guests had requested color television sets for their bathrooms and
learned that no guest had ever made such a request. So the manager
eliminated the color television sets and added the irons and ironing boards
with no net addition to the capital budget, a big productivity boost for
housekeeping, and a new,important guest room feature.
(http://sloanreview.mit.edu)
From the story, we got two critical points. The first is that customers are
the sole judge of service quality. Customers assess service by comparing the
service they receive (perceptions) with the service they desire (expectations). A
company can achieve a strong reputation for quality service only when it
consistently meets customer service expectations.The second point is how easy
it is for managers to forget the first point. Managers nod their heads in
agreement when convention speakers stress the importance of customer focus
and then go back to work and buy the equivalent of color TVs for the
bathroom instead of ironing boards. The hotel management has done
extensive research with customers to improve the service quality of the hotel.
1.2.4. To test efficiency
Some researches that test efficiency for

example a research that focuses on
improving engine efficiency and fuel
economy; a research project proposes to
study, design, implement, and test 3D shape
matching algorithms based on local
descriptors, with a special emphasis in
efficiency issues; a research on efficiency in
marketing, effciency production, etc.
1.2.5. To satisfy sense of discovery
Since ancient time, humans have been

equipped with sense of discovery. In the
past, people had tried to discover tools to
cut wood. When they found it useful they
began to design a new model to satisfy
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the demands of the people who made use of the tools. Another example of
recent finding is the cancer drugs discovery and development that resulted in
an increasing number of succesful therapies that have impacted the lives of a
large number of cancer patients.
Still another example is a

satisfying discovery that was
beneficial for people in Egypt.
In 2003, after the discovery of sizable

reserves and the establishment of
pipelines and Liquefield Natural Gas
(LNG) facilities, Egypt began
exporting gas to Jourdan, Israel,and Syria.
In modern era the discovery of

satelite allows us to enjoy watching
television, telephoning, and distant
communicating.
1.3. Purposes of Research
In general, research is aimed at:
1) Developing critical and analytical

skills, curiousity related to one’s
field of study and interest;
2) Helping formulating alternative
and taking decision on the
problem faced;
3) Developing analytical plan;
4) Training investigative techniques;
5) Helping university students to prepare undergraduate thesis (S1), graduate

thesis (S2), disertation (S3), and other researches;
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6) Adding or improving information, data, and theories for knowledge

development.
1.4. Functions of Research
Research is presented as an integral

part of the process of education itself
and as such, is argued to be central to
individual and professional
development.It obtains the scientist
knowledge about all educational
problems. It also helps in obtaining
specific knowledge about the subjects
involved in the study.For instance, in
educational system it
conduits for the progress of the technique of teaching. It strengthens and

emphasizes the work of the teacher. It has a great utility of creating new
interest and new confidence in the ability of the individual teacher.
1.5. Characteristics of Research
Some Characteristics of Research are:
1) Research is an organized and deliberate effort to collectnew

information or to utilize existing knowledge for a new purpose.
2) Research seeks to answer worthwhile and fundamental questions, by
utilizing valid and reliable techniques.
3) Research is logical and objective, using the most appropriate test to
justify the methods employed, data collected, and the conclusions
drawn.
4) The final outcome of research contributes to the gaining of new
knowledge and a better appreciation of the issues involved.
1.6. Scope of Literature, Linguistics, and Educational Research
The scope of literary research includes prose, poetry, drama, literary

critism, film studies,and children literature. In addition, the scope of
Linguistics covers phonology, morphology, syntax, semantic, pragmatics,
sociolinguistics, error analysis and translation. Moreover, the scope of
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educational research includes teaching the four language skills, teaching

language knowledge such as grammar and vocabulary, language testing and
evaluation, program evaluation, case study.
The scope of Literary Research can be described in the following figure:
prose/novel
drama film studies
Literature
literary
poetry
critism
children
literature
Figure 1.1. Scope of Literary Research
In addition, the scope of Research on Lingusitics can be observed from the

following figure:
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phonology
morphology syntax
Linguistics
error
translation
analysis
semantic & socio-

pragmatics linguistics
Figure 1.2. Scope of Research on Linguistics
Moreover, the scope of Educational Research can be described in the following

figure:
Class Action
Research
Program
Case Study
Evaluation
Educational
Research
Teaching Course
language Design &
skills Evaluation
Teaching
Language
knowledge
Figure 1.3. Scope of Educational Research
The overall content of a study is usually reflected its abstract. Following

are examples of abstract from different subjects and topics.
Example 1
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Subject: Literary Criticism (Qualitative )

Topic: Mythology
ABSTRACT
The aim of this study is to find out the similarities between the characters,
myth creatures, and situation in Harry Potter film series and those in the
Greek Myth. This study is a part of literary criticism, because it discusses about
one one of the varieties of criticism that is mythology. The approach used in
this study was descriptive qualitative. Description of the whole thing of Greek
Myth is represented by the characters, myth creatures, and situation in Harry
Potter film series. All the intrinsic elements of Harry Potter film series were
analyzed using theory from Jung. According to Jung(1995) one key concept in
mythological criticism is the archetype, symbol, character, situation, and
image that evokes a deep universal response. The writer found that almost all
of the intrinsic elements of Harry Potter film were inspired by the Greek,
English, and Scandinavian Mythology.
Keywords : Mythology criticism, intrinsic elements, characters, Mythical

creatures, Harry Potter Film Series, Descriptive Qualitative
Example 2
Subject: Teaching Methodology (A qualitative Study)
Topic: Teaching Speaking
ABSTRACT
Speaking is one of the four language skills that is crucial to acquire. It is, therefore,
essential for English teachers to pursue and to apply the right technique. Role-play
is one of the teaching techniques that is commonly used in teaching speaking. This
study is intended to describe the activities of teaching speaking using role-play
technique and to show the result of the teaching process in term of students’ score
and opinions. This study uses qualitative approach where data are collected through
observation, interview and questioner. By observing the class and interviewing the
teacher the learning activities are described. In addition, by giving questioners to
students their responses or opinions are concluded. The learning activities show that
role-play technique makes the students active and creative in speaking. The role of
teacher as a facilitator by giving various topics makes the learning process
interesting. The role-play technique developed by the teacher gets good responses
from the students. Twenty-seven out of thirty-two students are satisfied with their
score, twenty-two students admit they enjoy the class, and twenty-three students
confess that role-play makes them confident in speaking. Since role-play technique
improves learning condition and motivates students to be active in speaking, it is
likely successful to apply it in class.
Key words: teaching speaking, role-play technique, qualitative, observation,
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interview, questioner.
Example 3
Subject: Sociolinguistics (Qualitative)
Topic: Code-Mixing and Code-Switching
ABSTRACT
Language is not merely used to communicate ideas but also to communicate our
opinion of others and of ourselves. In communication it happens that people often
use more than one language spontaneously and naturally when they communicate
to each other. This research is aimed at explaining code mixing and code switching
used in narrative and dialogues of “Hitam Putih” television program. Descriptive
qualitative method is used to analyze data that are taken by recording some
episodes of the program. The data are classified as types, factors that cause, and
functions which are analyzed with different theories. Theories from Stockwell are
chosen to analyze the types of code mixing and code switching. Theories of
O’Grady and Dobrovolsky are employed to analyze factors that cause. Whereas
Hymes’ theories are used to analyze functions of code mixing and code switching
used in narrative and dialogues spoken by the host and the guests in “HItam Putih”
television program. The findings show that there are 40 codes consisting of 25 code
mixing and 15 code switching. The types found are tag switching, intra-sentential
mixing, and inter-sentential mixing/switching. The factors that cause are
characterized as questioners , and the functions of code mixing and code switching
in “Hitam Putih” Television program are expressive and directive.
Key words: Sociolinguistics, communication, code mixing, code switching,

narrative, dialoguestypes, causes, functions
Example 4:
Subject: Linguistics ( Qualitative )
Topic: Error Analysis
ABSTRACT
Thesis proposal should be free from grammatical errors as it is a kind of

scientific writing. This research is aimed at analyzing types and causes of the
students’ errors in the use of passive voice in their thesis proposals. The study
used document analysis, by analyzing sentences taken from 30 selected thesis
proposals of three different interest: literature, linguistics, and teaching. The
collected data were classified based on the types of errors using Dulay’s
Theory, and were analyzed to discover the causes of the errors using theory
from Norrish (1983). From the 30 selected proposals, there were fourty-three
sentences found to have errors in using passive with different types. Eight
sentences are identified as having addition errors, 16 sentences are marked to
contain omission error, 17 sentences have misformation error, and two
sentences contain (2) misordering errors. The most errors occured were
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misformation types, followed by omission, and addition. Regarding to the

causes of errors, the addition errors were mostly caused by translation and first
language interference. These occured when the students tried to translate
their L1 into L2. The omission errors, on the other hand, were caused mostly
by students’ carelessness.Fourteen out of sixteen errors of this type occured
because the students forgot to include ‘to be’ in their passive sentences. Most
of the misformation errors were caused by the use of the wrong form of
structure. Meanwhile, misordering errors were mainly caused by translation
when students tried to transfer their L1 into L2. Some students misused the
order of a statement to a question.
Key words: Error analysis, passive voice, types and causes, descriptive
qualitative
Example 5
Scope: Educational Research (Quantitative)
Subject: Educational Management
Topic : Leadership & Organizational Culture
ABSTRACT
This research is aimed at analyzing influence of organization culture to lecturer’s

achievement, influence of leadership style to lecturer’s achievement, influence of
motivation to lecturer’s achievement and influence of organization culture,leadership
style and motivation to lecturer’s achievement. The method of research used is
descriptive quantitative with regression and correlation technique. Samples are taken
using purposive sampling (with certain intention). Research carried out at Jakarta
Institute of Tourism with 50 lecturers chosen randomly. With the help of SPSS 12.0
Program for Windows, after validity test,through regression and correlation analysis,
and hypothesis test, the research findings are as follow: a) Organization Culture (X1)
with work performance has tight relationship with correlation score r1 = 0,706.
Coefficient of determination = 49,8% shows that 49,8% work performance (Y) is
influenced/explained by organization culture (X1) individually. This calculation is
significant where tcalculation is bigger than ttable (6,906> 2,011). b) Coefficient of
correlation between leadership style (X2) with work performance (Y) makes r2 =
0,682. It shows that there is a very tight/strong relationship between leadership style
and work
performance.The influence of leadership style to the performance is shown by
coefficient of determination (CD) = 46,5%. Based on the coefficient of determination
we know that 46,5% of performance is explained by leadership style individually. c)
Motivation (X3) with performance (Y) has positive and strong relationship. This is
shown by its coefficient of correlation r3 = 0,678 or coefficient of determination (CD)
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= 45,9% . It means that motivation factor influences performance as much as 45,9%.

d) Organization culture, leadership style and motivation simultaneously influence the
performance. The tightness of relationship is shown by the correlation score R =
0,819 or in the category of very tight/strong. The score of coefficient determination
(CD) =
67,1% shows that both organization culture (X1), leadership style (X2) and work
motivation (X3) together have influence as much as 67,1% to performance (Y).While
the rest 32,9% is influenced by other factors which are not examined or beyond this
research .
Key words : organization culture, leadership style, motivation, achievement,

correlation and regression
C. EXERCISE
Questions for Review:
1. Explain at least 5 reasons for researching and give an example for each
of them.
2. There are 6 (six) purposes of researching in general. Explain minimum
4 of them!
3. Explain minimum 3 the functions of research?
4. Describe 4 characteristics of Research
5. Explain scope of literary, linguistics, and educational research
D. ASSIGNMENT
Directions: Write the following assignment on a separate paper.
1. Find an example (in the real daily life) for each of the reasons for
researching (There are 5 reasons for researching). Write your answers
in paragraph form.
2. Based on the three scopes of literature, linguistics, and language
teaching, find and formulate possible problems which are researchable
for each field of study. Write one possible problem for each scope.
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Format:Type your answer on A4 paper using Times New Romance font

type, size 12 with layout: left margin :4 cm , right margin: 3 cm, top
margin: 4, bottom: 3
E. SUMMARY OF MATERIAL
Knowing reasons for reseaching can help you find alternatives ,

investigate or explain problems or phenomenon in society with scientific
reasons.
Research can also be used to diagnose and anticipate causes of certain

problems , for instance, reseaching error analysis on students’ writing may
find out not only the errors made by the students, but also the causes and
the source of errors so that the teacher can improve his teaching strategy
and his students’ writing ability.
In business, research may be used to increase service or product’s quality

and efficiency. A teacher may want to prove the effectiveness of a certain
method of teaching towards his students’ English skills. As people are
characterized as never satisfied about something, they keep researching
even for the new findings.
The purpose of researching in general is to develop critical and analitical

skills related to one’s field of study and interest, to help formulate
alternatives and decisions on the problem faced, to train investigative
techniques, to help university students prepare thesis, and to add
information, data, and theories for knowledge development.
The functions of researching besides it is central to individual and

professional development, it obtains the scientist knowledge about all
educational problems and helps in obtaining specific knowledge about the
subjects involved in the study.
Research is characterized as an organized effort to collect new information

or to utilize existing knowledge for a new purpose, to answer fundamental
questions using valid and reliable techniques. Research must be logical
and objective, using the most appropriate test to justify the methods
employed, data collected, and the conclusions drawn and the final
outcome should contribute to the gaining of new knowledge and a better
appreciation of the issues involved.
F. REFERENCES
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1. Babbie, E. 2001. The Practice of Social Research: 9th Edition. Belmont, CA:
Wadsworth Thomson.
2. Basuki, Sulisttyo.2006.Metode Penelitian.Jakarta: Wedatama Widya
Sastra dan FIB Universitas Indonesia
3. Bery,L.Leonard& Valerry.Management Review. MitSloan. Accessed on
November 18th, 2015 from: sloanreview.mit.edu/
4. Creswell, W.John.1994. Researach Design: Qualitative & Quantitative
Approaches. London: SAGE Publications
5. Lester, D. James. 2004. Writing Research Papers: A Complete Guide.
Eleventh Ed.New York: Pearson Education, Inc.
6. Lynch, K. Brian.1996. Language Program Evaluation: Theory and
Practice.
USA: Cambridge University Press
7. Marshall, C., & Rossman, G.B. 1989. Designing Qualitative Research.
Newbury Park, CA: Sage
8. Maxwell, A.Joseph. 1996. Qualitative Research Design: An Interactive
Approach.Applied Social Research Methods Series. Vol.41. London:
SAGE Publications
9. Miles, M.B., & Huberman, A.M.1984. Qualitattive Data Analysis: A
Source Book of New Methos. Beverly Hills, C.A: sage
10. MitSloan Management Review Magazine posted Bery,L.Leonard,

Valerry
A.Zeithaml, and A. Parasuraman (1990).Accessed on Nov.4th, 2015
from:
http://sloanreview.mit.edu/article/five-imperatives-for-improving-
service- quality
11. Powell.L.Ronald.2006.Evaluation Research: An Overview. Accessed on
Nov.4th,2015 . From: https://muse.jhu.edu/journals/library
12. Rozakis, E.Laurie. The Complete Idiot’s Guide to Research Methods.
USA: Marie Buttler-Knight
13. Sharma, Anika.2012. What are the major functions of research?
Accessed on Nov.4th 2015. From : www.preservearticles.com
14. Stock, M.1985. A Practical Guide to Graduate Research. New York:
McGraw-Hill
15. The Writing Center-The University of Wisconsin-Madison.What is an
abstract? Retrieved on Nov.22nd, 2015
http://writing.wisc.edu/Handbook/presentations_abstracts.html
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CHAPTER II
TYPES OF RESEARCH
A. INTRODUCTION
Before you decide what kind of research you are going to conduct, you
need to be familiar with different types of researc. There are many types of
research studies, some conducted in
laboratories, and some in library or at
schools. Some studies are observational, while
others are "experimental" and involve
evaluating interventions. Each has a different
design and method, and each has its strengths
and limitations. The type of research question
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being asked will help determine the best type of research study to conduct.
Study design depends greatly on the nature of the research question. In other
words, knowing what kind of information the study should collect is a first
step in determining how the study will be carried out.
The descriptions below provide a basic overview of the different types of

research studies that can be used as the basis to make decision on what type of
research you want to conduct based on the issue or problem found in the
study of literature, linguistics, and language teaching.
In this chapter you will learn about general types of research, types of
researcn based on sites , types of research based on purpose, types of research
based on paradigm, and the differences between quantitative and qualitative
research.
1) Identify types of reseach in general

2) Classify types of research based on purpose
3) Classify types of research based on paradigm
4) Differentiate between quantitative and qualitative research
2.1. General Types of Research
2.1.1. Natural Science Research
Scientific method is developed from pre-

identification of a problem though
conclusion.This progress is done systematically,
meaning that a system is applied or used in the
methodology to ensure the right distance
between the researcher and the relevant parts
that are considered and covered. Maintaining
the distance is important for a researcher
because basically, he is searching for the truth and is not planned to prove his
belief or opinion.
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A researcher who looks after the distance until he draws conclusion based
on the evidences gained from the results of his research; and therefore, accept
the results whatever their forms. The distance maintenace can be seen from
the way of reporting the research. A research report needs to be complete and
accurate so it is possible for other researchers to repeat his research until it
reaches the same conclusion.
The common phases of scientific method are:
1) Recognizing the problem
2) Locating and defining the problem
3) Suggesting the solution for the problem (usually in the form of hypothesis)
4) Deductive thinking and consequency of hypothesis
5) Testing hypothesis
2.1.2. Social Research
Social research is the scientific study of

society. More specifically, social research
examines a society’s attitudes, assumptions,
beliefs, trends, stratifications and rules. The
scope of social research can be small or
large, ranging from the self or a single
individual to spanning an entire race or
country. Popular topics of social research include poverty, racism, class issues,
sexuality, voting behavior, gender constructs, policing and criminal behavior.
2.1.3. Humanities Research
Research in the humanities can take a variety

of forms; it might include studying language,
literature, philosophy, religion, culture, and
many other disciplinary and interdisciplinary
areas. The study of the humanities is often
described as the study of the human
experience. Researchers may interpret texts,
films, artworks, music, language, cultural
practices, and many other topics and questions.
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2.2. Types of Research based on Sites
2.2.1. Laboratory Research
Laboratory research is research that is

conducted in a room or room or building
equipped for scientific experimentation or
research. Laboratoryresearch attempts to
investigate naturally occurring behaviors
under controlled conditions with
manipulated variables. This allows for the
researcher to conclude causality between
two variables, which is difficult to establish
in natural settings without controlled conditions and manipulated variables.
2.2.2. Field Research
Field is concerned with establishing

relationships and testing theories in the
field setting and applying to other samples
of the population from which the research
subjects are taken. It sacrifices controls and
precision to some extent as compared with
fundamental research.
2.2.3. Library Research
Library research is conducted in a

library in a university, college, municipal,
or private library where people can
search catalogs, computers, stacks, book
or magazines looking for information on
all kinds of topics to include in theses.
2.3. Types of Research Based on Purpose
2.3.1. Pure or Basic Research
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Basic Research is termed as 'pure' or 'fundamental' research. It is aimed at

the discovery of basic truth or principles. It is not immediately concerned with
direct field application. Basic research emphasizes control and precision. To
quote Travers, 'Basic research is designed to add to an organised body of
scientific knowledge and does not produce results of immediate practical
value. It is carried out in the laboratory. A good deal of equipment and
apparatus is needed to carry out experiments.'(Anika, 2012) In short, basic
research isconcerned with the development of theory and discovery of
fundamental facts to extend the boundaries of knowledge.
2.3.2. Applied or Field Research
Applied or field research is the application

of new knowledge to everyday problems.
Primarily, applied research is concerned
with establishing relationships and testing
theories in the field setting and applying to
other samples of the population from which
the research subjects are taken. It sacrifices
controls and precision to some extent as
compared with fundamental research.
2.3.3. Action Research
Action research is research of specific

practical situations carried out by
practitioners, its purpose is to solve
clearly identified problems. Action
research is similar to applied research
in a lot of ways. In the present
situations action research has a good
deal of implications. The practitioners
apply it practically at the time of their
study. They do not follow the
traditional experiences or the guidelines and recommendations of experts.
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In action research the teacher or the practitioner can take up and solve
number of problems in a more systematic and scientific manner in the single
class-room. According to Corey in Anika (2012) Action research, is the process
by which practitioners attempt to study their problems scientifically in order
to guide, correct and evaluate their decisions and actions.
2.3.4. Evaluation Research
Evaluation research can be defined as a

type of study that uses standard social
research methods for evaluative
purposes, as a specific research
methodology, and as an assessment
process that employs special techniques
unique to the evaluation of social
programs.
Evaluation Research is carried out to assess the effectiveness of specific

projects to see if the original aims have been achieved.
2.4. Types of Research Based on Paradigm
Based on paradigm research can be categorized into quantitative research

and qualitative research. The quantitative is termed the traditional , the
positivist, the experimental, or the empiricist paradigm. The qualitative
paradigm, on the other hand, is termed the constructivist approach or
naturalistic (Lincoln & Cuba, 1985), the interpretative approach (J.Smith,1983),
or postpositivist or post modern perspective (Quantz,1992).
The Differences between Quantitative and Qualitative Research can be

easily recogized from the following :
Table 2.1 The Differences between Quantitative and Qualitative Research
Quantative Research Qualitative Research

1. Based on argument 1. Based on phenomenon
2. Focuses on results 2.Focuses on process
3.Numeric data 3.data in words, sentences or
utterances
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4.Data analysis is based on 4.data analysis is based on

formulas to answer hypotesis theories
5.data are presented in statistical 5.data are presented in essay
analysis
The contrasts between the two Paradigms (quantitative & qualitative) are
based on the different assumptions:ontological, epistemological,
axiological, rhetorical, and methodological approaches. (Creswell:1994,
p.4) It is important to understand these assumptions because they will provide
direction for designing all phases of a research study.
On the ontological issue, quantitative reseacher views reality as

“objective,” ”out there”independent of the researcher. Something can be
measured objectively by using a questionaire or an instrument. For the
qualitative researcher, the only reality is that constructed by the individuals
involved in the research situation. Thus, in qualitative research multiple
realities exist in any given situation: the researcher, those individuals being
investigated, and the reader or audience interpreting a study. The qualitative
researcher needs to report faithfully these realities and to rely onvoices and
interpretation of informants.
On the epistemological question, the

relationship of the researcher to what
being researched between the two
paradigms is also different.In the
quantitative approach the researcher
should remains distant and independent of
that being researched. Thus in survey and
experiments, researchers attempt to
control for bias, select a systematic sample,
and be “objective” in assessing a situation.
On the other hand, in qualitative approach reseachers interact with those

they study, whether this interaction assumes the form of living with or
observing informants over a prolonged period of time, or actual colaboration.
Shortly, the researcher tries to minimize the distance between him and those
being researched.
By axiological issue, the

researcher of quantitative approach
keeps his values out of the study, by
omitting statements about values
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from a written report, using impersonal language, and reporting the fact –
arguing closely from the evidence gathered in the study. In contrast,
qualitative researcher admits the value-laden nature of the study and actively
reports his values or biases, as well as the value of information gathered from
the field. Besides, the language of the study may be first person and personal.
Another distinction is the rhetoric, or the language of the research. When

a quantitative researcher writes a study, the language should be not only
impersonal and formal but also based on accepted words such as relationship,
comparison, and within-group. Concepts and variables are well-defined from
accepted definitions. Different words marks qualitative paradigm such as
understanding, discover, and meaning. Moreover, the language of qualitaive
studies is personal, informal, and based on definitions that evolved during a
study.
Table 2.2. Rhetorical Distinction between Quantitative & Qualitative

Research
Rhetorical Distinction between Quantitative

& Qualitative Research
Quantitative Words Qualitative Words
To relate To describe
To prove To identify
To compare To classify
To influence To discover
To improve To find out
To affect To explain
In methodology, a quantitative researcher uses a deductive form of

logic wherein theories and hypotheses are tested in a cause-and effect order.
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Figure 2.1 Deductive and Inductive form of Logic Distinguising

Quantitative
from Qualitative Research
Concepts, variables, and hypotheses are chosen before the study begins
and remain fixed throughout the study (in a static design). The intent of the
study is to develop generalizations that contribute to the theory and that
enable one to better predict, explain, and understand some phenomenon.
These generalizations are enhanced if the information and intruments used
are valid and reliable. Alternatively, in a qualitative study inductive logic is
used. Categories emerge from informants rather than are identified by the
researcher. Qualitative study provides rich “context-bound” information
leading to patterns or theories that help explain a phenomenon. The question
about the accuracy of the information may not surface in a study, or, if does,
the researcher talks about steps for varifying the information with informants
or “triangulating” among different sources of information, to mention a few
techniques available.
2.5. Reasons for Selecting a Paradigm
In quantitative studies, collecting

information and analizing data from surveys
or from instruments in an experimental
design involve a shorter period of time than
that required of qualitative design. Hence a
researcher who engages in a quantitative
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study seeks out this paradigm because it offers a low-risk, fixed method of
research without ambiguities and possible frustrations. This researcher also
would have a shorter time for the study.
Alternatively the qualitative design is one

in which the “rules”and procedures are not
fixed, but rather are open and emerging.
This design calls for an individual who is
willing to take the risks inherent in an
ambiguous procedure. This person, too,
needs to have time for a lengthy study, one
requiring at least a year for data collection
alone.
Certain problems may be better suited for quantitative tudies; others may
be possible for qualitative. For quantitative studies the problem evolves from
the literature, so a substantial body of literature exists on which the researcher
can build. Variables are known, and theories may exist that need to be tested
and verified.
For qualitative studies the research

problem needs to be explored because little
information exists on the topic. The
variables are largerly unknown, and the
researcher wants to focus on the context
that may shape the understanding of the
phenomenon being studied. In many
qualitative studies a theory base does not
guide the study because those available are
inadequate, incomplete, or simply missing.
Table 2.3. Reasons for Selecting a Paradigm
Criteria Quantitative Paradigm Qualitative Paradigm

Skills and experience Technical writing skills; Literary writing skills;
of the researcher computer statistical skills; computer text-analysis
library skills skills; library skills
Researcher’s Comfort with: rules and Comfort with: lack of
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Psychological guidelines for conducting specific rules and

Attributes research; low tolerance for procedures for
ambiguity; time for a conducting research;
study of short duration high tolrance for
ambiguity; time for
lengthy study
Nature of the problem Previously studied by Exploratory research;
other researchers so that variables unknown;
body of literature exists; context important, may
known variables; existing lack theory base for
theories study
C. EXERCISE
1. Explain 3 types of reseach in general!

2.Explain4 types of research based on purpose!
3.Explain 2 types of research based on paradigm!
4. Differentiate clearly between quantitative and qualitative research!
5. What skills are required when one wants to conduct:
a) a quantitative study?
b) a qualitative study?
D. ASSIGNMENT
Direction: Write the following assignment on a separate paper!
Find two different studies (preferably related to your future study). One is
a quantitative study and the other is qualitative study.Contrast them based
on the different assumptions: ontological,epistemological, axiological,
rhetorical, and methodological approaches
Format :Write your assignment on A4 paper using New Times Romance

font type size 12.
In general research is classified into Natural Science Research (one that

subscribes to scientific methods), Social Research and Humanities
Research.
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Social research is the scientific study of society that specifically examines a

society’s attitudes, assumptions, beliefs, trends, stratifications and rules.
Humanities Researchcan take a variety of forms; it might include studying

language, literature, philosophy, religion, culture, and many other
disciplinary and interdisciplinary areas. Researchers may interpret texts,
films, artworks, music, language, cultural practices, and many other topics
and questions.
Based on purposes, research can be categorized into basic or pure

research, applied or field research, Action research, and Evaluation
research.
Pure or basic research: concerned with the development of theory and

discovery of fundamentals facts to extend the boundaries of knowledge
Applied or field research: the application of new knowledge to everyday

problems
Action research is research of specific practical situations carried out by

practitioners, its purpose is to solve clearly identified problems.
Evaluation research can be defined as a type of study that uses standard

social research methods for evaluative purposes, as a specific
researchmethodology, and as an assessment process that employs special
techniques unique to the evaluation of social programs.
Based on paradigm research can be categorized into quantitative research

and qualitative research. The quantitative is termed the traditional , the
positivist, the experimental, or the empiricist paradigm. The qualitative
paradigm, on the other hand, is termed the constructivist approach or
naturalistic.
The contrasts between the two Paradigms (quantitative & qualitative) are
based on the different assumptions: ontological, epistemological,
axiological, rhetorical, and methodological approaches.
F. REFFERENCES

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Practice.
SAGE Publications
Valerry A.Zeithaml, and A. Parasuraman (1990).Accessed on Nov.4th,
2015 from:
service- quality
10. Sharma, Anika.2012. What are the major functions of research?
Accessed on Nov.4th 2015. From : www.preservearticles.com
CHAPTER III
FINDING A TOPIC OF RESEARCH
A. INTRODUCTION
Choosing a subject and finding a topic are

the first step of writing your research
paper. So, you must decide what subject to
research and write about. Nearly every
subject can be researched, but not every
subject should be researched. Subject
should be interesting and (if possible)
something new. Boring subject may lead to
boring research papers, too. So, in choosing
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a subject, you must also consider your audience.
What you are going to write is an undergraduate thesis, and it is of course

different from just an assignment that you turn in to your lecturer. Your
primary audience is likely to be your instructor, an advisor, and perhaps a
thesis committee who have considerable expertise in the field. They are
judging your paper and are the ones grading and evaluating it. Thus, you
should avoid insulting, degrading, or upsetting your audience by choosing
boring or inappropriate subjects. To help you choose the subject and find a
topic for your reseach, this chapter will discuss about subjects and topics.
After learning this chapter, students are expected to be able to:
1) distinguish between subjects and topics

2) Explain some considerations in choosing a subject
3) Write a topic for the research
4) formulate research statements based on the topic.
5) Explain four ways of generating ideas
6) Write an example of generating ideas by outlining
7) Write an example of generating ideas by clustering
3.1. Subjects vs Topics
A subject of study is the general content. They are broad and general. In
contrast, a topic of study is the specific issue being discussed.
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Sociolinguistics
accent,
registers, slang,
jargon, taboo
Figure 3.1. Illustration of Subjects and Topics
Look at the following examples:

◦
Subject Topic
Children’s literature Moral value and theme
Literary Criticism Psychological Criticism
Morphology (Linguistics) Inflection, Derivation
Sociolinguistics Gender, register, code-mixing
Pragmatics Speech act, Deixis, Maxim,
illocutionary, presupposition
Translation Equivalence, shift
Language Teaching Direct Method, CLT, TPR
Table 3.1. Examples of Subjects and Topics
3.2.Choosing a Subject
When choosing a subject you should consider the following:

1) Is it important? For whom? (for self, field of study, or society)
2) Is it interesting? Why? What is the logical reason?
3) How much do I know about it?
4) How difficult is it? Can I handle it?
5) Is it easy to find the reference? How can I find them?
3.3.Evaluating your subject
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Ask yourself these questions as you evaluate your subject

1) What subject interest you?
2) What subject can you handle it?
(You choose it because you like it and you can handle it)
3) What type of research will you do?
4) How much time do you have?
5) How long must your research be?
3.4. Finding a Topic
3.4.1. Speculating about Your Subject to generate Ideas and to Focus on

the Issues
At some point you may need to sit back,

relax, and use your imagination to
contemplate the issues and problems
worthy of investigation. According to
Lester (2004) Ideas can be generated in
the following way:
1) Free Writing
To free write, just focus on a topic and write whatever comes to mind. Do
not worry about grammar, style, or penmanship, but keep writing non-stop for
a page or so to develop valuable phrases, comparisons, personal anecdotes,
and specific thoughts that help focus issues of concerned.
2) Listing Keywords
Keep a list of words, the fundamental terms, that you see in the literature.
These can help focus the direction of your research.
Observe, for instance, the writer’s investigation into the role of war in
human history:
Prehistoric wars human nature

Remains of early victims religious sacrifices
Sacrificial victims noble savages
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Limited resources slaves

early weapons power
early massacres honor
These keywords can help in writing the rough outline.
3) Outlining
Writing a rough outline early in the project might help you see if the topic
has substance so you can sustain it for the length required. At this point, a
researcher needs to recognize the hierarchy of major and minor issues.
Prehistoric wars
Evidence of early brutality
Mutilated skeletons
Evidence of early weapons
Clubs, bows, slings, maces, etc.
Walled fortresses for defence
Speculations on reasons for war
Resources
Slaves
Revenge
Religion
Human nature and war
Quest to power
Biological urge to conquer
4) Clustering
Another method for discovering the hierarchy of your primary topics and
subtopics is to cluster ideas around a central subject. The cluster of related
topics can generate a multitude of interconnected ideas.
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Slaves
Resources Racial Pride
Reasons for
Honor Concubines
Prehistoric
Wars
Revenge Protect Trade

Gold and Routes
silver
Figure 3.2. Generating Ideas by Clustering

Source: Lester (2004, p.15)
5) Comparing
Comparison limits a discussion to a specific differences. Any two works,

any two persons, any two groups may serve as the basis for comparative study.
For example, Political scientists compare conservatives and liberals. Literary
scholars compare the merits of free verse and those of formal verse.
3.4.2.SomeWays to Think of a Research Topic
There are some ways to think of a research topic as follow:
1) Ask someone for consideration: friends, colleagues, seniors, lecturers

2) Search for previous studies
3) Develop some of your previous research or your practice at work
4) Start from a quotation that engages you ( study the theories first)
5) Relate it to your other interest
6) Think of a title
7) Follow your hunches
8) Identify the subjects you have learnt from previous semesters to get
alternative subjects and topics.
9) Draw yourself a picture or diagram
10) Identify the subjects you have learnt from previous semesters to get
alternative subjects and topics.
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11) Just start anywhere

12) Be prepare to change direction
3.5.Narrowing Your Topic
Figure 3.3. Pyramid of Narrowing Your Topic
Lester (2004) suggests that unlike a general subject, a scholarly topic should:
 Examine one narrow issue, not a broad subject.

 Address knowledgeable readers and carry them to another plateau of
knowledge.
 Have a serious purpose – one that demands analysis of the issues,
argues from a position, and explain complex details.
 Meet the expectations of the instructor and conform to the course
requirements. (p.12)
How can you make sure your topic is just right for your purpose and
audience?Ask yourself these questions as you evaluate your topic:
1) Is my topic still too broad? Check your sources. How many pages do
they devote tothe topic. If it takes otyher writers a book to answer the
question you have posed, your topic is still too big.
2) Is my topic too limited?Is the topic perfect for a 350 – 500 word essay? If
so, it’s too narrow for the typical research paper.
3) Is my topic tedious? If your topic does not light your fire before you
start writing, you can bet it will bore your readers.
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4) Is my topic too controversial? If you are afraid you are going to offend
your audience with your topic, don’t take the risk. Start with a new
topic that suits both your audience and purpose.
5) Is my topic one-sided? If there is only one opinion about your topic or
the vast majority of people think the same way as you do, there is no
point in arguing the issue.
3.6. Evaluating Your Topic
There are 12 issues to bear in mind when choosing a research topic:
1) How much choice you have

2) Your motivation
3) Regulations and expectations
4) Your subject or field of study
5) Previous examples of research
6) The size of your topic
7) The time availability you have
8) The cost of research
9) The resources availability you have
10) Your need for support
11) Access issues
12) Methods for researching
3.7. Possible subjects and topics
1) Literature
Subject Possible topics
Prose / Fiction Short story, short novel, novel
Poetry Narrative poetry, lyric poetry
Drama Comedy, tragedy, tragicomedy
Children’s Literature Picture books, comic books
Film & Literature Film adopted from novels,
biography books
Literary Criticism Biographical Criticism
Historical Criticism
Psychological Criticism
Sosiological Criticism
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2) Linguistics

Phonetics & phonology Vowels, consonants, minimal
pairs, phonemes, diphthongs,
allophones, accents
Morphology Derivation, compounding,
inflection, allomorphs
Syntax Deep structure, Surface structure,
clauses
Semantics & pragmatics Speech act, cooperative
principles,
presuppositions,implicature,
maxims
Sociolinguistics Dialects, slang, language &
gender, register, jargon, code-
mixing
3) Educational Studies

Language Teaching Methoddology Direct Method, Audio-lingual,
Communicative Approach, TPR,
Silent Way, Task-Based, etc.
Classroom management Teacher’s role, seating
arrangement
English for young learners Children’s level, language
acquisition
Educational management Leadership, ethics,
professionalism
Educational research Program evaluation, qualitative,
quantitative, experimental, case
study, quasi-experimental
Language testing Testing reading, writing,
listening, speaking
3.8. Researcheable or Unresearcheable Topics
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Next consider whether your topic is researchable. You need criteria for
making this decision. Below are questions often asked by individuals as they
plan a study:
1) Is the topic researchable, given time, resources, and availability of data?

2) Is there a personal interest in the topic in order to sustain attention
3) Will the results from the study be of interest to others? (e.g. in the
state, region, nation)
4) Is the topic likely to be publishable in a scholarly journal?(or attractive
to a doctoral committee)
5) Does the study (a) fill a void, (b) replicate, (c) extend, or (d) develop
new ideas in the scholarly literature?
6) Will the project contribute to career goals?
3.9. Writing a Thesis Statement
After you have narrowed your topic, it is time to turn your attention to
your thesis statement, what you are proving in your research paper. An
effective thesis statement ...
 State your main idea, the topic of your research paper.

 Reveals your purpose (to explain or persuade)
 Shows how your essay will be structured
 Is clear and easy to understand
 Is interesting and will intrigue your readers
As you draft your thesis statement, consider what you want to explain or
prove. Here are some terrific thesis statements:
 Much of the conflict between men and women results from their very
different way of using language.
 Fairy tales are among the most subversive texts in children’s literature.
 The brief economic boom of the 1920s had a dramatic impact on the US
economy.
 The Computer revolution has done more harm than good.
 Everyone wins with a flat tax: government, business, accountants, and
even consumers.
 There are striking similarities between 1920 and the present
Try several variations of your thesis statement until you have one that says
all you need to say. Remember that you are very likely to revise your thesis
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statement several times as you research, draft, and revise your paper. The
thesis statement is the central point you are proving in your research paper.
Following are some possible thesis statements. Some are persuasive, others,
expository.
Table 3.2. Topic and Thesis Statement
Topic Thesis Statement

Ancient African Kingdoms Ancient Ghana was the land of gold
of Ghana Or:
Ancient Ghana was the first of the great West
African trading empire
Rain forests Rain forest provide us with many irreparable
resources
Chocolate Chocolate has so many beneficial qualities
that can be considered a health food.
Personal Space Accepted distances for personal space are
determined by culture
Second-hand smoke Second-hand smoke is far less dangerous
than previously thought
Genetically engineered Genetically engineered food can help
food increase crops and alleviate hunger
When you write a research paper, you are attempting to find an answer to
the questions you have posed (or the one that has been given to you).
Remember that not all reseaarch questions lead to definitive answers. Rather,
some questions invite informed opinions based on the evidence you have
gathered from research. Dealing with questions that do not have definitive
answers can make your paper provocative and intriguing.
3.10. Focus for the Study
The focus for a study is the central concept being examined in a scholarly
study. It may emerge though an
extensive literature review, be
suggested by colleagues, researchers,
or advisors, or be developed through
practical experiences. Focus the topic
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by describing it succinctly,drafting a working title, and is considering whether

it is researchabe. Drafting a working title for the study will help focus the
direction of research.
Although some would suggest that the title be saved for last, a working
draft is reccommended to position the central concept before the writer at an
early stage.This working title will be modified as as one proceeds with a
project. Wilkinson in Creswell (1991) provided useful advise for creating a title:
Be brief and avoid wasting words. Eliminate unnecessary words such as “An
approach to...” and “A study of...” Use a single title or a double title. An
example of double title: “An Ethnography: Understanding a Child’s Perception
of War”.In addition to Wilkinson’s taught, consider a title no longer than 12
words, eliminate most articles and prepositions and make sure it includes the
focus or topic of the study.
3.11. Addressing the Readers
Your audience is the people who will read your thesis.Ask yourself this
question: What does my audience know about my topic?Your purpose is your
reason for writing. Ask yourself:What am I trying to accomplish? Am I
explaining or persuading? Knowing your audience can help you weigh your
research paper. Lester (2004) gave some suggestions when addressing the
readers:
1) Identifying your audience.Have you visualized your audience, its

expertise, and its expectations? Your perception of the readers will
affect your voice, style, and choice of words.
2) Identifying your discipline.Readers in each discipline will bring
differring expectations to your paper with regard to content, language,
design, and documentation format.
3) Meet the needs of your readers.Are you saying something worthwhile?
Something new? Do not bore the readers with known facts from an
encyclopedia. (This latter danger is the reason many instructors
discourage the use of an encyclopedia as a source)
4) Engage and even challenge your readers.Find an interesting or different
point of view. For example, a report on farm life can become a
challenging examination on chemical contamination because of
industrial sprawl into rural areas, and an interpretation of a novel can
become an examination of the prison system rather than a routine
discourse on theme or characterization.
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C. EXERCISE
1. What is the difference between subject and topic?

2. What shoud be considered when choosing a subject?
3. What is a title derived from? What are the characteristics of a good title?
4. Write research statements for the following topics:
a) e-learningb) conflict c) translation shift d) speaking skill
5. Set up a hierarchy or a cluster of keywords to build a topic!
D. ASSIGNMENT
Directions:Write the following assignment on a separate paper.
Write an outline to your background of the study. Start from the general
subject and narrow it to a more specific issue.Put the object of your study
in the last order.
Format: You should type your answer in the following format:

Paper : A4 Margin: left :4 cm, top: 4 cm, right: 3 cm, bottom: 3 cm
Font: Time New Romance Size 12
A subject of study is the general content; they are broad and general. In
contrast, a topic of study is the specific issue being discussed. Choosing a
subject should not only be based on your interest, but also on your
capacity.
To find a topic of your study, you can start by doing free writing, listing
the keywords, outlining, clustering, or narrowing by comparison.
When you write a research paper, you are attempting to find an answer to
the questions you have posed. Not all research questions lead to definitive
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answers. Some questions invite informed opinions based on the evidence

you have gathered from research. Dealing with questions that do not have
definitive answers can make your paper provocative and intriguing.
The focus for a study is the central concept being examined in a scholarly
study. Focus the topic by describing it, drafting a working title, and
considering whether it is researchabe.
Knowing your audience can help you weigh your research paper. When
addressing your readers you need to be able to identify your audience,
identifyyour discipline, meet the needs of your readers, and Engage and
even challenge your readers.
F. REFFERENCES

Practice.
SAGE Publications
CHAPTER IV
THE PURPOSE STATEMENT, RESEARCH QUESTIONS,
AND HYPOTHESES
A. INTRODUCTION
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In the previous chapter, you have learnt about how to choose a subject
and how to narrow your topic – that
is, the issue being discussed. In this
chapter, it is time to turn your
attention to your purpose statement,
research questions, and hypotheses
(in quantitative design), what you are
proving in your study.
The purposes of your study are an

essential part of your research design.
The word ‘purpose’ in a broad sense
includes your motivation, desire, and
goals – anything that leads you to do
the study or that you hope to accomplish by doing it. Without a clear sense of
the purposes behind your work, you are apt to lose your way or to spend your
time and effort doing things that won’t contribute to your goals in conducting
the research.These purposes serve two important functions. First, they help to
guide your other design decissions to ensure that your study is worth doing,
that you get out of it what you want. Second, they are crucial to justifying your
study, a key task of your proposal.
In addition, your research questions – what you specially want to

understand by doing your study – are the heart of your research design. They
are the one component that directly links to all of the other components of the
design. More than any other aspects of your designs, your research questions
will have an influence on, and should be responsive to, every part of your
study.
Research questions are not the same as research hypotheses. Research

questions state what you want to learn, while hypotheses are a statement of
your tentative answers to these questions. The use of hypotheses is more
compatible withe quantitative studies.
In chapter III you have learnt about how to choose a subject and how to
narrow your topic – that is, the issue being discussed. In this chapter, it is time
to turn your attention to your purpose statement, research questions, and
hypotheses (in quantitative design), what you are proving in your study.
At the end of this section, students are expected to be able to:

1) write the purpose statement of research
2) formulate research questions
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3) formulate hypotheses
4.1. The different between Personal, Practical, and Research Purposes
Before we go further to the main discussion of this chapter, it is useful to

distinguish between three different kinds of purposes for doing a study:
personal purposes, practical purposes, and research purposes.
Personal purposes are those that motivate you

to do this study; they can include such things as
a political passion to change some existing
situation, a curiousity about a specific
phenomenon or event, a desire to engage in a
particular type of research, or simply the need
to advance your career. These personal purposes
often overlap with your practical or research
purposes, but they may also include deeply
rooted individual desires and needs that bear
little relationship to the official reasons for doing the study.(Maxwell,1996)
The important thing about personal (and often unexamined) motives as

researcher is that they (the motives) have important consequeunces for the
validity of your conclusions. If your design decisions and data analyses are
based on personal desires without a careful assessment of the implications of
these for your methods and conclusions, you are in danger of creating a flawed
study. (Maxwell, 1996: 15)
Beside personal purposes, there are two other purposes which are more
public: practical purposes (including administrative and policy purposes), and
research purposes. Practical purposes are focused on accomplishing something
– meeting some need,changing some situation, or achieving some goal.
Research purposes, on the other hand, are focused on understanding
something, gaining some insight into what is going on and why this is
happening.
Both of these kinds of purposes are legitimate parts of your

design.However, they need to be distinguished, because although research
purposes are often a fruitful starting point for framing research questions,
practical purposes can rarely be used in this straightforward way. Research
questions need to be empirically answerable by your study, and question of the
form”How can this program be improved?” or “What is the best way to
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increase students’s understanding of science?” are not directly answerable by

any empirical research. Such questions have an inherent value component that
no amount of data can directly address. On the other hand, research questions
such as” What effect has this change had on the program?” or “What were the
consequences of these teaching methods for students’ understanding of
science? Not only potentially answerable, but they also dirctly contribute to
the practical purposes implied in the previous questions.
For these reasons, you need to frame your research questions in ways that
help your study to advance your purposes, rather than smuggling these
purposes into the research questions themseves, where they may give
coherence and feasibilit of your design. (Maxwell, 1996:17)
4.2. The Purpose Statement
The introduction focuses on the

problem leading to the study, but it is
the purpose statement that establihes
the direction for the research. In a
journal article the purpose statement
commonly is written into the
introduction; in a dissertation and a
dissertation proposal it stands as a
separate section. In an undergraduate
thesis it is written as a part of
introduction (Chapter I) and is stated
in the abstract.
According to Locke et al. in Creswell (1994), the purpose statement should

provide “ a specific and accurate synopsis of the overall purpose of the study”.
The construction of a good purpose statement is based on the paradigm of
study. Quantitative and qualitative purpose statements adress similar content,
but their precise form and language differe because of the rhetorical and
methodolical distinctins of each paradigm.
4.2.1. A Qualitative Purpose Statement
A fundamental characteristic of a good qualitative purpose statement is

that it implies or expresses the assumptions of the qualitative paradigm, such
as the language of qualitative research and the methodology of an emerging
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design based on experiences of individual in a natural setting (Merriam in

Creswell, 1994)
Several basic features of writing a qualitative purpose statement:
1) Use words such as: purpose, aim, intent, and objective to call attention
to this statement as the central controlling idea in a study. E.g. “The
purpose (or intent or objective) of this study is ...”
2) Use words that convey an emerging design because of the inductive
mode of the research in qualitative design. Such words as: to describe,
to understand, to develop, to discover.
3) Eliminate words in the purpose statement that suggest a directional
orientation of the study (e.g., succesful, minforming, useful). Also
refrain from using such words as: relationship, comparison, or
effectiveness, which convey a quantitative cause and effect or group
comparison methodology.
4) Clearly mention the central concept or idea being explored in the
study.Methodologically, in a qulitative study a central concept or idea is
being understood, discovered, or developed.
5) Provide a general definition of the central concept or idea. The idea is
to convey to readers a general sense of the key concept so that they can
better understand the study at an early juncture in the research plan.
6) Include words denoting the method of inquiry to be used in data
colection, analysis, and the process of research.
7) Mention the unit of analysis (e.g., individual, group) or research sites
(e.g., classroom, organization, event) for the study.
Following is an example of script that may help you construct a purpose

statement:
“The purpose of this study is ___ (to understand?describe?discover?) the

___(central concept being studied) for ____( theunit of analysis: a person?
processes? groups?sites? using a ____ (method of inquiry:ethnographic,
grounded theory, case study, phenomenological design?)...”
Examples of Qualitative Purpose Statements:
Example 1. A purpose Statement in a Phenomenology Study
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The focus of the present study was to explore distressing and nurturing
ecounters of patients with caregivers and to ascertain the meanings that
are engendered by such encounters. The study was conducted on one of
the surgial units of a 374-bed community hospital.
Example 2. A purpose Statement in a Case Study
The purpose of this study was to explore affective, social, and

educational factors that may have contributed to the development of
reading disabilities in four adolescents. The study also sought
explanation as to why students’ reading disabilities persisted despite
years of instruction.
Example 3. A purpose Statement in an Ethnographic Study
The analaysis that follows describes some of the situational properties,

the workign rules of the thumb, and the social and personal identities
that both characterize and define the informant game as it is played in
police agencies.
Example 4. A purpose Statement in a Grounded Theory Study
The primary purpose of this article is to present a grounded theory of

academic change that is based upon research guided by two major
research questions: What are the major sources of academic
change?What are the major processes through which academic change
occurs?
4.2.2. A Quantitative Purpose Statement
Quantitative purpose statement differ

considerably from qualitative model in terms of
the rhetorical and methodolical paradigm
assumptions. To properly write a quantitative
statement, one needs a firm understanding of
variables.
At this point it might be nuseful to review the

meaning and use of variables. A variable is a
discrete phenomenon that can be measured or observed in two or more
categories. (Kerlinger in Creswell, 1994). Variables could be gender, age, social
economic status (SES), or attitudes or behaviors such as racism, social
socialization. Because the phenomena vary (in two or more categories),they
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are called”variables”. Isaac and Michael in Creswell (1994) distinguish three

types of variables in social science research:
1) Independent variables – cause, influence, or affect outcomes.

2) Dependent variables – are dependent on the independent variables; they are
the outcomes or results of the influence of independent variables.
3) Intervening (also called nuisance orextraneous or mediating variables –
intervene between the independent and dependent variables; these variables
are statistically controlled in analyses.
The design of a quantitative purpose statement, therefore, begins with
identifying the proposed variables for a study (independent, intervening,
dependent), drawing a visual model to identify clearly this sequence, and
specifying the measurement for variables. Finally the intent of using the
variables quantitatively will be either to relate variables (as one typically finds
in a survey) or to compare samples or groups (as is commonly found in
experimental studies)
The major components of a good quantitaive statement include:

1) The use of a word such aspurpose, iintent, or objective to begin the passage.
2) Identification of the theory, model, or conceptual framework to be tested in
the study.
3) Mentioning the specific type of method of inquiry being used in the
study.(survey or experiment)
4) Stating whether the independent and dependent variables will be related or
whether two or more groups (as an independent variable) will be compared
in terms of the dependent variable(s).
5) Order the variables in the relationship or comparison sentence from
independent to dependent. In experiments, the independent variable is
always the”manipulated variable.
6) Refer to the unit of analysis in the study. Although quantitative designs are
more context free, it is useful to mention the subjects, population, or sample
being studied, as well as the number of individuals stududied.
7) Provide a general definition for each key variable in the study and use
established definitions.
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A quantitative purpose statement can be scripted as follows:
“The purpose of this ____(experimental?survey?) study is (was, will be)to

test the theory of ____that ____(compares?relates?) the ____(independent
variable) to ____(dependent variable) for ____(subjects? Sample?) at
______(the research site). Theindependent variable(s) ______ will be defined
generally as ______(provide a general definiition). The dependentvariable(s)
will be defined generally as _____(provide a general definition), and the
intervening variable(s), ______ (identify the interveniing variables) will be
statistically controlled in the study.
4.3. The Research Questions
4.3.1 Qualitative Research Questions
The research questions in a qualitative study should not be formulated in

detail until the purposes and context (and
sometimes general aspects of the
sampling and data collection) of the
design are clarified, and they should
remain sensitive and adaptable to the
implications of other parts of the design.
Often you will need to do a significant
part of the research before it is clear what
specific research questions you should try
to answer.
This does not mean that qualitative researchers should, or usually should
do begin a study with no questions, simply going into the field with an open
mind seeing what is there to be investigated. Every researcher begins with a
substantial base of experience and theoretical knowledge, and these inevitably
generate certain questions about the phenomena studied. These initial
questions frame the study in important way, influence decissions about
methods, and are one basis for further focusing and development of more
specific questions.
In a research proposal, the function of your research questions is to

explain specifically what your study will attempt to learn or understand. In
your reseach design, the research questions serve two other vital functions: to
help you to focus the study (the questions’ relationship to your purposes and
conceptual context) and to give you guidance on how to conduct it (their
relationship to methods and validity) (Miles & Huberman in Maxwell, 1996)
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A design in which the research questions are too general or too diffuse
creates difficulties both in conducting the study – in knowing what site or
informants to choose, what data to collect, and how to analyze these data –
and in clearly connecting what you do to your purposes and existing
knowledge.
On the other hand, it is possible for your questions to be too focused; they
may create tunnel vision, leaving out things that are important for the
purposes or context of the study. Research questions that are precisely frame
too early in the study may lead you to overlook areas of theory or prior
experience that are relevant to your understanding of what is going on; they
may also cause you to not pay enough attenntion to a wide range of data early
in the study, data that can reveal important and unanticipated phenomena
and relationship.
A common problem in developing research questions is a confusion

between research issues – what you want to understand by doing the study –
and practical issues – what you want to accompish. Preissle in Maxwell (1996)
states that distinguishing between the purpose and the research question is
the first problem in coming up with workable research questions. This may be
a more difficult task than you expect, because it forces you to focus on what
you don’t know about the phenomenon, rather than what you know or assume
that you know.
On the assumption that the researcher will write a grand tour question
and several subquestions, the following ideas for a qualitative study may prove
helpful:
1) Begin the research questions with the words what or how.

Tell your readers that the study will do one of the following:
 discover (e.g., grounded theory)
 explain or seek to understand (e.g., ethnography)
 explore a process (e.g., case study)
 describe the experiences (e.g., phenomenology)
2) Pose questions that use nondirectional wording. These questions
describe, rather than relate variables or compare groups. Delete words
that suggest or infer a quantitative study, words with a directional
orientation, such as affect, influence, impact, determine, cause, relate.
3) Expect the research questions to evolve and change during the study, a
thought also consistent with the assumption of an emerging design.
Often in qualitative studies the questions are under continual review
and reformulation (as in a grounded theory study). This is not possible
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in quantitative studies where questions remain fixed throughout the

study.
4) Use a single focus and specify the research site in the research
questions.
The following are examples of qualitative research questions drawing on

several types of designs:
Example 1. An Ethnography
How are (these) conceptions of social studies played out-or not played out
– in classroom practice? (a grand tour question) ....How is each setting
organized? (the beginning of subquestions) ... What kind of interpersonal
dynamics exist? How do students, cooperating teachers act?What
activities occur in each setting?What topics are discussed?and what
information, opinions, and beliefs are exchanged among the participants.
(Goodman & Adler in Creswell, 1994)
Example 2. A grounded Theory Study
(Two grand tour questions are presented)

What are the major sources of academic change?
What are the major processes through which academic change occurs?
(Conrad in Creswell, 1994)
4.3.2. Quantitative Research Questions and Hypotheses
In quantitative studies, researchers

present questions, hypotheses, and
objectives as either a comparison between
the two or more groups in terms of a
dependent variable or as a relationship of
two or more independent and dependent
variables. Researchers also write
descriptive questions to describe
responses to the independent or dependent variables.
Following are some general guidelines for writing quantitative research

questions:
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1) Develop the hypotheses, questions, or objectives from theory. In the

deductive methodological process of quantitative research, they are testable
propositions deduced from theory.(Kelinger,1979)
2) Keep the independent and dependent variables separate and measure them
separately.
3) Select one form-write questions, objectives, or hypotheses – but not a
combination. A hypothesis represents a declarative statement of the relations
between two or more variables. A research question also poses a relationship,
but phrases the relationship as a question.
4) If hypotheses are used, consider the alternative froms for writing them and
make a choice based on the audience for the research.
Traditionally in quantitaive studies the researchers use “null” hypotheses,

which simply state there is no significant
relationship between or among the
variables (e.g., There is no significant
difference in the accumulation of
resources and the productivity of
faculty).Alternatively, the researchers
may use the “directional”or “alternative”
hypothesis in which they posit a direction
for the relationship (e.g., The more the accumulation of resources, the more
productive the researcher). The alternative hypothesis is used if the literature
suggests a hypothesized direction for the variables.
There are four different types of hypothesis according to Creswell (1994):
1) Literary null hypothesis
2) Literary alternative hypothesis
3) Operational null hypothesis
4) Operational alternative hypothesis
The literary form means that the variables will be stated in abstract, concept-
oriented language; the operational form represents specific language.
Examples of hypotheses based on forms:
1) Literary null hypothesis

There is no relationship between support services and academic
persistence of nontraditional-aged college women.
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2) Literary alternative hypothesis

The more the nontraditional-aged college women use support
services, the more they will persist academically.
3) Operational null hypothesis

There is no relationship between the number of hours nontraditional-
aged college women use the student union and their persistence at the
college after their freshman year.
4) Operational alternative hypothesis

The more the nontraditional-aged college women use the student
union, the more they will persist at the college after their freshman
year.
Examples of Literary Alternative Hypotheses:
1) Publicly traded firms will have higher growth rates than privately held
firms.
2) State own firms will have a greater share of the domestic markets
than publicly traded or privately held firms.
Descriptive Questions:
1) How do the students rate on critical thinking skills? (A descriptive

question focuses on the independent variables.
2) What are the students’ achievement levels (grades) in science classes?
( A descriptive question focused on the dependent variables)
Multivariate Questions:
1) Does critical thinking ability relate to student achievement? (A

multivariate relating the independent and dependent variables).
2) Does critical thinking ability relate to student achievement,
controlling for the effects of prior grades in science and educational
attainment of the eight-graders’parents? (A multivariate question
relating the independent and dependent variables controlling for
the mediating effects of the two intervening variables.)
3)
Lester (2004:25) divides hypothesis into five types:
1) Theoretical Hypothesis:
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Discrimination against young women in the classroom, known as

“shortchanging” harms the women academically, socially, and psychologically.
Here the students will produce a theoretical study by citing literature

on “shortchanging”.
2) Conditional Hypothesis
Diabetes can be controlled by medication, monitoring, diet,and exercise.
Certain conditions must be met. The control will depend on the

patient’s ability to perform the four tasks adequately to prove the
hypothesis valid.
3) Relational Hypothesis
Class size affects he number of wrtitten assignments by writing instructors.
This type of hypothesis claims that as one variable changes, so does

another, or it claims that something is more or less than another. It
could be tested by examining and correlating class size and
assignments, a type of field research.
4) Causal Hypothesis
A child’s toy is determined by television commercials
This causal hypothesis assumes the mutual occurence of two factors

and asserts that factor is responsible for the other. The student who is a
parent could conduct research to prove or disprove the suppositon. A
review of the litarature might also serve the writer.
4.3.3. Hypotheses in Qualitative Design
As mentioned earlier that research questions

are not the same as hypotheses. Research
questions state what you want to learn, while
hypotheses are a statement of your tentative
answers to these questions.(Maxwell, 1996).
The use of explicit research hypotheses is
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often regarded as incompatible with qualitative research. There is no inherent

problem with formulating qualitative research hypotheses; the difficulty has
been partly a matter of terminology and partlt a matter of the inappropriate
application of quantitative standards to qualitative research hypotheses. (p.53)
Many qualitative researchers explicitly state their ideas about what is

going on as part of th process of theorizing and data analysis. These are often
called proposition rather than hypotheses, but they serve the same function.
)miles & Huberman in Maxwell, 1996)
The distinctive characteristic of hypotheses in qualitative research is that

they are generally formulated after the researchers has begun the study; they
are grounded in the data and are developed and tested in interaction with it ,
rther than being prior ideas that are simply tested against data.
C. EXERCISE
1. For a Qualitative Study, write two sets of grand tour questions followed by
another two subquestions.
2. What are the differences between qualitative and quantitative research in
terms of the way the research questions are formulated?
3. Write an example of:
a) Literary null hypothesis.
b) Literary alternative hypothesis
c) Operational null hypothesis
4. What do you know about independent, dependent, and intervening
variable(s)?
5. Write a purpose statement for:
a) a Phenomenology Study (qualitative)
b) an experimental study (quantitative)
D. ASSIGNMENT
1. Use the following script to write a purpose statement!
“The purpose of this study is ___ (to understand?describe?discover?) the

___(central concept being studied) for ____( theunit of analysis: a person?
processes? groups?sites? using a ____ (method of inquiry:ethnographic,
grounded theory, case study, phenomenological design?)...”
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2. For a quantitative Study, write two sets of questions:

a) In the first set, write descriptive questions about the independent
and dependent variables in the study.
b) In the second set, write questions that relate (or compare) the
independent variable(s) with the dependent variable(s)

Paper : A4Margin: left :4 cm, top: 4 cm, right: 3 cm, bottom: 3 cm
The different kinds of purposes for doing a study are: personal purposes,
practical purposes, and research purposes. Personal purposes are those
that motivate you to do this study; such as a political passion to change
some existing situation, a curiousity about a specific phenomenon or
event, a desire to engage in a particular type of research. Practical purposes
are focused on accomplishing something – meeting some need,changing
some situation, or achieving some goal. Research purposes, on the other
hand, are focused on understanding something, gaining some insight into
what is going on and why this is happening.
The construction of a good purpose statement is based on the paradigm of

study. Quantitative and qualitative purpose statements adress similar
content, but their precise form and language differe because of the
rhetorical and methodolical distinctins of each paradigm.
The design of a quantitative purpose statement begins with identifying the

proposed variables for a study (independent, intervening, dependent),
drawing a visual model to identify clearly this sequence, and specifying the
measurement for variables.
Many qualitative researchers explicitly state their ideas about what is

going on as part of th process of theorizing and data analysis. These are
often called proposition rather than hypotheses, but they serve the same
function.
The distinctive characteristic of hypotheses in qualitative research is that

they are generally formulated after the researchers has begun the study;
they are grounded in the data and are developed and tested in interaction
with it , rther than being prior ideas that are simply tested against data
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F. REFERENCES
1. Anderson, M.L. and Taylor, H.F. 2009. Sociology: The Essentials. Belmont,
CA: Thomson Wadsworth.
2. Babbie, E. 2001. The Practice of Social Research: 9th Edition. Belmont, CA:
Wadsworth Thomson.
6. Kvale, S. (1996). InterViews: An Introduction To Qualitative Research
Interviewing. Sage Publications.
SAGE Publications
Valerry
from:
service- quality
Nov.4th,2015 . From:https://muse.jhu.edu/journals/library
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CHAPTER V
FINDING SOURCES FOR RESEARCH
A. INTRODUCTION
To write an effective research paper, you should follow a clear method of

organization, show evidence of your
original thinking, support your
study thesis with authorative
evidence which is presented as
either direct quotations,
paraphrases, or summaries, give
credit for all evidence in the correct
format, and include a work cited
page. For this purpose, to start with,
you need to be able to make use of
different sources for research.
There are a lot of sources to choose from, such as websites, books, reference
books, periodicals (magazines and newspapers), journals, goverment
documents, surveys, and interview.Those sources can be categorized into
primary sources and secondary sources.
Besides Primary and Secondary Sources, there are also Tertiary Sources.
There are also Tertiary Sources which contain information that has been
compiled from primary and secondary sources. Tertiary sources include
almanacs, chronologies, dictionaries and encyclopedias, directories,
guidebooks, indexes, abstracts, manuals, and textbooks. However, our
discussion will focus mainly on the primary and secondary sources. It is
important to know the distinctions between these two types because each one
has its advantages and its disadvantages.
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By the end of this session, students are expected to be able to:
1) mention or give examples of primary and secondary sources for

research.
2) differentiate the primary sources from secondary sources.
3) explain the strengths and weaknesses of primary and secondary
sources.
4) write examples of writing primary and secondary sources
5.1. Primary Versus Secondary Sources
Primary Sources versus Secondary Sources. What must a researcher do? All
sources are suspect until
verified.(Rozakis,2004). This concept
is so important to the success of your
study. As explained briefly in the
introduction there are numerous
sources for research that can be
classified into primary and
secondary sources.
Effective research papers often use a mix of both primary and seconndary
sources. For example, a research paper arguing the beneficial effects of e-
learning might include primary sources such as survey or interviews with
students and lecturers as well as secondary sources such as scientific studies,
scholarly websites, and journal articles on the subject. When using secondary
source, you will, of course, have to evaluate each source individually.
Some topics, in contrast, require more of one type of material than the
other. Always check with your lecturer or advisor before you start your
research to see what mix of primary and seconday materials he or she requires
you to use.
5.1.1. Primary Sources
A primary source provides direct or

firsthand evidence about an event, object,
person, or work of art. Primary sources
provide the original materials on which
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other research is based and enable students and other researchers to get as
close as possible to what actually happened during a particular event or time
period. Published materials can be viewed as primary resources if they
come from the time period that is being discussed, and were written or
produced by someone with firsthand experience of the event.
Often primary sources reflect the individual viewpoint of a participant or

observer. Primary sources can be written or non-written (sound, pictures,
artifacts, etc.). In scientific research, primary sources present original
thinking, report on discoveries, or share new information.
Primary sources are created by dirrect observation. The writerparticipated

in or observed the events they describe. Primary sources include the following:
1) Autobiography
An autobiography is information about

one's
own life written by that one person. In
it, it
tells what that person's life is all about.
2) Diaries
Diaries are a record (originally in

handwritten format) with discrete
entries arranged by date reporting on
what has happened over the course of a day or other period.
Diaries undertaken for institutional purposes play a role in many

aspects of human civilization, including government records (e.g.,
Hansard), business ledgers and military records. Schools or parents may
teach or require children to keep diaries in order to encourage the
expression of feelings and to promote thought.
3) Eyewitness accounts
A person who actually sees some act, occurrence, or thing and can give
a firsthand account of it is called an eyewitness: e.g. There were two
eyewitnesses to the murder. to view with one's own eyes : to eyewitness
a murder. Eyewitness Accounts is a description given by someone who
was present at an event ⇒ dramatic eye-witness accounts of the
fighting.
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4) Experiments (especially scientific experiments)

Experiment is a proceduredone in order to discover or demonstrate
somefact or generaltruth.
5) Government documents
A government document is an official publication of a government
agency, whether it is international, federal, state, county or city. What
you may consider typical government documents such as laws, codes,
rules and regulations, census publications, etc., are only a small portion
of the government's collection.
5) Historical records and documents
Historical records are writing having historical value (as opposed to

fiction or myth etc.)Synonyms:historical document, historical paper
Type ofl: account, chronicle, history, story a record or narrative
description of past events. (www.vocabulary.com)
6) Interviews
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An interview is a conversation between two or more people where

questions are asked by the interviewer to elicit facts or statements from
the interviewee. Interviews are a standard part of qualitative research
7) Journals
A journal is a scholarly publication

containing articles written by
researchers, professors and other
experts. Journals focus on a specific
discipline or field of study. Unlike
newspapers and magazines, journals
are intended for an academic or
technical audience, not general readers
8) Surveys
Surveys are a method of gathering

information from individuals. Surveys
have a variety of purposes, and can be
conducted in many ways. Surveys may
be conducted to gather information
through a printed questionnaire, over
the telephone, by mail, in person, by
diskette, or on the web.
Other primary sources include:

Letters, oral histories, maps prepared by direct observaion, photos
taken at the scene
5.1.2 Secondary Sources
Secondary sources are written by

people with indirect knowledge.
These writers had to rely on
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primary sources or other secondary sources for their information. Secondary

sources include the following:
1) Abstract
An abstract is a concise summary of a larger project (a thesis, research

report, performance, service project, etc.) that concisely describes the
content and scope of the project and identifies the project's objective,
its methodology and its findings, conclusions, or intended results.
2) Almanacs
An almanac is an annual publication that contains a wealth of

information about the forthcoming year. Weather predictions, best
dates for planting crops, dates of eclipses, times of tides and farmers'
planting dates are all pieces of information found in an almanac
3) Biographies
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Biographyis a form of literature, commonly considered nonfictional,

the subject of which is the life of an individual.
4) Book reviews
A book review is both a description and an evaluation of a book. It

should focus on the book's purpose, contents, and authority. A
boigraphy provides a seconhand view of the life of a notable person.
5) Encyclopedias
An encyclopedia is a book or set of books giving information on many

subjects or on many aspects of one subject and typically arranged
alphabetically.
6) Literary criticim
Literary criticism is the evaluation, analysis, description, or
interpretation of literary works. It is usually in the form of a critical
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essay, but in-depth book reviews can sometimes be considered literary

criticism. Criticism may examine a particular literary work, or may look
at an author's writings as a whole.
Other secondary sources includeNewspaper and magazine articles, and

Textbooks (some textbooks may contain primary sources), a report on a
pressidential speech, a review of new scientific findings, an analysis of a poem.
A history bookcan also be secondary source as it interprets events. Do not
qeuote liberally from secondary from secondary sources. Be selective. Use a
well-worded sentence, not the entire paragraph.
Lester (2004) comments that the subject area of a research paper

determines in part the nature of the source materials. Use the following chart
as a guide:
Table 5.1. Citing from Primary and Secondary Source
Citing from Primary and Secondary Source
Primary Sources Secondary sources

Literature Novels, poems, plays, short Journal aricles, reviewers,
stories, letters, diaries, biographies, critical books
manuscripts, films about writers and their
autobiographies, videos of works
live performances
Government, Speeches, writings by Newspaper reports, news
political presidents and others, the magazines, political jornals
science, congressional records, and newsletters, journal
history reports of agencies and articles, history books
departments, documents
written by historic figures
Social Case studies, findings from Commentary and
science surveys and questionaires, evaluations in reports,
reports of social workers, documents, journal articles,
psychiatrists and lab books
technicians
Sciences Tools and methods, Interpretations and
experiments, findings from discussion of test data as
tests and experiments, found in journals and
observations, discoveries, books (scientific books,
and test patterns which are quickly dated,
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are less valuable than up-

to-date journals)
Fine Arts Films, paintings, music, Evaluations in journal
sculptures, as well as articles, critical reviews,
reproductions and synopses biographies, and critical
of these designed for books about the authors
research purposes and their works
Business Market research and testing, Discussion of the business
technical studies and world in newspapers,
investigarytions, drawings, business magazines,
designs, models, journals, government
memorandums an dletters, documents, and books
computer data
Education Pilot studies, term projects, Analysis and evaluation of
sampling results, tests and educational
test data, surveys, experimentation iin
interviews, observations, journals, pamplets, books,
statistics, and computer data and reports
5.1.3. Examples of writing Primary Sources and Secondary Sources
Table 5.2 Examples of writing Primary Sources and Secondary Sources
Primary Source Secondary Source

Lincoln's Gettysburg Address "Lincoln at Gettysburg: the Words
That Remade America" by Gary
The poem "Human Chain" by Wills
Seamus Heaney "His Nibs: Self-Reflexivity and the
Significance of Translation in
Seamus Heaney's Human Chain." by
Michael Parker in Irish University
The table "Number of Offenses Review (November 2012), pp. 327-350.
Known to the Police, Universities An article in the Ithacan entitled
and Colleges" in the FBI's "Study Finds Eastern Colleges Often
Uniform Crime Reports, 2012 Conceal Campus Crime"
Mackey, S., Carroll, I., Emir, B.,

Murphy, T., Whalen, E., & Vance, E. (2014). Where Does It
Dumenci, L. (2012). Sensory pain Hurt?. Discover, 35(4), 28-30.
qualities in neuropathic [an article in a magazine that
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pain. The Journal Of Pain, 13(1), includes quotes from Sean Mackey,
58-63. author of the peer reviewed article
on pain]
Source: http://ithacalibrary.com/sp/subjects/primary
5.1.4. Strengths and Weakness of Primary and Secondary Source
The word “primary” may make you think that primary sources are better
than secondary sources. However, both primary and secondary sources
have their strengths and weaknesses as can be seen from the following
charts:
Strengths and Weakness of Primary Sources
Table 5.3. Strengths and Weakness of Primary Sources
Primary Sources
Strengths Weaknesses
1) May provide facts not 1) May be affected by author’s bias
available from other sources
2) Often have an immediacy and 2) May lack critical distance
freshness not available from
other sources
3) Present thrill of discovery 3) May contain inaccuracies
Strengths and Weakness of Secondary Sources
Table 5.4. Strengths and Weakness of Secondary Sources
Primary Sources
Strengths Weaknesses
1) May offer a broader perspective 1) Tend to be less immediate
than primary sources
2) May be easier to use because of 2) May be affected by author’s bias

editing, footnotes, and indexes
3) May resolve inaccuracies 3) May contain inaccuracies
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Besides Primary and Secondary Sources above, there are also Tertiary
Sources. Tertiary Sources contain information that has been compiled from
primary and secondary sources. Tertiary sources include almanacs,
chronologies, dictionaries and encyclopedias, directories, guidebooks, indexes,
abstracts, manuals, and textbooks.
5.2. Reading and Evaluating the Best Source for Your Study
A research paper requires you to bring outside sources into your paper, so
it only makes good sense to choose the most relevant, reliable, and well-
written sources you can find. While researching and writing, you are entering
the intellectual discussions in numerous places ranging from printed sources
such as books, journals, newspaper articles to online materials. Sometimes,
however, questions arise during your reading such as:
 How do I find the best, mostappropriate sources?
 Should I read all or just part of a source?
 How do I respond to it?
One answer to all three questions is: Be skeptical and cautious. Don’t accept
every printed words as the truth. Constantly review and verify to your own
satisfaction the words of your sources, especially those taken from electronic
publication. It is wise to consider every article in the Internet as suspect until
you verify its sponsorsing organization and scholarly intent. You have two
important task: First, you must read and personaldly evaluate the sources for
your own benefit as a writer, and second, you must present them to yur
readers in your text as validated and authentic sources
5.2.1. Finding the Best Source Materials
Your Lecturers. Do not hesitate to ask your lecturer for help in finding
sources. Lecturers know the field, know the best writers, and can provide a
brief list to get you strarted. Sometimes lecturers will even (if you are lucky)
pull books from their office shelves to give you a starting point.
Librarian.The college library provides the scholarly sources – the best books,
certainly, but also the appropriate databases and the important journals in
your field of study.
The date.Try to use the most recent sources. A book may appears new to your
work, but if its copyright date is 1920, the content has probably been replaced
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by recent research and current development.Scientific and technical topics

always require up-to-date research.
Choices. List the priorities from the most excellent sources to less reliable
sources.
1. Scholarly book
2. Biography
3. Scholarly Article
4. Sponsored Website
5. Interview
6. Experiment, Test, Observation
7. Trade Book
8. Encyclopedia
9. Popular Magazines
10. Newspaper
11. Listserve posting
12. Individual Website
13. Usenet news group posting
14. Internet chat conversation
Scholarly book
A college library is a repository for scholarly books – technical and scientific
works, publications of university presses, and textbooks. These sources offer
in-dept discussions and careful documentation of the evidence.
Biography
The librarian can help you find an approariate printed biography from among
thousands available.
Scholarly Article
A scholarly article usually appears in a journal you can access through the
library’s databases. With a journal article, you may feel confident in its
authenticity because the authors of journal articles write for academic honor,
they document all sources, and they publish through university presses and
academic organizations that use a jury to judge an article before its
publication. Thus, a journal article about child abuse found iin Child
Development or in Journal of Marriage and the Family should be reliable, but
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an article about chid abuse in a popular magazine may be less reliable in its
facts and opinions.
Usually, but not in every case,you can identify a journal in these ways:
1) The journal does not have a colorful cover, in fact, the table of contents
is often displayed on the cover
2) No colorful drawings or photography introduce each journal article, just
a title and the name of the author(s)
3) The word “journal” often appears in the title (e.g. The Journal of
Sociology)
4) The yearly issues of a journal are bound into a book
5) Usually, the pages of a journal are numbered continuouslyy through all
issues for a year.
Interview
Interviews with knowledgeable people provide excellent information for a
research paper. Whether conducted in person, by telephone, or by email, the
interview brings a personal, expert perspective to yor work.
Experiment, Test, and Observation

Gathering your own data for research is a staple in many fields, especially the
sciences. An experiment will bring primary evidence to yor paper as you
explain your hypothesis, give the test results, and discuss the implications of
your findings.
Trade Book
Designed for commercial consumption, trade books seldom treat with depth a
sholarly subject. Trade Books have specific targets –the cook, the gardener, the
antique dealer. In gblicateneral, trade books receive no rigorous prepubication
scrunity like taht of scholarly books and textbooks.
Encyclopedia
By design, encyclopedias contain brief surveys of well-known persons, events,
places, and accomplishments. They will serve you well during preliminary
investigation, but most instructors nprefer that you go beyond encyclopedias
in order to cite from scholarly books and journal articles. Encyclopedoas
seldom have the critical perspective you can gain from books and journal
articles.
Popular Magazines
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Like trade books, magazines have a targeted

audience – young women, wrestling fans,
computer connoisseurs, travelers. The articles are
written rather quickly and seldom face critical
review by a panel of experts. Therefore, exercise
caution when reading a popular commercial
magazine. However, some magazines target in
intellectual audience and thereby have a superior
quality with academic merit; these include
Atlantic Monthly, Scientific Review, Astronomy, Smithsonian, Discover,
NewYorker. In general, college libraries house the intellectual magazines , but
they can also be found at most chain bookstores.
Newspaper
In the main, newspapaer reporters write under

the pressure of deadlines. Seldom do they
have the time for careful research, and many
articles receive no copyediting or peer review.
Occasionally, a feature reporter will build a
series of articles on a complex topic, and these
often have merit.
Thus, newspaper articles must be used only
after cautionary and critical evaluation.
Listserve
E-mail information via listserve deserves

consideration when it focuses on an academic
issue, such as British Roamantic literature, or
more specially , Shelley’s poetry. In many
cases, listserve originate from a college or
scholarly organization. In fact, many instructors
establish their own listserve sites for individual
classes. Online courses usually feature a listserve site for exchange of ideas and
peer review. Caution: Use the listserve to generate ideas, not as a source for
facts to use in quotations.
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Individual Web Site

A person’s home page provides a publication medium for anybody who
presumes to knowledge they do or do not possess. You cannot avoid home
pages because they pop up on search engines, but you can approach them with
caution.
Usenet
Usenet newsgroups post information on a site. Like call-in radio shows, they
invite opinions from a vast cross section of people, some reliable and some
not. In most cases, participants employ a fake pseudonymous username,
rendering their ideas useless for a documented paper.
Internet Chat Conversation

Chat rooms have almost no value for academic research. In most cases, you do
not even know who you are chatting with, and the conversations are seldom
about scholarly issues.
5.2.2. Reading All or Part of a Source
Confronted by several books and

articles, many writers have trouble
determining the value of materials
and the contribution it will make to
the research paper. To save time, you
must be selective in your reading. To
serve your readers, cite only carefully
selected material that is pertinent to
the argument. To void the loss of
your own voice, do not dump large blocks of quotation into the paper.
5.2.2.1. Reading Key Parts of an Article
When reading articles, look closely

to the following parts that look
promissing:
1) The title.Look for the words that

have relevance to your topic before
you start reading that article.
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2) An abstract.Reading an abstract is the best way to ascertain if an essay or a

book will serve your specific needs. Some are available at the beginning or
printed articles; other are provided by abstracting services (e.g.
psychological abstract). Most articles found through the library’s databases
will feature an abstract that you should read before printing or downloading
the entire article.
3) The opening paragraph(s).If the opening of an article shows no relevance

to your study, abandon it.
4) The closing paragraph(s)If the opening of an article seems promising,
skim
the closing for relevance.
5) The author credits. Learn something about the credentials of the writer.
Magazine articles often provide brief biographical profiles of authors. Journal

articles and Internet home pages generally include the author’s academic
affiliation and credentials.
5.2.2.2. Reading Key Parts of a Book
A book requires you to survey several

items beyond those listed on 5.2.2.1 for
articles. When reading a book pay
attention to the following key parts:
1) The table of contents. A book’s table
of contents may reveal chapters that
pertain to your topic. Often, only one
chapter is useful.
2) The book jacket, if one is available.
For example, the jacket to Richard
Ellmann’s Oscar Wilde says:
Ellmann’s Oscar Wilde has been almost twenty years in the work, and it will stand,
like his universally admired James Joyce, as the definitive life. The book’s emotional
resonance, its riches of authentic color and conversation, and the subtlety of its
critical illuminations gives dazzling life to this portrait of the complex man, the
charmer, the great playwrite, the daring champion of the primacy of art.
Such information can stimulate the reading and notetaking from this
important book.
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3) The foreword, preface, or introduction. An author’s preface or

introduction serves as a critical overview of the book, pinpointing the
primary subject of the text and the particular approach taken. For
example, Ellmann opens his book Oscar Wilde by saying:
Oscar Wilde: we have only to hear the great name to anticipate that what will be
quoted as his will surprise and delight us. Among the writers identified with the
1890s, Wilde is the only one whom everyone still reads. The various labels that have
been applied to the age – Aestheticim, Decadence, the Beardsley period – ought
not to conceal the fact that our first association with it is Wilde, refulgent, majestic,
ready to fall.
This introduction describes the nature of the book: ellmann will portray
Wilde as the dominating literary figure of the 1890s. A foreword is ofen
written by somebody other than the author. It is often insightful and
worthy of quotation.
4) The index.A book’s index lists names and terms with the page on which
they are mentioned within the text. For example, the index to Oscar Wilde
lists about eighty items under The Picture of Dorian Gray, among them:
homosexuality and, 312, 318

literature and painting in, 312 – 131
magazine publication of, 312, 319, 320
possible sources for, 311
underlying legend of, 314 – 315
An index, by its detailed listing, can determine the relevance of the book
to your research.
5.2.2.3. Reading Key Parts of an Internet Article
The techniques listed above for

periodical articles (5.2.2.1) apply also to
Internet articles. In addition, examine:
1) The home page, if there is one.
Prefer sites sponsored by universities
and
professional organizations.
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2) The hypertext links to other sites whose quality can be determined by the
domain tags: .edu, .org, .gov.
5.2.3. Evaluating Your sources
Now that you have gathered all your sources, it is time for you to to take
notes on the good material. How can you tell that your sources are good for
your paper?
Follow the following steps to evaluate your sources:

1) Evaluate your sources
2) Choose Whether or not to Include the Source
3) Decide what notes to write
1) Evaluate your sources
Use only the best databases for research. Data bases for periodicals
literature available through library portals will give you the highest-quality
magazine, newspaper, and journal articles. Because the articles have been
vetted. Vetted material has been read and reviewed for inclusion. Databases
that are vetted are composed of carefully selected high-quality articles and
information.This means that someone has sifted through the articles and
chosen the most authorative, best written, and reliable ones to include.
Naturally, these databases are not free because the company that compiled
them has to recoup its research investment. Libraries purchase these databases
and make them available to its patrons free of charge. Thus, because these
databases are very costly, you cannot access them through free search engines
such as google.com. You must access them through the library portals.
2) Choose Whether or not to Include the Source
The research supports your point and helps you make new connections
among ideas. No matter how many sources you use, their purpose remains the
same: to help you support your thesis. Keep this in mind as you decide what to
include.
Use the following criteria to determine whether a source is valid for

inclusion in your research paper:
a. Authority
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b. Source
c. Timelines
d. Bias
e. Purpose
f. Appropriateness
a.Authority
Do not believe that all sources are created equal, because it is just not so.
Some sources are more equal than others. That is because they were prepared
with greater care by experts in the field and have been reviewed by scholars,
teachers, and others we respect for their knowledge of the subject. Do not be
afraid to make value judgments about the source materials you find. Some
sources are more reliable than others. As a result, they carry greater authority
and will help you make your point in your research paper. Use the following
checklist to weigh the authority of material you are using:
1) Is the author named?Unless you are working with an encyclopedia

article or an editorial, the author should be credited in a byline. Be
suspicious of sources that do not have author’s name. Ask yourself,
“Why wouldn’t the author be named?” Likely, the author is not a
recognized expert or may even want to keep his or her identity secret
because of a bias. Or, the author may not know much about the topic at
all.
2) Are the author’s credentials included? Look for an academic degree,

an e-mail address at a college or university, a byline in a reputable
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newspaper, and/or a list of publications. If this information is not

included, it is a tip-off that the author does not have the appropriate
credentials.
3) Based on this information, can you conclude that the writer is

qualified to write on this subject?For example, is the person an
expert or an eyewitness to the events described in the source? If not,
why would you waste your time reading the article?
4) Does the person have a good reputation in this field? Seek out
publications by authors who are well-respected as scholars in the field.
You can check a person’s reputation in reference sources such as Who’s
Who or Something About the Author. Look on the web to find articles
about the writers, interview with them; and reviews of their other
publications.
5) Was the source well reviewed by other recognized authorities in

the field?Many sacholarly books and publications are reviewed in well-
respected magazines, journals, and newspapers. If the book was not
reviewed, it is minor at best, untrustworthy at worst.
6) Is the source complete, or have certain facts been cut for their
controversial nature or for space limitations?Be very wary of
sources that have been cut. What information or visual was cut...and
why?
7) Does the author document his or her claims with other source
materials?If not, stay away from the source because it is not credible. If
the writer’s claims cannot be backed up, do not trust the writer’s
assertions.
8) Are the source credible?Be suspicious of sources that claim to have

the “secret” or “inside tract” on a subject. If you cannot find the same
information in other sources, the material does not hold up to scrunity.
b) Source
As you evaluate the materials you locate,consider where the source comes
from, its sponsoring agency, publisher, and so on.For example, portable
sources such as encyclopedias on CD-ROMs, are like printed books – they have
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credited writers and publishers. In addition, they change only when a new
version is issued.
Online sources, in contrast, may be published anonymously, so you cannot
evaluate the writer(s). Also, they can be updated and revised without
notification. Most frustrating of all, the website may vanish without warning.
This makes it diffult to evaluate its reliability as well as its origin.
Ask yourself these questions as you consider the source of a reference piece:
 Can I find the source of this reference piece?
 Is the sorce reputable? The best sources are well-kknown, they appear
on lists of “recommended” books or sites.
 Does the piece come from a place known for its authority, such as a
reputable publisher or sponsored website?
c. Timelines
If you are writing a research paper on a very current topic, the date of the
book publication or online posting is crucial, because you are going to need
some contemporary data. But you are also likely to include some traditional,
“classic” reference material to give your paper the weight and authority it
needs. To find reference materials that have withstood the test of time, ask
academic librarians.
d. Bias
Every source is biased, because every source has a point of view. Bias is not
necessarily bad, as long as you recognize it as such and take it into account as
you evaluate and use the source. For example, an article on hunting published
in Field and Streamis likely to have a very different slant than an article on the
same subject published in Vegetarian Times. Bias in reference sources can take
many forms. Here are some of the most common bias:
1) Writers make bogus claims.

A claim can be considered bogus, or false, when the speaker promises
more than he or she can deliver. For example, the writer may speak
vaguely of “many important eexperiments”, or “ recent clinical studies”
to prove a point. Effective research sources use specific support – not
just vague references to unidentified studies and sources. You cannot
evaluate”many important experiments”, or “recent clinical studies”
unless you know how they were undertaken, by whom, where the
results were published.
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2) Writers use loaded terms.

A term becomes loaded when it is asked to carry more emotional
weight than its context can legitimately support. As a result, it becomes
slanted or biased. These sources are often not reliable. Words with
strong connotations (emotional responses) often show bias. For
example, a writer may refers to the governor’s “regime” rather than
“administration”. “Regime” is a loaded term because it is used to
describe oppresive military dictatorships.
3) Writers misrepresent the facts.

This type of bias takes many forms. First, a writer or speaker can lie
outright. Or, a writer may be more subtle, inventing false data or
“facts”. In addition, dishonest writers often twist what their opponents
have said. To misrepresent this way, they use oversimplification. A
complex argument can be reduced to ridicule in a slogan or an
important element of an argument can be skipped over.
You can partly evaluate the bias of an online source by its suffix, the last
part of its URL.
Table 5.5. Online Source Suffixes of URL and Meanings
Suffix Meaning
.com Commercial
.edu Education (academic site)
.gov Government
.int. International organization
.mil Military organization
.net Internet administration
.org Other organizations, including
nonprofit, non-academic
.sci Special knowledge newsgroup
Source: Rozakis (2004, p.200)
Each site has its own bias. A business site will have a different slant than a
university site, for example. Any company that wants to stay in business
will want to sell you a product or a service, while a university is probably
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seeking to disseminate knowledge. As a result, knowing the source of site

can help you evaluate its purpose and assess any possible bias.
Bias has another aspect when it comes to web. Books do not have ads, and
most of skim magaazine ads. But websites can have commercial intrusions.
Not only are some websites filled with ads, the ads can also flick on and off
in search engines. This makes them hard to ignore.
e. Purpose
Different sources are written for different reasons. The following chart
summarizes some of the most common purposes you will encounter.
Rozakis (2004) lists them in hierarchy from most to least reliable:
Table 5.6. Hierarchy of Sources from the Most to the Least Reliable
Source Purpose Authors Reviewed

Scholarly books Advance Experts Yes
and articles knowledge
Serious books and Report Experts, Yes
articles information professional writers
Newsstand Report facts Professional Yes
magazines writers, reporters
Newspapers Report news Reporters Yes
Sponsored Report facts, sell Varies Sometimes
websites product
Personal websites Varies Experts to novices Rarely
Listservs Discuss topics Anyone No

Usenet Discuss topics Anyone No
newsgroup
The most reliable sources are written by experts and have been reviewed
by equally reputable readers.
f. Appropriateness
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The value of a source depends not only on its quality but also in its use to
you in a specific writing situation. No matter how weighty and reliable the
source may be, if it is not on your topic, it does not become a part of your
research paper. For example, if you are writing a research on current
events, you will need newspapers and magazines with the most up-to-date
information, rather than books, because even the most recent ones are at
least six months to a year old.
Even if a source proves to be high quality and free from bias, it does not
necessarily means that it belongs to your research paper. For a source to
make a final cut, it has to fit with your audience, purpose, and tone. It
must be appropriate to your paper. How can you decide whether a source
is suitable for inclusion in your research paper? Consider the following
questions:
 Do you understand the material in the source? If the source is too
technical for you to grasp fully, you might not use it correctly in your
paper.
 Is the source written at a level appropriate to your readers?
 Does the source have the information you need?
 Does the source suit your purpose in this research paper?
3) Decide what notes to write

On note cards, you record important information for your research paper.
Fortunately, taking notes is a process of discovery as well as recording. By
choosing what to write, you are refining your thinking about your thesis
statement. You will discover new ideas and new way of thinking about the
topic as you sift through the research material. You might end up with some
notes that you do not need when it comes time to write your paper, but the
lost time will be worth it because you will end up with a more thoughtful and
focused paper.
The following chart will helop you focus your thinking as you dive into the
wonderful world of note taking.
Table 5.7. What to Write and What Not to Write
What to Write What Not to Write

Key ideas that support your thesis Many minor details
Authorative quotes Untrustworthy quotes
Reliable facts Unreliable facts
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Current facts Out-of-date information

Accepted opinions from reliable Unorthodox opinions from dubious
sources sources
Material that substantiates Material that does not seem to fit
information you have already found information you have already found
Sufficient evidence to make your Insufficient evidence to make your
point point
The deeper you dig into a subject, however, the more perceptive you will
become about what you need to prove your point most convincingly. Follow
the five-step process of note taking suggested by Rozakis (2004, p.72):
1) Before you start reading, arrange your sources according to difficulty.

As you judge the difficulty of a work, look for dense type,
footnotes/endnotes, and style. Arrange all the sources in this order: most
difficult, average, the least difficult.
Table 5.8. Order of Sources based of Degree of Difficulties
Most Difficult Average Least Difficult

Scholarly books Newsstand magazines Personal websites
Scholarly articles Newspapers Listservs
Serious books University-sponsored e-mail
websites
Serious articles Encyclopedias, interviews
Reference books Government documents
2) Read the least difficult sources first.

Look for general, introductory material. Use this to lay the foundation for
the more specialized and technical material you will need to make you an
expert in the field.
3) Look for facts, expert opinions, explanations, and examples that

support your thesis or the other side.
Now focus on the facts: See what you can find that will help you make your
case or refute the opposition. Pay special attention too strong information
from people recognized for their expertise in the field.
4) Note any controversies swirling around your topic
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Pay close attention to bothe sides of the issue: it is a great way to test the
validity of your thesis.
5) Read in chunks.
Finish an entire paragraph, page, or chapter before you stop to take notes.
This will help you get the “big picture” so you can locate the pertinent
informantion.
C. EXERCISE
1. What is the difference between primary and secondary sources?

2. Where can you get: a) primary source? b) secondary source?
3. What are the strength and weaknesses of primary and secondary sources?
4. Give examples of a) primary sources (minimum 5); b) secondary sources
(minimum 3)
5. Is it possible to mix primary and secondary data in one research? How?
D. ASSIGNMENT
Find and copy one of the secondary sources (e.g. periodicals,

encyclopedias). Identify the articles that are likely to be secondary data.
Explain how you will use them!

There are many diferent sources for research, including websites, reference
books, and periodicals. All of the sources can be classified into primary
sources and secondary sources. Primary sources provide the original
materials on which other research is based and enable students and other
researchers to get as close as possible to what actually happened during a
particular event or time period.Secondary sources, on the other hand, are
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written by people with indirect knowledge. The writers of secondary

sources had to rely on primary sources or other secondary sources for their
information.
Primary sources (such as diaries, eyewitness accounts, historical records

and documents) are created by direct observation. Meanwhile, secondary
sources (such as encyclopedias, literary criticism, and textbooks) are
written by people with indirect knowledge.
Effective research papers often use a mix of both primary and secondary
sources. Besides primary and secondary sources, there are Tertiary Sources
that contain information that has been compiled from primary and
secondary sources. Tertiary sources include almanacs, chronologies,
dictionaries and encyclopedias, directories, guidebooks, indexes, abstracts,
manuals, and textbooks.
F. REFFERENCES
1. Autobiography : Why write autobiography?Accessed on Nov.22nd, 2015

http://accounts.smccd.edu/saterfield/Psyc100_03/autobiograhy.html
5. English Dictionary. Accessed on Nov.22nd,2015 from:
http://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/eyewitness
6. Experiment. Accessed on Nov.22nd, 2015 from:
http://medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/Scientific+experiment
8. Historical record – Dictionary Definition. Accessed on Nov.22nd, 2015 .
http://www.vocabulary.com/dictionary/historical/
9. Ithaca College Library.Primary and Secondary Sources. Retrieved on
Nov.22nd, 2015 from http://ithacalibrary.com/sp/subjects/primary
Eleventh
Ed.New York: Pearson Education, Inc.
11. Lynch, K. Brian.1996. Language Program Evaluation: Theory and Practice.
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SAGE Publications
15. Rozakis, E.Laurie. The Complete Idiot’s Guide to Research Methods. USA:
Marie Buttler-Knight
16. Santiago Canyon College. Identifying Primary and Secondary Resources.
Acessed on Nov. 22nd, 2015.
https://www.sccollege.edu/Library/Pages/primarysources.aspx
18. Identifying Primary and Secondary Resources. Acessed on Nov.22nd,2015
CHAPTER VI
RESEARCHING THE LIBRARY AND THE WEB
A. INTRODUCTION
Public libraries are in almost every

community and internet is now a
major sources of research
information. Because most libraries
offer free access to all, and so do
some internet sources (webs), they
bring opportunity to all. In this
chapter, you will brush up on your
library and internet skills as you
compare and contrast different
kinds of libraries – public libraries, academic libraries, school libraries, private
libraries, research libraries, and specialized libraries – to see what services they
each provide, as well as what the webs can cater you with diferent kinds of
research information.
The Internet offers huge amount of materials, some may be excellent and
some are not so good. So, you must be cautious and selective in choosing the
webs and picking the articles for your study. Follow the guideline in evaluating
Internet Source that will be explained further in this chapter.
Both sources from Libraries and the Internet have pros and corns. Study
these to help you make a good judgment. To brows information, you will need
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to use more than one browsers. You may have a favorite search engines;
however, some good materials may only be obtained from specialized search
engines or from educational search engines. There are some materials you
cannot access from free search engines like Yahoo! and Google. Use Library’s
webs to get the most reliable academic materials.
Whether you get access to Internet material for free or whether you have
to buy, it does not mean that you own the materials you have chosen.Some
materials are copyrighted. (Look for the word copyright and the © symbol).
This notice shows that the user must get permission from the copyright holder
to use the material. So, all you need to do on a research paper is give full credit
to the source.
At the end of this session, you are expected to be able to :
1) Explain at least three types of library

2) Explain the collection focus of three different library
3) Explain the purposes of using a call number in libraries
4) Explain the Pros and Cons of Books
5) Explain the Pros and Cons of Periodicals
6) Explain the details of Internet Address
7) Explain the functions of search engines
8) Explain the advantages and disadvantages of online articles
9) Explain the Netiquette and Internet Ethic
10) Explain the validity of Internet Materials
6.1. Be Familiar with Different Types of Libraries
Different kinds of libraries provide different services and have different

holdings. Learning th esimilarities and differences among libraries will make
your research easier and more productive. Libraries are categorized as public
libraries, academic libraries, priviate libraries, research libraries, and
specialized libraries.
6.1.1. Public Libraries
Public libraries are open to all. This means eveyone has access to a public
library. Even if you do not live in the area served by a particular libary, you still
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have access to that public library. You may not be able to take items from the
library, but you still be given access to everything that circulates in the
library’s collection.
Public liibraries are financed by town, city, or country governments. Many
public libraries grant full or limited borrowing privileges to students attending
college in the area. Because a public library has a different collection from
most college and university libraries, you will want to avail yourself of a public
library card in the community in which you are attending college or
university.
6.1.2. Academic Libraries
Colleges and universities maintain their own libraries. Some are small, no
more than a few floors of a building, while others are magnificent mansions.
Each academic libray has its own patron access policy. As a result, unlike
public libraries, these libraries may be closed to outsiders.
Open stack libraries aloow free access to all, whereas closed stack libraries
require you to present a valid student/faculty/staff ID just to walk through the
doors. Sometimes, students may be allowed to use the library after they
graduate, but may have to pay for the privilege. In addition, the library may be
closed to visitors and alumni during peak use time such as exam weeks.
Never throw out your student ID number. Even if you do not purchase an
alumni library card after you graduate from college, many college and
university libraies allow alumni to access their online data bases off-site for
free. Libraries of diffrent types are often linked thtrough a number of
interlibrary syatems. For example, public libraries are often linked to majoe
university libraries.
6.1.3. Private Libraries
Private libraries are just what their name says: libraries open only to
members. Some private librariesa are open to anyone with the required
membership fee, whereas others are restricted to people in specific areas of
expertise.
6.1.4. Research Libraries and

specilaized Libraries
Research libriaries and

spececialized libraries are
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designed to serve specific professional needs. Many of these libraries are

integral parts of organizations or business, whose staff members and clients
require the library in the course of their work. The staff in a research or
specialized library is usually trained in the approrpriate subjects area as well as
in information retrieval. Example of these libraries are: government libraies,
corporate libraies, mediacl libraries, law libraries, religious libraries.
6.2. Choosing the best Library for Your Needs
So many lebraries, but so litte time. What should you do? Shop Smart!
Each type of library has a different focus and a different emphasis. Being able
to distinguish among the different types of libraries and knowing what each
one holds can help you save your time and effort.
Use the following chart to help you focus search:
Table 6.1. Types of Library and Their Collection Focus
Type of Library Collection Focus

Public Libraries Classic literature, popular readiing,
bestsellers, reference books, self-help
books, self-help videos, popular
magazines and newspapers, social
sevice information, videos, CDs,
DVDs;chhildren literature
Academic libraries Classic literature, some popular
reading, academic books, journals,
videos, CDs, DVDs, reference
materials, government documents,
materials that serve the needs of the
specific institution
Private libraries Material specific to the institution;
may have original manuscripts,
artwork
Research libraries Material specific to the institution,
artwork
Specialized libraries Material specific to the institution,
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artwork
If you are not sure what type of library you have visited, ask the refernce
librarian. Ask him or her to describe the collection as well. Don’ t be afraid to
ask the reference librarian for help. After all, that is their job.
6.3. Selecting Materials from Libraries
6.3.1. Finding the Books You Need
Books are user friendly – they are

kight, easy to use, and familiar. Best of all,
because books take time to write and
publish, they tend to be reliable sources.
The number of books in a library’s
collection raises a key issue: How can the
books be arranged so people can find
what they need quickly and easily. To
solve this problem, classification systems were created. Classification Systems
track the volumes in a library’s collection. They also allow us to locate the
books we need to complete our research. Knowing how books are classified
and arranged by catalog system in libraries will help you find the book you
want efficiently.
Be aware that most almost all materials in a library have a call number.
Materials that carry a call number include everything in a library that can be
borrowed, such as books, journals, newspapers, magazines, audiocasettes,
videotapes, DVDs, CDs, Microfilm, archive collections.
What is a call number?Each book has a

call number. Think of the call number as
the address of the book on the shelf. A
call numer can be found in three places:
on a label on the book’s spine, inside the
book, usually on the reverse side of the
title page, or in the card catalog. In
libraries all over the world, call numbers
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serve three purposes:

1) as a unique identification number. Every book has its own call number.
No other book can have the same call number.
2) A subject formula. Books written about the same subject have similar
call numbers, which means that these books are grouped together on
the shelf. This makes it easier for you to browse the library’s holdings
on a specific subject.
3) A location code. The call number for each book also appears in the
catalog entry. Thus you can look up the book in the card catalog so you
know where it is shelved in the library
The same call number can be written from top to bottom or left to right.
Both forms are equally correct. For instance:
Top to Bottom Left to Right

LB LB2395 C65 2003
2395
C65
2003
Beside knowledge of how books are classified and arranged in a library,

you should also have the minimum librraty skills such as: using the computer
catalog, using the card catalog, selecting reference woeks, finding articles in
periodicals.
6.3.2. Research with Books
There are some important parts of the book you are searching that can
help you determine the most relevant and reliable source of your research
such as title page, copyright page, preface, foreword, or introduction, table of
contents, body, epigraph, footnote, appendix, glossary. Bibliography, index,
ISBN. Eventhough books tend to be more reliable than the webs, they are not
without disadvantage. Observe the following pros and cons of Books:
Table 6.2. Pros and Cons of Books
Pros and Cons of Books
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Pros: Cons:
 Books are more - Books may not be up-to-date
scrupulously written - Books are very pricely
than most peiodicals - Books can be cumbersome to use
 Books often written by
expert
 Books may be easier to
use than magaziene
6.3.3. Research with Periodicals
What are periodicals? Periodicals

include all material that is published
on a regular schedule,such as weekly,
biweekly, monthly, bimonthly, four
times a year, and so on. Newspapers,
magazines, and academic journals are
classified as periodicals. Periodicals
include many different types of
publications, but the most common
ones are newspapers, magazines, and
academic journals. These three types of periodicals can be classified in many
different ways. Knowing how periodicals are categorized will help you locate
and evaluate them.
6.3.3.1. Newspapers
Newspapers are often classified in three different ways: publication

schedule, types, and size.
Publication schedule. Daily, weekly, monthly, ans so forth. For example, daily
newspapers include; The Daily News, The Wall Street Journal, and Newsday.
Types. Newspapers can also be classified based on types: International

newspapers, tabloid newspapers, newswire service, syndicated newspaper
column, etc.
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Size. Newspapers are also caategorized according to their size. Tabloids, for
example are newspapers whose pages are approximately 11 x 15 inches, about
half the size of a standard neswpapers. Usually tabloids concentrate on
sensional news such asillicit love affairs, politicl scandals and the various
misbehaviors of public figures. Tabloids are rarely considered a reliable source
for quality research.
Use newspapers when you want:

 Immediate news., photographs, and opinions
 A summary of current event
 Pictures of the event
6.3.3.2. Magazines
Magazines, like newspapers, can be classified in different ways as follows:
Publication schedule. Weekly, monthly, quarterly, and so on. For example,

news magazines such as Time, US News and World Report. Other magazines
such as Atlantic, Harpers, Ladies Home Journals. Scholarly Magazines such as
Foreign Affairs , usually come out quarterly.
Subject Matter. Magazines can also be classified by their subject matter;

literary, travel, leisure, hobbies, health, children, and so on.
Publishing venue. The majority of magazines are still published on paper, but
several publishers are experimenting with online publication only.
Use magazines if you want:
 Up to date general information about a subject
 Pictues of the event
 More detail analysis than in newspapers
6.3.3.3. Academic Journals
Academic journals are different from

newspapers and magazines because of
their tone and content. These journals
have a serious , scholarly tone. The
content is very narrow, depending on the
audience.For examples:
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The American Transcedental Quarterly: A Journal of Nineteen Century,

Scandinavian Formal of Ecoonomics.
In addition, the articles in journals are carefully reviewed by a panel or
experts who check facts and verify information. This is called ”peer review”-
the authors have their articles reviewed by their peers or equals in their
subkect areas. When a journal uses this review process, before publishing
articles, the journal is called a refered journal. It means that the journals have
been carefully and responsibly edited.
Use academic journals when you want :

1) Very detailed information about a subject written by experts
2) Research , theories, the results of studies and experiments, and analysis
3) Longer articles
6.3.3.4.Pros and Cons of Periodicals
Table 6.3. Pros and Cons of Periodicals
Pros and Cons of Periodicals

Pros: Cons:
 Possess an immediacy - May contain errors because they
and freshness that books are produed fast
lack - Content may be sacrificed for
 Often include visuals visuals; visuals may be misleading
that can help understand - Often do not contain sufficient
a topic more fully informaton
 Include quotations that - May be written by staff writers
will help make a point rather than experts
 May lead you to an
expert
6.4. Research with Electronic Media (with the Web)
6.4.1. Getting Access to the the Internet
What is Internet?The Internet is an expanding

global information computer network
composed of three elements: people, hardware
computers), and software (computer programs)
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Each regional network is linked to other regional networks around the world
to create a network of networks. The Internet dates back to the 1960, when
scientists used it to collaborate on research papers. It is not owned or funded
by any one organization, institution, or government. The Internet is directed
by the Internet Society (ISOC), a group of volunteers. There is no president or
CEO.
The “www” (World Wide Web) is made of documents called “web

pages”which can combine texts, pictures, and sound. The “home page” is the
entry point for access to a collection of pages.The web is not like a library
where information is arranged within an accepted set of rules. Similar items
are usually grouped together, but not always. Further, websites come and go
without warning. Even if they stay put, the good ones are updated often so the
material changes. (Rozakis,2004)
An Internet Service Provider (ISP) is a company that provides access to the

Internet. The best known ISPs are the comercial online services such as
America Online, CompuServe, Prodigy, Earthlink,Microsoft Network,
Juno,MSN. ISPs usually charge a monthly subscription rate and offer unlimited
access to e-mail.
Researching on the Internet
Be sure to give yourself plenty of time to use the Internet because it may
take you a while to find the information you want. Even experienced Internet
users need time to find the authorative, reliable sources they need. Further,
searching on he Internet can be addictive.
Start with Search Engines
Search Engines, which work with

key words, help you locate
websites. You type in a key word
and the search engine
automatically looks through its
giant databases for matches. The
more precise the phrase, the better
your chances of finding the
information you need.
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Here are some of the most popular search enginesand their Internet Address:
AltaVista www.altavista.digital.com
Google www.google.com
GoTo.com www.goto.com
InfoSeek Guide guide.infoseek.com
Lycos lycos.cs.cmu.edu/
Yahoo! www.yahoo.com
Other search engines are limited to a specific field. You can find a list of
these search engines at Easy Searcher, located on the web at
www.easysearcher.com.Some search engines, such as Yahoo! also let you
search the web by categories. For example, here is the opening subject list on
the Yahoo! Screen:
Art and humanities News and media

Business and economy Recreation and sports
Computers and Internet Reference
Education Regional
Entertainment Science
Government Social Science
Health Society and culture
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6.4.2. Reading an Internet Address
In the library, you must employ a book call number to find a book. On the
Internet, you employ a Uniform Resource Locator (URL), such as:
http://www.georgetown.edu/library_catalogues.html
 The protocol (http://) transmits data

 The server (www, for World Wide Web) is the global Internet service
that connects the multitude of computers and the Internet files.
 The domain (georgetown.edu) names the organization feeding
information into the server with a suffix to label the type of
organiziation: .com (commercial), .edu (educational), .gov
(government), .mil (military), .net (network organization, and .org
(organization)
 The directory /file (library_catalogues) finds one of the server’s
directories and then a specific file.
 The hypertext markup language (html) names the computer
language used to write the file.
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Often , knowing just the protocol and the server domain will get you to a
home site from which you can search deeper for files.
6.4.3. About Internet Sources : the Good, the Bad, and the Ugly
The Internet is now a

major source of research
information, and many
students start their research
on the “www”.It’s ok, but you
must be aware that using
Internet Sources can be
addressed as the Good, the
Bad, and the Ugly!
(Lester,2004) Let’s start with
the first: ugly! You can buy a canned research paper and submit it aas your
own. However, just because you buy a research paper does not mean that you
own it and you can put your name on it. You always have the obligation of
identifyng the source, and the author or publisher retains rights to the
content, whether in priinted form or an electronic format. Also ugly, and aslo
considered plagiarism, is downloading Internet material into your paper
without citation and documentation, thereby making itappear to be your own
work.(p.32)
Second, the bad: You will find articles that are not worthy of citation in
your research paper. You must filter personal opinion pieces that are
unsubstantiated in any way. These will pop up on your browser list and may
be nothing more than a home page. You must also filter commercial sites that
disguise their sales pitch with informative articles.
Third, the good: The Initernet, if you know where to look, is loaded with
absolutely marvelous material that was unattainable just a few years ago. It
boffers instant access to millions of computer files relating to almost every
subject, includign articles, illustration, sounds and video clips, and raw data.
Much of it meets basic academic standards, yet you should keep in mind that
the the best academic material is available only through databases at your
college library. That is, you can rest assured that scholarly articles found
through the library’s Web are far more reliable than those you might find by
general access through Google or Yahoo!
Online version of articles offer advantages, but they also present

problems.On the plus side, you can view them almost instantly on the
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monitor. You can save or print an abstract or article without having to

photocopy, and you can even download material to your disk and, where
appropriate, insert into your paper. However, keep these issues in mind:
1) The text may differ from the original printed version and may even be a
digest. Therefore, cite the Iinternet source to avoid giving the
appearance of citing from the printed version.
2) Online abstracts may not accurately represent the full article. In fact,
some abstracts are not written by the author at all, but by an editorial
staff. Therefore, resist the desire to quote from the abstracts and,
instead, write a paraphrase of it – or better, find the full text and cite
from it.
3) You may need to subscribe (at a modest cost) to some sites. A company
has the right to make demands befire giving you access.
6.4.4. Evaluating Internet Source
The Internet supplies huge amounts of material, some of it excellent, and

some not so good. You must make judgements about the validity and veracity
of these materials. In addition to your common sense judgement, here are a
few guidelines:
1) Prefer the .edu and .org sites. Usually, these are domains developed by
an educational institution, such as Ohio State University, or by a
professional organization, such as the American Psychological
Association. Of course, .edu sites also include many student papers,
which can iinclude unrealiable information.
2) The .gov (government) amd .mill(military) sites usually have reliable

materials. The .com (comercial) sites are suspect for several reasons: (1)
they are selling advertising space, (2) they often charge fo access to
their files, (3) they can be Internet Service Provider (ISP) sites, which
people pay to use and to post their material. Although some ISP sites
have good information, they are usually no more reliable than vanity
presses or want ads.
3) Look for the professional affiliation of the writer, which you will find in
the opening credits or an e-mail address. Go in search of the writer’s
home page. Type in the writer’s name at a search engine to see how
many results are listed. Also type the writer’s name at Amazon.com for
a list of his or her published books. If you find no information on the
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writer at these various sources, abondon the writer’s words and search
elsewhere.
4) Look for a bibliography that accompanies the article, which will
indicate the scholarly nature of this writer’s work.
5) Usenet discussion groups offer valuable infrmation at times, but some
article lack sound, fundamental reasoning or evidence to support the
opinions.
6) Treat e-mail messages as mail, not scholarly articles.Similar rules apply
to chat.
7) Check whether the site gives you hypertext links to professional sites or
to commercial sites. Links to other educational sites serve as a modern
bibliography to more realiable sources. Links to commercial sites are
often attempts to sell you something.
8) Learn to distinguish among the different types of Web sites, such as
advocacy pages, personal home pages, informational pages, and
business and marketing pages.
9) Your skills in critical thinking can usually determine the validity of a
site. For more help in critical thinking, visit Robert Harris’s site:
http:/www.virtualsalt.com/evalu8it.htm
6.4.5. Netiquette and Internet Ethic
6.4.5.1. Netiquette
E-mail has its own system of

manners that has come to be called
“netiquette” – network etiquette. It
is the code of appropriate online
conduct that “netizens”(Internet
citizens) observe in virtual
communities.
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Follow these three simple guidelines to make it easierfor you to navigate your
way through cyberspace:
1) Don’t flame. A flame is a personal attack on someone. Flaming

involves capital letters as well as invective. Using all capital letters, LIKE
THIS, is considered the web equaivalent of shouting. It is rude, so avoid
it.
2) Don’t spam. Spamming is sending the same message to hundreds or
thousands of e-mail addresses in the hope of hitting a few interested
people. Spam is even worse than junk snail mail, because you can throw
away junk mail unread, but you often have to read spam to find out that
it’s junk. Spam clutters your mail-box, wastes time, and annoys people.
3) Respect others’ time. Remember that your readers value their time.
When you send e-mail, you are taking up other people’s time. It’s your
responsibility to ensure that the time they spend reading your mail isn’t
wasted.
6.4.5.2. Internet Ethic
The Internet is open to all. That means every user is free to access and read
any material published on the Internet. But when you download and use that
information, you may have to ask permission, just as you would with a book,
magazine, newspaper, video, or any other print or media source.
Material that has been copyrighted may include a notice to that effect.
Look for the word copyright and the © symbol. This notice shows that the user
must get permission from the copyright holder to use the material. Usually, all
you need to do on a research paper is give full credit to the source.
And remember, if you don’t give proper credit, you are committiing
plagiarism, literary theft. Today, teachers and professors can detect plagiarism
easily by using specially designed software programs. In addition,many
graphics posted on the web have digital watermarks that make it even easier to
trace their origin.To be on the safe side, always assume that all material on the
Internet is copyrighted. Thus, give proper credit to all your sources.
C. EXERCISE
1. Explain at least three types of library!

2. What is the collection focus of each of the three libraries?
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3. What are the purposes of using a call number in libraries

4. What are the Pros and Cons of Books
5. Explain the Pros and Cons of Periodicals
6. Explain the details of Internet Address
7. What are the advantages and disadvantages of online articles
8. What do you know about Netiquette? Explain!
9. Explain the Internet Ethic you have to obey!
10. The Internet supplies huge amounts of material, some of it excellent,
and some not so good. How do you judge the validity of these
materials?
D. ASSIGNMENT
Direction: Do the following assignment on a separate paper.

1. First, use a search engine to get an Internet address or URL
e.g. http://www.georgetown.edu/library_catalogues.html
Second, write the details of the Internet Address you have found.
2. Search for the Online Journal or Article. Quote the article and give
credit to the source.
Public libraries are open to all and offer a wide variety of materials and cultural
opportunities. A library card is necesarry to take materials from the library.
Among the collection focus of public libraries: Classic literature, popular
readiing, bestsellers, reference books, self-help books, self-help videos, popular
magazines and newspapers, social sevice information, videos, CDs,
DVDs;children literature.
Academic libraries, sponsored by colleges and universities , have more

scholarly works and may restrict access. Academic libraries have the collection
focus such as: Classic literature, some popular reading, academic books,
journals, videos, CDs, DVDs, reference materials, government documents,
materials that serve the needs of the specific institution.
Private libraries, open only to members, offere specialized collections and

cultural events.
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Research libraries mainly serve the needs of scholars. Specialized libraries are
supported by many agencies including the govenments, corporations,
hospitals, law offices, and religious institutions.
Both books and Periodicals wether you check out from a library or you get
from the internet have pros and corns.
There are some important parts of the book you are searching that can help
you determine the most relevant and reliable source of your research such as
title page, copyright page, preface, foreword, or introduction, table of
contents, body, epigraph, footnote, appendix, glossary. Bibliography, index,
ISBN.
Periodicals include all material that is published on a regular schedule.

Newspapers, magazines, and academic journals are classified as periodicals.
Periodicals include many different types of publications, but the most
common ones are newspapers, magazines, and academic journals. Knowing
how periodicals are categorized will help you locate and evaluate them.
The Internet supplies huge amounts of material, some of it excellent, and some
not so good. You must make judgements about the validity and veracity of
these materials.
Material that has been copyrighted may include a notice to that effect.So, you
must get permission from the copyright holder to use the material and give
full credit to the source.
F. REFFERENCES

Practice.
SAGE Publications
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Valerry
from:
service- quality
CHAPTER VII
DOCUMENTING SOURCES
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A. INTRODUCTION
Academic writing differs from

everyday writing in the fact that
it carefully documents its
sources through the use of
citations, which enables the
reader to see what has inspired
the writer and to check the
validity of their work.Once you
have found sources for your
research, you will need to
document them giving writers
credit for their work and their
writings.
Any source of intellectual property that contributes to, informs, or inspires
your own work needs to be acknowledged. For example, when you
paraphrase or summarize someone's ideas, or use someone's exact words by
quoting them, you must acknowledge, by documentation, those works and
the author. Taking or using another persons ideas, language, words, etc., as
your own is plagiarism.
Most problems related to plagiarism arise in college writing because
students lack clear and understanding about what plagiarism is, when to cite
or document, and what criteria to use. In addition, the writer’s failure to
acknowledge the source with an in-text citation of some sort and a
bibliography entry at the back of the paper completes to the problems.The fact
than Internet makes it esy to copy and download material and paste it into a
paper – which is actually not really a problem if the students undertand and
obey the rules and ethic in using Internet.
Citing or documenting information sources is an important part of the
research process. Once your research paper is complete it will be necessary to
create a Bibliography or List of Works Cited. To cite a source means to give
credit for the original source of information, an idea, or way of articulating an
idea. It is a standardized method of acknowledging resources used in your
research.
A "citation" is a short note that documents your source(s) of information.
It provides the reader with identifying information so that they are able to
access the original source.Citation styles (MLA, APA, SBL, etc.) vary according
to the discipline. For example, an English paper requires MLA style while a
psychology paper requires APA style. The content and order of information
varies with each style.
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The purpose of this chapter is to help you document your reseach sources.
Besides, it is intended to make you comfortable with and knowledgeable about
the ethics of research, especially about using and documenting sources in the
proper context of your study, honoring property right, and avioding
plagiarism.
By the end of this session, you are expected to be able to:
1)Explain the esence of documenting sources?
2. Explain the reasons for documenting sources?
3. Explain what plagiarism is?
4. Explain the way to avoid plagiarism?
5. Explain technique of documenting sources?
6. Draft one or two paragraphs with primary and secondary sources’
documentation.
7.1. Documenting your Sources
Documenting means showing where you got source information that's

not your own. Remember, a research paper blends your ideas with ideas and
information from other sources. Documentation shows the reader what ideas
are yours and what information and ideas you've taken from a source to
support your point of view.
7.1.1. Why Document?
What some of you fail to realize is citing a source in our papers, even the
short ones, actually signals something special and positive to your readers –
that you have researched the topic, explored the literature about it, and have
the talent to share it. Research is something you need to share, not to hide.
You will discuss not only the subject matter, such as the conflict, the speech
act, the language variety, etc., but also the literature of the topic, such as
books, articles from the Internet and current periodicals found in your library’s
databases. By announcing clearly the name of a source, you will reveal the
scope of your reading and thus your credibility. Look at the following example
of how a student quoted and documented the source:
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Americans consume an average of 300 plus lites of water per day per
capita while the average person needs only 20 to 40 liters, according to
O’Malley and Bowman (2012). In addition, Postel (2009) says water is a
living system that drives the working of a natural world we depend on (119).
Further more, Postel declares:” A new water era has begun” (24). She
indicates that the great prairies of the world will dry up, including America’s.
The boldface notes in the above paragraph, if transferred into the paper,
will enable readers to identify the sources used. The notes give clear evidence
of the writer’s investigation into the subject, and they enhance the student’s
image as a researcher. You will get credit for displaying the sources properly.
Observe further about some reasons for documenting sources mentioned here:
 Scholarly discourse. Scholars cite their sources and provide lists of the
sources to give credit to the work of other researchers and so that
colleagues and others can locate the source and understand the context
of the idea and perhaps find more similar information.
 Document your research. Teachers are interested in knowing which
ideas stem from the student and which ideas are built upon those of
other writers. Citing sources gives your teacher a sense of how much
work you've done on a paper -- what have you read? what have you
thought about on your own?
 Ethics. If you don't cite your sources, you are not giving credit for the
work of others. This is called plagiarism and is considered a serious
offense by all universities.
 Credibility.By correctly documenting, you establish your credibility as
a writer and researcher. You're letting your reader know that you've
consulted experts whose ideas and information back up your own
thoughts and ideas. Consequently, you make your viewpoint or
argument more believable.When you don't document correctly, your
academic integrity can be called into question, because it may seem as
though you're passing off others' ideas as your own. Academic integrity
involves not only acknowledging your sources, but also creating your
own ideas. Academic integrity, explained in this way, sounds relatively
simple. But the particular applications are a bit more tricky. The most
common academic integrity problems that most students encounter
are:
1. relying too heavily on others' information in a research paper
2. relying too heavily on others' words in a paraphrase or summary
3. citing and documenting sources incorrectly
4. relying too heavily on help from other sources
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The most egregious violation of academic integrity is when a student

uses a writing assignment for more than one course, or when a student
"borrows" a paper and passes it off as his or her own work.
 Plagiarism.If you don't document, you could inadvertently plagiarize,

which is grounds for dismissal from college.
7.1.2. What to Document
The basic rule for documentation is: Document any specific ideas,
opinions, and facts that are not your own. The only thing you don't have to
document is common knowledge.For example: you do have to document the
fact that 103 cities in New York state were originally settled by English settlers
because this is a specific fact that is not common knowledge. You do not have
to document the information that New York state has places named for
English cities, since this is common knowledge.There are two categories of
common knowledge:
 information that is known to the general public

 information that is agreed upon by most people in a professional field
Tip: Sometimes common knowledge can be tricky to define. A good rule is if in

doubt, document.
Can You Document Too Much?
If you find yourself needing to document almost every sentence, then it

means you have not thought enough about your topic to develop your own
ideas. A paper should not be just a collection of others' ideas and facts. Sources
should only support or substantiate your ideas.
Tip: The rule of thumb is that whenever you use information from sources
you should comment on the information. Your comment should be
approximately the same length as the source itself.
7.1.3. Where to Document
You must identify your sources in two places in your research paper:
1) Citing at the end of the paper: Put your notecards with the source
information on them in alphabetical order according to the authors' last
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names, then follow the correct format for providing the essential source
information.
2) Documenting within the Text: Documenting your sources within the

text of your paperas you use direct quotations or paraphrases and summaries of
ideas and information from the sources you've researched: Most current
research papers insert the basic source information inside parentheses
within the text of the paper either at the end of the sentence, or group of
sentences, that contain the source's information.
Tip: Footnotes are out of date.
Merely documenting paraphrases and summaries at the end of paragraphs

leaves your reader confused. Does the documentation refer to the last
sentence? the whole paragraph? part of a paragraph? So you also need to show
where the source's information starts as well as ends. The easiest way to do
this is to use a phrase such as "According to Dr. James Watts. . ." or "Carly
Simon maintains that. . . ."
7.2. Drafting the Paper from Your Research Journal, Notes, and
Computer files.
7.2.1. Writing from Your Notes
To begin writing your research essay,

you may work systematically through
a preliminary plan or outline. You may
also begin by writing what you know
at the time. Either way, keep the
pieces of your manuscript under
control ; your notes will usually keep
you focused on the subject, and your
thesis statement will control the flow
and the direction of you argument.
Use your notes and research journal to:

1) Transfer personal notes, with modification, into the draft.
2) Transcribe precis notes and paraphrased materials directly into the text.
3) Quote primary sources.
4) Quote secondary sources from notes.
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Write source material into the paper to support your ideas, NOT as filler.
Your notes will let let the essay grow and reach up to new levels of knowledge.
You can do this in several ways. The following metods might be useful to try:
 The first method requires separate note files within a specially named
directory. During the drafting stage, you can use the Insert, Copy, or
Read command to transfer your notes into your text.
 The second method assumes you have placed all your notes in one file.
Begin writing your paper in a new file. As you need a note, minimize
this text file and maximize your file of notes, or use two windows. Find
the note you wish to transfer, highlight it, copy it, and then paste into
your text.
 The third method assumee you have placed all your notes within one
file and labeled each with a code word or title. Begin drafting your
paper at the top of this file, which will push the notes down as you
write. When you need a note, find it, copy it, and paste it into your text.
 The fourth method requires the complete outline on file so you can
enter information under any of the outline headings as you develop
ideas. You can import your notes into to a specific location of the
outline. This technique allow you to work anywhere within the paper to
match your interest of the moment with a section of you outline. In
effect, you expand your outline into the first draft of your research
paper.
In the initial draft, leave plenty of space as you write. Keep the margins
wide, use double spacing , and leave blank spaces between paragraphs. The
open area will invite your revisions and additions later on. The process is
simplified when you use a computer because you will keyboard the paper the
first time and revise directly within the file.
When working with pages copied from articles, books, or Internet sites,
use caution. You will be tempted to borrow too much. Quote or paraphrase
key phrases and sentences; DO NOTquote an entire paragraph unless it is
crucial to your discussion and you cannot easily reduce it to a precis.
Moreover, any information you borrow should come from a credible source
that has scholarly or educational basis.
Drafting a paragraph or two by using different methods of development is
one way to build the body of your paper, but only if each part fits the purpose
and design of your work. Write a comparison paragraph, classify and analyze
one or two issues, show cause and effect, and ask a question and answer it.
Sooner than you think, you will have drafted the body of the paper.
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7.2.2. Writing with Unity and Coherence
Unity refers to exploring one topc in depth to give yor writing a single
vision. With unity, each paragraph carefully expands on a single aspect of the
narrowed subject. Coherence connects the parts logically by:
 Repetition of keywords and sentence structures.

 The judicious use of pronouns and synonyms
 The effective placement of transitional words and phrases (e.g. also,,
furthermore, therefore, in addition, and thus)
Observe how the following paragraph applies unity (it keeps its focus) and
coherence (it repeats keywords and uses transitions effectively, as shown in the
boldface type.
Talk shows are spectacles and forms of dramatic entertainment;

therefore, members of the studio audience are acting out parts in the drama,
like a Greek chorus, just as the host, the guest, and the television viewers are
actors as well. Furthermore, some sort of attraction with the “characters” in
this made-for-television “drama” happens all the time. If we read a book or
attend a play, we question the text, we question the presentation, and we
determine for ourselves what it means to us.
7.2.3. Writing in the Proper Tense
Verb tense often distinguishes a paper in the humanities from one in the
natural and social science. MLA style requires the present tense to cite an
author’s work. (e.g. Diyanni defines the character as ..., Grice states that
cooperative principles..) The CMS footnote style also asks for present tense.
MLA style requires that you use present tense for your own comments and
those of your sources because the ideas and the words of the writers remain in
print and continue to be true in the universal present. Therefore, when writing
a paper in the humanities, use the historical present ense , as shown below:
“It was the best of times, it was the worst of times,” writes Charles Dickens
about the eighteenth century.
Johnson argues that sociologist Norman Wayman has a narrow-minded
view of clerics and their role in the community.
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Use past tense in a humanities paper only for reporting historical events.
In the next example, past tense is appropriate for all sentences except the last:
In 1876 Alexander Graham Bell invented the telephone. Signals, sounds,

and music had been sent by wire before, but Bell’s instrument was the first to
transmit speech. Bell’s story is a lesson in determination, one worthy of study
by any would be inventor.
7.2.4. Using the Language of Discipline
Every discipline and every topic has its own vocabulary. Therefore, while
reading and taking notes. Jot down words and phrases relevant to your
research study. Get comfortable with them so you can use them effectively.
For example a child abuse topic requires the language of sociology and
psychology, thereby demanding an acquintance with terms such as social
workers, poverty level, stress, formative years, maltreatment, behavioral
patterns, hostility, recurrence, guardians, etc. Similarly, a poetry paper might
require such terms as symbol, imagery, rhytm, and rhyme, etc.
7.2.5. Using Source Material to Enhance Your Writing
Readers want to see your thoughts and ideas on a subject. For this reason,
a paragraph should seldom contain source materials only; it must contains a
topic sentence to establish a point for the research evidence. Every paragraph
should explain, analyze, and support a thesis, not merely string together a set
of quotations.
7.2.6. Writing in the Third Person
Write your paper with third-person narration that avoids “ I believe” and
“it’s my opinion”. Rather than saying, “ I think objectivity on television is
nothing more than ideal,” drop the opening two words and say, “Objectivity on
television is nothing more than an ideal.” Readers will understand that the
statement is your thought. However, attribute human functions to yourselft or
other persons, not to nonhuman sources:
Wrong: The study considered several findings.

Correct: The study reported the findings of several sources.
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The study can report its findings, but it cannot consider them.
7.2.7. Writing with the Passive Voice in an Appropriate Manner
Research writer sometimes need to shift the focus from the actor to the
receiver. Passive voive is preferred to keep focus on the subject of the research.
You are now writing in a scientific genre, that traditionally relies on passive
voice. Passive voice is often found in lab reports and scientific research papers,
most notably in the Materials and Methods section:
The sodium hydroxide was dissolved in water. This solution was then
titrated with hydrochloric acid.
In these sentences you can count on your reader to know that you are the
one who did the dissolving and the titrating. The passive voice places the
emphasis on your experiment rather than on you.
A good scientific writing must contain quotations from some experts, the
theories of whom are used in analyzing data. The more the writer quote, the
more scientific the writing will be. Quotations in research paper can be either
directly or indirectly. Indirect quotation means reporting what an expert has
said or defined in indirect statement. In this case, passive verbs are often used
to show that the information is empasized or more important. Hewings (2005:
50) states,” Another common way of reporting what is said by an unspecified
group of people is to use ‘ it+passive verb+that clause’. Using this pattern can
allow us to put important information at the end of the sentence.” The
statement means that the important information is still emphasized although
it is given at the second part of the sentence.
For instances:
It is reported that the damage is extensive.

It has been acknowledged that underfunding contributed to the
problem.
In 1981 it was believed that there were only two experts on the disease
in the country.
Other verbs that can be used in this pattern include: allege, announce,
assume, calculate, claim, consider, demonstrate, discover, establish, estimate,
expect, find, know, mention, recommend, reveal, say, show, suggest, suppose,
think, understand.
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7.3. Dangerous Habits of Research
7.3.1. Understanding Plagiarism
According to the "American Heritage Dictionary," plagiarism means "to

steal and use [the ideas and writings of another] as one's own. To appropriate
passages or ideas from [another] and use them as one's own."Plagiarism is a
serious offense within the academic community. You plagiarize whether you
intend to or not when you don't credit others' ideas within/at the end of your
paper. Even though you may have rewritten ideas and information using your
own words in a paraphrase or summary, the ideas and information are not
yours. You must cite your source.Plagiarism is the failure to acknowledge ideas
or words that are not your own.
You are plagiarizing if:
 You insert exact words or phrases from another author's work into your
own work.
 You use another author's ideas EVEN IF YOU PUT THEM INTO YOUR
OWN WORDS.
You must be sure to differentiate your own thoughts from those that you
read in other sources, and you must credit authors even if you do not quote
them directly.
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7.3.2Avoiding Plagiarism
It’s easy to find information for most research papers, but it’s not always
easy to add that information into your paper without falling into the
plagiarism trap. To avoid plagiarism, you must develop your personal notes
full of your own ideas on a topic. Then, rather than copy sources one after
another onto your pages of text, try to express your own ideas while
synthesizing the ideas of the authorities by using summary, paraphrase, or
direct quotation. Rethink and reconsider the ideas gathered during your
reading, make meaningful connections, and when you refer to the ideas or
exact words of a source – as you inevitably will – give the other writer full
credit. (Lester, 2004; p.91)
7.3.2.1. Some Ways to Avoid Plagiarism
There are easy ways to avoid plagiarism. Follow some simple steps while
writing your research paper to ensure that your document will be free of
plagiarism.
Following are some ways to avoid plagiarism:
1. Paraphrase - So you have found information that is perfect for your

research paper. Read it and put it into your own words. Make sure that
you do not copy verbatim more than two words in a row from the text
you have found. If you do use more than two words together, you will
have to use quotation marks. We will get into quoting properly soon.
2. Cite - Citing is one of the effective ways to avoid plagiarism. Follow the
document formatting guidelines (i.e. APA, MLA, Chicago, etc.) used by
your educational institution or the institution that issued the research
request. This usually entails the addition of the author(s) and the date
of the publication or similar information. Citing is really that simple.
Not citing properly can constitute plagiarism.
3. Quoting - When quoting a source, use the quote exactly the way it
appears. No one wants to be misquoted. Most institutions of higher
learning frown on “block quotes” or quotes of 40 words or more. A
scholar should be able to effectively paraphrase most material. This
process takes time, but the effort pays off! Quoting must be done
correctly to avoid plagiarism allegations.
4. Citing Quotes - Citing a quote can be different than citing paraphrased
material. This practice usually involves the addition of a page number,
or a paragraph number in the case of web content.
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5. Citing Your Own Material - If some of the material you are using for
your research paper was used by you in your current class, a previous
one, or anywhere else you must cite yourself. Treat the text the same as
you would if someone else wrote it. It may sound odd, but using
material you have used before is called self-plagiarism, and it is not
acceptable.
6. Referencing - One of the most important ways to avoid plagiarism is
including a reference page or page of works cited at the end of your
research paper. Again, this page must meet the document formatting
guidelines used by your educational institution. This information is very
specific and includes the author(s), date of publication, title, and
source. Follow the directions for this page carefully. You will want to
get the references right.
7.3.2.2. Document Opinions to Avoid Plagiarism
You must also document the way an author construct an argument or a

line of thinking. Thus, it is cosidered plagiarism if you try to fobb off someone
else’s opinions as your own. (Rozakis (2004:p.224)
Compare the following examples:
Original Source:
The literary scholar George F.Whicher wrote, “Emily Dickinson was

quintessential native to the region and completely innocent of literary
sophistication. As a daughter of the leading lawyer of Amherst, she might
normally have married a young minister or lawyer from the college he
served as a treasurer but this fulfilment was denied to her. To compensate
for her disaster of the heart she seems to have turned to poetry, and a
single-minded concentration of what most concerned to have immersed
herself behind the hemlock hedges of the Dickinson’s house. Only after
her death was the extent of her achievement known (704)
Plagiarism:
We can conclude that the poet Emily Dickinson was a true child of New England
and very unaware of other writers. Because her father was the most respected
attorney in their hometown of Amherst, Emily would be expected to be matched
with soeone her fatehr knew and respectd from their social class. Since she never
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married, however, she decided to become a writer. She worked hard but failed to
achieve fame during her lifetime.
This is plagiarism because the writer puts forth someone else’s opinion as
her own. The writer claims that Emily Dickinson became a poe because she
never got married. This is pretty radical stuff. Many women thwarted in love
do not turn to literary careers. Thus, paraphrasing the long quote does not
make it okay; credit still has to be given to the original speaker, the literary
scholar George F.Whicher. Following are two different revisions that correct
the plagirism.
Not Plagiarism:
According to Whicher, a Dickinson scholar, we can conclude that the

poet Emily Dickinson was a true child of New England and very unaware
of other writers.Because her father was the most respected attorney in
their hometown of Amherst, Emily would be expected to be matched with
soeone her fatehr knew and respectd from their social class.Since she
never married, however, she decided to become a writer.She worked hard
but failed to achieve fame during her lifetime.(704)
Not Plagiarism
Whicher, a Dickinson scholar, believes that Emily Dickinson became a

writer because she was disappointed in love. Failing to marry – as expected
of someone of her elevated social standing in Amherst – Dickinson instead
devoted herself to her career to the exclusion of all else. She did herself
away from society. Whicher claims, to sublimate her disappointmen in her
art. Tragically, she was denied even the fame that her art brought, because
her literary accomplishments were recognized only after she had died.
(704)
In both examples, the writer paraphrases the original source to avoid

having to insert a long quote. How ever, this is not plagiarism because the
writer gives credit to the scholar who developed the critical theory, George F.
Whincher. Further, the writer shows readers where to find the original
sources.
7.3.2.3. Document Paraphrase to avoid Plagiarism
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As mentioned earlier that just because you paraphrase does not mean that
you can take credit for the work. You must still give credit for information in a
paraphrase – if it is not common knowledge. You must cite the source: the
book, article, wep page, and so on. It is not enough just to change a few words.
Neither it is enough to rearrange a few sentences and call it khoser. Both
practices can result in plagiarism. Study the following examples:
Original Source:
The story of Hester Prynne, heroine of Nathaniel Hawthorne’s The Scarlet

Letter, takes place in 17th century Boston. Hawthorne no doubt wandered
through the King’s Chapel Burial Ground when he worked in the nearby
Costum House from 1839 to 1841. Tradition says that the fictional Hester
Prynne is based on the original Eliabeth Pain (or Payne), who is buried in
that graveyard. There is a big red A with two lions on the upper-left-hand
corner of Pain’s gravestone. The crest looks amazingly like Hester’s
gravestone, as described in the last line of the The Scarlet Letter. On her
stone there appears the semblance of an engraved escutcheon with ‘on a
field, sable, the letter A gules”
This source comes from page 191 in a book by James Powers. The final
quote comes fro the last page of The Scarlet Letter by Nathaniel
Hawthorne, page 273.
Plagiarism:
Hawthorne set his romance The Scarlet Letter in Boston in 1600s. The story
describes characters who could be buried in the King’s Chapel Burial Ground.
Hawthorne had probably walked through this graveyard when he worked in the
nearby Custom House in the nineteenth century. People think that Hawthorne’s
character Hester Prynne is based on the original Elisabeth Pain (or Payne). The two
gravestones are a lot alike, since both have a big red A with two lions on the upper-
left corner. Pain’s gravestone looks like Hester’s, as described in the last sentence in
The Scarlet letter.”On her stone there appears the semblance of an engraved
escutcheon with ‘on a field, sable, the letter A gules.”
This is plagiarism because it does not give credit to the original source,
Powers, nor to the quote from the last page of The Scarlet Letter. Changing
the words does not make it your own.
Not Plagiarism:
Hawthorne set his romance The Scarlet Letter in Boston in 1600s. The story
describes characters who could be buried in the King’s Chapel Burial
Ground. Hawthorne had probably walked through this graveyard when he
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worked in the nearby Custom House in the nineteenth century. People

think that Hawthorne’s character Hester Prynne is based on the original
Elisabeth Pain (or Payne). The two gravestones are a lot alike, since both
have a big red A with two lions on the upper-left corner.(Poers,191). Pain’s
gravestone looks like Hester’s, as described in the last sentence in The
Scarlet letter.”On her stone there appears the semblance of an engraved
escutcheon with ‘on a field, sable, the letter A gules.”(Scarlet Letter, 273)
Not Plagiarism:
A granit marker erected in the King’s Chapel Burial Ground cites another
initriguing source for Hester Prynne. According to the infomation on this
marker, Hawthrone drew inspiration for Hester Prynne from the real life tale
of Elisabeth Pain (or Payne). On the surface, the similiarities are astonishing:
Both gravestones have a big red A with two lions on the upper-left corner.
However, Pain was tried and acquitted for the murder of her child, whereas
Prynne was tried and convicted for adultery. Nonetheless, Hawthrone had very
likely seen Pain’s gravestone as he walked through the burial ground on his
way to his job next door at the Custom House (Poers,191). Perhaps Pain’s
gravestone sparked the idea for Hester’s gravestone, which Hawthrone
describes this way:”On her stone there appears the sembance of an engraved
escutcheon with ‘on a field, sable, the letter A gules.” (Scarlet Letter,273)
7.3.3. What you don’t need to document
You do not need to cite a source for material considered common

knowledge:
General common knowledge is factual information considered to be in the

public domain, such as birth and death dates of well-known figures, and
generally accepted dates of military, political, literary, and other historical
events. In general, factual information contained in multiple standard
reference works can usually be considered to be in the public domain.
Field-specific common knowledge is "common" only within a particular

field or specialty. It may include facts, theories, or methods that are familiar to
readers within that discipline. For instance, you may not need to cite a
reference to Piaget's developmental stages in a paper for an education class or
give a source for your description of a commonly used method in a biology
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report—but you must be sure that this information is so widely known within
that field that it will be shared by your readers.
If in doubt, be cautious and cite the source. And in the case of both general
and field-specific common knowledge, if you use the exact words of the
reference source, you must use quotation marks and credit the source.
C. EXERCISE
1. what is documenting sources?

2. Why do we need to document our sources?
3. What is plagiarism?
4. How do we avoid plagiarism?
5. How do we document our sources?
D. ASSIGNMENT
Direction: Write the following assignment on a separate paper!
The Assignment:
Give example of a part of your paper where you give examples of how to
document your sources!
The format:
Type your assignment on A4 paper with the following layout: left

margin: 4cm. Right margin: 3 cm, top margin: 4 cm, and bottom
margin: 3 cm
Using sources in your research paper is an important part of building and

supporting your argument. An essential part of the writing process involves
documenting your research and acknowledging the ideas of others.
What's a "resource"?
In terms of writing a research paper, it can be a book, article, Internet site or

other source where you find information that you use in writing your paper.
Even a person can be a resource. Any one of these information "places" could
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be a resource for information you are looking for, in the same sense that
resources for getting water might include a lake, a stream or a well.
What does "documenting resources" mean?
Documenting a resource means putting all the right information in your paper
about the resource you used so that another person could go and find the
same information in the same resource ("citing" the resource, in other words).
At the same time, the citation gives credit to the person who made the
information available to you, such as the author of a book or article, or the
person who created the website where you found some information you
needed for your paper.
What's a "citation?"
When you write a research paper, at the end of the paper you include a list of
the resources you used to write the paper on a page titled "Works Cited" or
"References." Each entry in that list, called a citation, is essentially a packet of
the information necessary to trace the item back to its origin, as well as an
acknowledgement of credit to the source of the information. Citing a resource
means including this specific information about the source in your work.
Resources are cited using your instructor's choice of documentation styles.
What's a "documentation style"?
A documentation style is a standard, agreed-on method for creating citations.

It provides formats for citing differnet information resources within the body
of the paper, for listing different information types on the Works Cited page,
and even ways to set up headings and margins for the paper. There are a
number of recognized documentation styles; some of the most widely used
styles today include those created by the American Psychological Association
(APA), the Modern Language Association (MLA) and the Chicago, or Turabian
style.
What's "plagiarism?" And why is it such a big deal?
Plagiarism is a term used to describe the misrepresentation of the authorship

of an idea; in other words, the "stealing" of ideas or information created by
others by claiming they are your own (on purpose or by accident). Plagiarism
is unacceptable in the academic world because it is unethical to steal
information or ideas from another person, in the same way that it is morally
wrong to steal the plans for someone else's invention and claim that you were
its inventor.
What kinds of things do I have to document?
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The University of Wisconsin-Madison Writing Center suggests that you should

document:
 Paraphrases and summaries (sections of text in which you use your own
words to explain information from another source)
 Direct quotations (sections of text in which you use exactly the same
words in the same order as they appear in another source,
identified as quotations from another source by enclosing the section
in quotation marks ["])
 Information and ideas that are not common knowledge or are not
available in a standard reference work
 Any borrowed material that might appear to be your own if there were
no citation
F. REFFERENCES
1. Columbia Edu.Documenting Your Research.Available Online in

http://ccnmtl.columbia.edu/projects/compass/discipline_humanities/d
ocumenting.html
2. ESC Edu. Documenting Sources.Available Online

inhttps://www.esc.edu/online-writing-
center/resources/research/research-paper-steps/documenting-sources/
3. Sothermal Edu. Documenting Resources.Available Online in

http://www.isothermal.edu/library/docres.htm

5. Library UAF Edu.Citing/Documenting Resources. Available Online in
http://library.uaf.edu/ls101-citing
6. ORO Edu. Citing and Documenting Sources. Available Online in
https://web.oru.edu/library/guides/writingCitations.html

8. WISC Edu. How to avoid plagiarism.Available Online in
https://writing.wisc.edu/Handbook/QPA_plagiarism.html
9. WriteCheck.Com. Six ways how to avoid plagiarism.Available Online in
http://en.writecheck.com/ways-to-avoid-plagiarism/
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CHAPTER VIII
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGN
A. INTRODUCTION
In chapter II you have learnt the

differences between qualitative and
quantitative research. Among the
differences are the basis, the focus, the
form of data, the data collection, and the
data presentation and analysis.The
differences can aslo be viewed
fromdifferent assumptions: ontological,
epistemological, axiological, rhetorical,
and methodological approaches.
(Creswell:1994, p.4) Please review again!
This chapter will discuss quantitative approach specifically.In quantitative

studies theory is used deductively and is placed towards the begining of the
plan for a study. The objective of quantitative study is to test or verify a theory,
rather than to develop it. Researchers thus begin the study advancing a theory,
collect data to test it, and reflect on whether the theory was confirmed or
disconfirmed by the results in the study. The theory becomes a framework for
the entire study, an organizing model for the research questions or hypotheses
and for the data collection procedure. The deductive model of thinking used in
a quantaitative study. The researcher tests a theory by using hypotheses or
questions derived from the theory.
As the data of quantitative studies are numeric rather than words and they
are presented in statistical analysis, when you decide to conduct this kind of
study you should be familiar with statistical skills. Today statistical analysis
can be done through a computer program or software called SPSS.
After following this session, students are expected to be able to:

1) explain how theories are placed in quantitative appoach.
2)draw the placement of theory in Quantitative Research
3) draw a diagram to show relationship among variables ( use 3 variables,X1 X2,
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and Y.
4) write hypotheses for a quantitative study
5) describe the datagathering in quantitative design
6) Explain the data analysis of quantitative design
8.1. Defining Quantitative Research
"Quantitative research," also called "empirical research," refers to any

research based on something that can be accurately and precisely measured.
For example, it is possible to discover exactly how many times per second a
hummingbird's wings beat and measure the corresponding effects on its
physiology (heart rate, temperature, etc.)
According to Cohen (1980), quantitative research is defined as social
research that employs empirical methods and empirical statements.. He states
that an empirical statement is defined as a descriptive statement about
whatisthe case in the real worldrather than what oughtto be the case.
Typically, empirical statements are expressed in numerical terms. Another
factor in quantitative research is that empirical evaluations are
applied.Empirical evaluations are defined is a form that seeks to determine the
degree to which a specific program or policy empirically fulfills or does not
fulfill a particular standard or norm.
Moreover, Creswell (1994) has given a very concise definition of
quantitative research as a type of research that is `explaining phenomena by
collecting numerical data that are analyzed using mathematically based
methods (in particular statistics).'
Quantitative research design is the standard experimental method of most
scientific disciplines. These experiments are sometimes referred to as true
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science, and use traditional mathematical and statistical means to measure

results conclusively.They are most commonly used by physical scientists,
although social sciences, education and economics have been known to use
this type of research.
Quantitative experiments all use a standard format, with a few minor
inter-disciplinary differences, of generating a hypothesis to be proved or
disproved. This hypothesis must be provable by mathematical and statistical
means, and is the basis around which the whole experiment is designed.
Randomization of any study groups is essential in quantitative research,
and a control group should be included, wherever possible. A sound
quantitative design should only manipulate one variable at a time, or statistical
analysis becomes cumbersome and open to question.Ideally, the research
should be constructed in a manner that allows others to repeat the experiment
and obtain similar results.
Quantitative research design is an excellent way of finalizing results and
proving or disproving a hypothesis. The structure has not changed for
centuries, so is standard across many scientific fields and disciplines.After
statistical analysis of the results, a comprehensive answer is reached, and the
results can be legitimately discussed and published. Quantitative experiments
also filter out external factors, if properly designed, and so the results gained
can be seen as real and unbiased.
8.2. Form of Theories in Quantitative Research
In the quantitative paradigm of research, a theory commonly is

understood. Kerlinger in Creswell (1994) defined a theory as “ a set of
interrelated constructs (variables), definitions, and propositions that presents
a systematic view of phenomena by specifying relations among variables, with
the purpose of explaining natural phenomena” (p.82). Thesystematic view
might be an argument, a discussion, or a rationale that helps explain (or
predict) phenomena that occur in the world.
The form of theories might be a series of hypotheses, “ If ... then”logic
statements, or a visual model. The form of presentation of the theory shows a
casual ordering of the variables. In other words, a theory might be stated as a
series of “if...then” statements that explain why one would expect the
independent variables to influence or cause the dependent variables. For
instance, in a theory of interaction (Homans in Creswell, 1994) states,
If the frequency of interaction between two or more persons increases,
the degree of their liking for one another will increase, and vise versa...
persons who feel sentiments of liking for one another will express
those sentiments in activities over and above the activities of the
external system, and these activities may further stengthen the
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sentiments of liking. The more frequently persons interact with one

another, the more alike in some respects both their activities and their
sentiments tend to become.(pp.112,118,120)
The theory may be presented as a visual model. It is useful to translate

variables into a visual picture.Blalock in Creswell (1994) transferred verbal
theories into casual models so that a reader can visualize the
interconnections of independent, intervening, and dependent variables. In
addition to this, Duncan (1985) provided useful suggestions about the
notation for cosntructing these visual, causal diagrams:
 Position the dependent variable on the right in the diagram and

the independent variable on the left.
 Use one-way arrows leading from each determining variable to
each variable dependent it.
 Indicate the “strength” of the relationship among variables by
inserting valence signs on the paths. One may use signs (positive
or negative valences) that postulate or interelationships.
 Use two-headed arrows connected by a curved line to show
unanalyzed correlations between variables not dependent on
others in the system.
X1 +
Y1 +
+
X2 Z1
++
Y2
X3 -
Independent Mediating Dependent

Variable Variable Variable
Figure 8.1. Three Independent Variables Influence a Single Dependent Variable,

Controlling for the Effects of Two Mediating Variables
A variation on this theme used in experimental studies is to compare

two groups (or samples) in terms of a dependent variable. As shown in
figure 8.2., two groups, X1 and X2, are compared in terms of their effect on
the dependent variable, Z1, controlling for the covariates Y1 and Y2.
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X1 + Y1 +
Z1
-
X2 - Y2
Independent Mediating Dependent

Variable Variable Variable
Figure 8.2. Two Groups, X1 and X2, Are Compared in Terms of Z1, Controlling for the Effect
of Y1 and Y2
8.3. Placement of the Theory in Quantitative Studies
In quantitative studies theory is used deductively and is placed towards

the begining of the plan for a study. In quantitative research the objective is to
test or verify a theory, rather than to develop it. Researchers thus begin the
study advancing a theory, collect data to test it, and reflect on whether the
theory was confirmed or disconfirmed by the results in the study. The theory
becomes a framework for the entire study, an organizing model for the
research questions or hypotheses and for the data collection procedure. The
deductive model of thinking used in a quantaitative study is shown in figure
8.3. The researcher tests a theory by using hypotheses or questions derived
from the theory. These hypotheses or questions, in turn, contain variables that
are measured by using items on an instrument.
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Researcher Tests a Theory
Researcher Tests Hypotheses or Research

Questions Derived from the Theory
Researcher Operationalizes Concepts or Variables

Derived from the Theory
Researcher Uses an Instrument to Measure

Variables in the Theory
Figure 8.3. Placement of Theory in Quantitative Research
The deductive approach to research in the quantitative paradigm has

implications for the placement of a theory in a quantitative research. As a
general guide, the theory discussion is introduced early in a plan or study.
8.4. Data Gathering in Quantitative Design
To see how well the program is working or when the evaluation goals
require evidence (e.g. in educational program or language teaching), the
traditional choice of a design for gathering and analysing information is one
of a set of experimental or quasi-experimental design. (Campbell and Stanley
in Lynch,1996). These two designs involve the gathering of quantitative data
from the experimental group and (if possible) from the control group. The
experimental group receives a treatment; the control group either recieves
nothing or receives a different type of treatment. Both groups, when there are
two groups, are measured in some way, generally with some type of test. This
measurement can occur at different time periods: before and after the
treatment, after the teatment only, or at several times before, during, and after
the treatment. Measurements taken before the treatment begins are referred
to as pretests; those taken after the treatment are called posttest.
In the case of language program evaluation, the treatment is the program,

the experimental group is the program students, and the control group is the
group of students to which the program students are being compared.
Table 8.1 True Experimental Design with Pretest and Posttest
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Pretest Treatment Posttest

Program group Test A Program Test B
Control group Test A Comparison Test B
Source: Language Program Evaluation by Lynnch, p.71
In the other extreme situation with respect to the control group factor,
no control or comparison group is available for the evaluation. This results
in a quasi-experimental design, in which all students receive the program
along with a pretest and posttest apresented in table 8.2
Table 8.2 . Quasi-experimental Design with Pretest and Posttest
Pretest Treatment Posttest

Program group Test A Program Test B
8.5. Data analysis of Quantitative Design
With the true experimental designs, data analysis can be approached in

a relatively straightforwards manner using the analysis of variance
(ANOVA). However, given the fact that most program evaluations,
conducted in field settings, do not conform to the requirements of
randomization. Perhaps the most accessible technique for analyzing
quantitative data for the purposes of program evaluation is the chi-square
procedure. The advantages of this technique is that it can be easily
calculated by hand, and it caqn be used with data that do not meet the
requirements of more sophisticated statistical procedures.This
accessibility, however, is accompanied by a loss of ability to make claims
about cause-and-effect relationships.
Chi-square establishes a relationship, or dependence, between two or

more variables that have been quantified as frequencies. In the case of
language program evaluation, the variables are the program and the
student achievement. Chi-square allows us to establish whether or not
there is a significant relationship, or dependence between the program and
the students’ achiement, but it does not allow us to say for certain that the
program caused the achievement. However, in the absence of test data that
can be used with statistical procedures that can establish cause-and-effect
relationship, or when used in conjunction with such procedure, chi-square
can be used as a qualified indication of program effect.
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The use of chi-square for program evaluation purposes requires a

comparison group, a pretest, and a posttest. The students are placed into
independent categories based on whether they are in the program group or
the comaparison group, and whether they increased or did not increase
their scors from pretest to posttest. (Henning in Lynch, 1996). The
independence of these categories is an important assumption of the chi-
square procedure; that is, each student can be put into one and only one
category:+program/+increase, +program/-increase, -program/+increase,
or –program/-increase. (p.95)
The chi-square statistic (X2) is calculated from the frequencies that

occur for the categories as shown in Table 8.3. Because there are only two
levels, or possibilities, for each variable in the table, a special calculation
that incorporates an adjustment known as the Yates Correction Factor is
used.
This calculation is:
X2 =[N(ad – bc – N/2)2] ÷ [(a + b)(c + d)(a + c)(b + d)]
Where N is the total number of students, program and comparison, and a,

b, c, and d represent the frequencies of students in each cell, or category, in
chi-square table.
Example:
Using data from the evaluation of English program, the “gain” scores were
gotten from pretest and posttest.
1) Separate the students into program group and comparison group. Say,
there were 99 students in the program group and 53 students in the
comparison group, who took both the pretest and the posttest.
2) For each student, substract the pretest score from the posttest score
(=the gain score)
3) If the gain score is positive, assign the students to the”gain” group; if
the gain score is zero or negative, assign the student to the “no gain”
group.
4) Total the number of program group students in the “gain” group and in
the “no gain” group; total the number of comaparison group students in
the “gain” group and in the “no gain” group. The totals from this step
are the frequencies as visualized in the following chi-square table:
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No gain Gain
Comparison 16(a) 37(b)
Program 8(c) 91(d)
5) Substitute the frequencies from the table into the chi-square formula:
N = a + b + c + d = 16 +37 + 8 + 91 = 152
ad = 16 x 91 = 1456
bc = 37 x 8 = 296
N/2 = 76
a + b = 53
c + d = 99
a + c = 24
b + d = 128
X2 = 152(1,456 – 2961 – 76)2
(53)(99)(24)(128)
= 152(1,084)2
16,118,784
= 178,608,512
16,118,784
=11.081 chi-square observed
α = .05, = 3.84 chi-square critical
Notice that the chi-square observed value is greater than the chi-
square critical value – in this case, we can conclude that there is a
dependence between the program and the student achievement (as
measured by pretest and posttest gain). As can be seen from the chi-square
table (in step 4), the independence is expressed as agreater relative
frequuency of program students in the “gain” group as compared to the
comparison group. Although this does not imply that the program caused
the greater achievement, the significant dependence can be taken as an
indication of positive program effect.
C. EXERCISE
Questions for Rewiew:
1.Explain and draw how theories are placed in quantitative appoach!

2. Draw a diagram to show relationship among variables ( use 3 variables,X1
X2,
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and Y.
3. Write 2 hypotheses for a quantitative study!
4. Describe how the data in quantitative design are collected!
5. Explain the data analysis of quantitative design!
D. ASSIGNMENT
Direction:Do this assignment on a separate paper!

Sarah conducted an experimental study to prove whether CLT
(Communicative Language Teaching Approach) can improve her students’
speaking skill. She taught two classes. One class was a program class, and
the other class was a comparison class. She gave pre-test and post-test for
both program class and comparison class. There were 45 students in the
program class and 34 students in the comparison class. Draw a table for a
True Experimental Design with Pretest and Posttest and find the chi-
square value using the chi-square formula
Format:Type your assignment on A4 paper with the following layout: left

margin: 4cm. Right margin: 3 cm, top margin: 4 cm, and bottom margin: 3 cm
As the paradigm says, in quantitative studies theory is used deductively and is

placed towards the begining of the plan for a study. The objective of
quantitative study is to test or verify a theory, rather than to develop it.
Researchers thus begin the study advancing a theory, collect data to test it,
and reflect on whether the theory was confirmed or disconfirmed by the
results in the study.
The theory becomes a framework for the entire study, an organizing model for
the research questions or hypotheses and for the data collection procedure.
The deductive model of thinking used in a quantaitative study. The researcher
tests a theory by using hypotheses or questions derived from the theory.
The theory may be presented as a visual model, meaning that the variables
may be translated into a visual picture. Blalock in Creswell (1994) transferred
verbal theories into casual models so that a reader can visualize the
interconnections of independent, intervening, and dependent variables.
There are at least two options if you want to conduct a quantitative study. You
can either do an experimental study using quasi-formula or conduct a survey
using questionaires as the instrument for collecting data.
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In analysing data of quantitative study, statistical analysis is employed. From

the simple one is using quasi-formula to compare pre-test and posttest result,
to compare program class and comparison class. Further or more accurate
study can be done by measuring regression (for improvement) using T-Test, or
by conducting correlational study using analysis of variance.
With the true experimental designs, data analysis can be approached in a

relatively straightforwards manner using the analysis of variance (ANOVA).
However, for experimental study, especially most program evaluations,
conducted in field settings, do not conform to the requirements of
randomization. Perhaps the most accessible technique for analyzing
quantitative data for the purposes of program evaluation is the chi-square
procedure.
F. REFFERENCES

4. Ebling Library.Nursing Resources: Qualitative vs Quantitative. Accessed
on 27 November 2015. Available in
http://researchguides.ebling.library.wisc.edu/
5. Explorable.Quantitative Research Design: Proving Cause and Effect.
Accessed on Nov.27015. Available online in
:https://explorable.com/quantitative-research-design
Practice.
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SAGE Publications
Valerry
from:
service- quality
12. Sukamolson, Subhat. Fundamentals of Quantitative Research. Accessed
on Nov.28th, 2015.
Available online in : http://www.culi.chula.ac.th/Research/e-
journal/bod/Suphat%20Sukamolson.pdf
CHAPTER IX
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGN
A. INTRODUCTION
In the previous chapter you have just

learnt about quantitative design of a
research. You surely still remember
contrasting between the two paradigm:
quantitative and qualitative.
Understanding the both is very important
before you decide which study you want
to conduct. Something that you need to
know is that some problems and
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phenomena are better or can only be accurately measured by quantitative

studies. It can be understood because quantitative research focuses on
outcomes rather than process. Quantitative reseachers have hold a theory
(construct), their variables are obvious, and they make hypotheses. Qualitative
research, on the other hand, is exploratory and researchers use it to explore a
topic when the variables and theory base are unknown.
Qualitative researchers are concerned primarily with process, rather than

outcomes or products.Qualitative researchers are interested in meaning – how
people make sense of their lives, experiences, and their structures of the
world.To conduct this kind of study you need to build a new theory by using
an inductive model of thinking or logic. Qualitative researchers begin by
gathering detailed information and forms categories or themes until a theory
or pattern emerges.
Unlike quantitative research, the data analysis of qualitative research are

based on grounded theories and are presented in discussions or essay. The
validity in this approach commonly refers to the correctness or credibility of a
description, conclusion, explanation, interpretation, or other sort of account.
After joining this session, you are expected to be able to :
1) explain the characteristics of a qualitative research

2) explain the role of theories in qualitative research
3) draw the Inductive Model of Reseach in a Qualitative Study
4) explain how data are collected in qualitative design
5) explain how data are analyzed and presented in qualitative design
9.1. Defining Qualitative Research
What Is Qualitative Research?
Qualitative research methods are tools for gathering information that does
not take a numerical form that can be counted and otherwise manipulated
mathematically. Results are instead based on observations, in-depth
interviews, personal accounts, etc. Participant observation, historical
sociology, ethnomethodology, ethnography, and ethnology are all examples of
qualitative research methods.
According to Cresswell (1994) "A qualitative study is defined as an inquiry

process of understanding a social or human problem, based on building a
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complex, holistic picture, formed with words, reporting detailed views of

informants, and conducted in a natural setting.
Qualitative researchers are primarily concerned with practice and process
rather than outcomes. That is, they focus on the process that is occurring
instead of the outcome of that process. The focus is on participants'
perceptions and experiences and the way they make sense of their lives.
Qualitative research, also called field research, typically involves fieldwork

in which the researcher observes and records behavior and events in their
natural setting.The researcher physically goes to the people, setting, or site in
order to observe the subject as it normally and naturally occurs or behaves.
In a sense, you've been doing qualitative research your whole life. We do

field research whenever we observe or participate in social behavior and try to
understand it, whether in a college classroom, in a doctor's waiting room, or
on an airplane. Whenever we report our observations to others, we are
reporting our field research efforts.
9.2. Qualitative Research Assumptions
Merriam in Creswell (1994) mentioned six assumptions:
1) Qualitative researchers are concerned primarily with process, rather

than outcomes or products.
2) Qualitative researchers are interested in meaning – how people make
sense of their lives, experiences, and their structures of he world.
3) The qualitative researcher is the primary instrument for data collection
and analysis. Data are mediated through this human instrument,
mrather than through inventories, questionaires, or machines.
4) Qualitative research involves fieldwork. The researcher physically goes
to the people, setting, site, or institution to observe or record behavior
in its natural setting.
5) Qualitative research is descriptive in that the researcher is interested iin
process, meaning, and understanding gained through words or pictures.
6) The process of qualitative reseach is inductive in that the researcher
builds abstractions, concepts, hypotheses, and theories from details.
9.3. Features of Qualitative Research
Qualitative research is exploratory and that researchers use it to explore a

topic when the variables and theory base are unknown. In addition to this,
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Morse in Creswell (1994) states that Characteristics of a qualitative research

problem are: (a) the concept is “immature” due to a conspicuous lack of theory
and previous research; (b) a notion that the available theory may be
inaccurate, inappropriate, incorrect, or biased; (c) a need exists to explore and
describe the phenomena and to develop theory; or (d) the nature of the
phenomenon may not be suited to quantitative measures.
9.4. Strength and Weakness of Qualitative Research
9.4.1. Strengths Of Qualitative Research
Field research is especially effective for studying subtle nuances in

attitudes and behaviors and for examining social processes over time. The
main strength of this method, then, lies in the depth of understanding that it
allows. Rarely is field research challenged as being "superficial."
Another advantage of qualitative research is the flexibility it permits.
Researchers can modify their field research design at any time and as often as
they like. Further, one is always prepared to engage in field research, whenever
the occasion should arise, as there is little to no preparation needed. You could
not as easily initiate a survey or conduct an experiment in this manner.
Field research can be relatively inexpensive as well. Other social scientific
research methods may require expensive equipment or an extensive research
staff, but field research typically can be undertaken by one researcher with a
notebook and pen.
9.4.2. Weakness of Qualitative Research
Field research has several weaknesses as well. First, qualitative research is

not an appropriate means for arriving at statistical descriptions of large
populations. Observing casual political discussions in restaurants, for example,
would not yield trustworthy estimates of future voting behaviors of the total
voting population. Nevertheless, the study could provide important insights
into how political attitudes are formed.
Field research also has a potential problem with reliability. Reliability can
also be thought of as dependability: If you made the same measurement or
observation again and again, would you get the same result? In field research,
since observations and interpretations are subjective and personal, the
researcher must take pains to address this and prevent their personal opinions
and feelings from biasing their results.
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9.5. Placement of Theory or Patterns in Qualitative Research
In qualitative research the use of theory is less clear than in quantitative

designs. In a qualitative study, one does not begin with a theory or test or
verify. Instead, consistent with the inductive model of thinking, a theory may
emerge during the data collection and analysis phase of the research or be
used relatively late in the research process as a basis for comparison with other
theories.
A theory in qualitative studies may not be a “container” because it does

not fit a particular situation, or it inadequately explains what is occuring
naturally in a situation. (Creswell, 1994). One needs to build a new theory by
using an inductive model of thinking or logic, as shown in figure 9.1. The
researcher begins by gathering detailed information and forms categories or
themes until a theory or pattern emerges.
Although the placement of theory must be suggested by the design

employed, the inductive process would suggest that it be used late in a study.
It may be the end product of the qualitative study. For example, Lincoln and
Guba in Creswell (1994) discussed the intent of naturalistic studies as
developing a “pattern”. This pattern becomes the culminating aspect of the
entire study.Whether the end of product is a pattern, a generalization, or a
visual model, it represents a theory developed by the researcher.
Researcher Develops a Theory

or Compares Pattern with Other Theories
Researcher Looks for Patterns (Theories)
Researcher Forms Categories
Researcher Asks Questions
Researcher Gathers Information
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Figure 9.1. The Inductive Mode of Reseach in a Qualitative Study
9.6. Gathering Data and Analysis of Qualitative Research
In a qualitative study, research

design should be a reflexive
process operating through every
stage of a project (Hammersley
& Atkinson in Maxwell, 1996).
The activity of collecting and
analyzing data, developing and
modifying theory, elaborating or
refocusing the research
questions, and identifying and
eliminating validity threats are usually all going on more or less
simultaneously, each influencing all of the others.
Maxwell (1996) suggests a model of five components that can be
characterized by the issues that each is intended to address:
1) Purpose: What are the ultimate goals of this study? What issues is iit
intended to illuminate, and what practices will it influence? Why do
you want to conduct it, and why should we care about the results? Why
is the study worrth doing?
2) Conceptual context: What do you think is going on with the
phenomena you plan to study? What theories, fiindings, and
conceptual frameworks relating to these phenomena will guide or
inform your study, and what literature, preliminary research, and
personal experience will you draw on? This component of design
contains the theory that you already have or are developing about the
setting or issues that you are studying. There are four main sources for
this theory: your own experience, existing theory and research, the
results of any pilot studies or preliminary research that you have done,
and thought experiments.
3) Research questions: What, specifically, do you want to understand by
doing this study? What do you not know about the phenomena you are
studying that you want to learn? What questions will your research
attempt to answer, and how are these questions related to one another?
4) Method: What will you actually do in conducting this study? What
approaches and techniques will you use to collect and analyze your
data, and how do these constitute an integrated strategy? This
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component of your design includes four main parts: your research

relationship with the people you study, your site selection and sampling
decisions, your data collection methods, and the data analysis
techniques you will use.
5) Validity : How might you be wrong? What are the plausible alternative
explanation and validity threats to the potential conclusions of your
study, and how will you deal with these? How do the data that you
have, or that you could collect, support or challenge your ideas about
what’s going on? Why should we believe your results?
Conceptual
Purposes
Context
Research
Questions
Validity
Methods
Figure 9.2. An Interactive Model of Research Design (Maxwell,1996)
As seen from figure 9.2., in ths model the components form an

integrated and interacting whole, with each component closely tied to several
others, rather than being linked in a linear or cyclic sequence.
Purposes
There are five particular research purposes for which qualitative studies are
especially suited:
1) Understanding the meaning, for participants in the study, of the events,

situations, and actions they are involved with and of the accounts that
they give of their lives and experiences.
2) Understanding the paricular contextwithin which the participants act,
and the influence that this context has on their actions. Qualitative
researchers typically study a relativbely small number of individuals or
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situations and preserve the individuality of each of these in their

analyses, rather than collecting data from large samples and
aggregating the data across individuals and situations. Thus, they are
able to understand how events, actions, and meanings are shaped by
unique circumstances in which these occur.
3) Identifying unanticipated phenomena and influences, and generating
new grounded theories about the latter. Qualitative research has long
been used for this purpose by survey and experimental researchers, who
often conduct exploratory qualitative studies to help them design their
questionaires and identify variables for experimental investigation.
4) Understanding the process by which events and actions take place.
The interest in a qualitative study is in process rather than outcomes,
although it does not mean that qualitative research in unconcerned
with outcomes, it does emphasize that a major strength of qualitative
research is in getting at the process that led to these outcomes,
processes that experimental and survey research are often poor at
identifying.(Marriam, Britan & Patton in Maxwell,1996)
5) Developing causal explanations.
As comparison, quantitative researchers tend to be interested in
whether and to what extent variance “x” causes variance in “y”.
Qualitative researchers, on the other hand, tend to ask how “ x “ plays a
role in causing “y”, what the process is that connects x and y.
Mohr (1982) defined this a s the distinction between variance theory
and process theory. Variance theory deals with variables and
correlations among them; it is based on an analysis of the contributions
of differences in values of particular variables to differences in other
variables. Process theory, in contrast, deals with events and the process
that connect them; it is based on an analysis of the causal processes by
which some events influence others.
Conseptual Context
The conceptual context of your study – the system of concepts,

assumptions, expectations, beliefs, and theories that supports and informs
your research – is a key part of your design. This context, or a diagrammatic
representation of it, is often called a conceptual framework. The most
important thing to understand about your conceptual context is that it is a
formulation of what you think is going on with the phenomena you are
studying – a tentative theory of what is happening and why. Your
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conceptual context is a theory, what is sometimes called the theoretical

framework for the study.
In constructing a conceptual context, your purpose is not only

descriptive, but also critical; you need to understand what the problems
have been with previous research and theory, what contradictions or holes
you have found in existing views, and how your study can make an original
contribution to our understanding.
Another way of putting this is that the conceptual context for your
reseach study is something that is constructed, not found. The important
point is : the linking of two concepts by a proposed relationship.(simple
theory by Maxwell (1996):
Concept A Concept B
Figure 9.3. A Simpe Theory (Maxwell, 1996)
Maxwell (1996) distinguished theory from two things called description

and interpretation.
Description is simply a factual narrative of what happened, at a very low

level of abstraction. It is not theory because the connections between the
events are neither abstract nor explanatory, but simply spatial and
cronological; it makes no attempt to go beyond what is immediately or
potentially observable.
Interpretation, (also differs from theory) refers to an account of the

meaning given to some situation or event by the people studied , in their
own terms. Interpretation, in this sense, is not theory for the same reason
that description is not theory: it simply a concrete account of that meaning
and has no explanatory intent.
A useful theory is one that tells an enlightening story about some

phenomenon, one that gives you new insights and broadens your
understanding of that phenomenon. Glaser and Strauss in Maxwell (1996)
term grounded theory does not refer to any particular level of theory, but to
theory that is inductively developed during a study (or a series of studies)
and in constant interaction with the data from that study. This thory is
grounded in the actual data collected, in contrast to a theory that is
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developed conceptually and then simply tested against empirical data. A

useful high-level thory gives you a framework for making sense of what you
see. Particular pieces of data that otherwise might seem unconnected or
irrelevant to one another or to your research questions can be related by
fitting them into the theory.
Research Questions
The research questions in a qualitative study should not be formulated

in detail until the purposes and context (and sometimes general aspects of
the sampling and data collection) of the design are clarified, and they
should remain sensitive and adaptable to the implications of other parts of
the design.This does not mean that qualitative researchers should bein a
study with no questions, simply going into the field with an open mind and
seeing what is there to be investigated. Every researcher begins with a
substantial base of experience and theoretical knowledge, and these
inevitably generate certain questions about the phenomena studied. These
initial questions frame the study in important ways, influence decisions
about methods,and are one basis for further focusing and development of
more specific questions.
A common problem in developing research questions is a confucion

between research issues – what you want to understand by doing the study
– and practical issues – what you want to accomplish. Another problem that
is critical for interview studies, is between research questions and interview
questions. Your research questions identify the things that you want to
understand; your interview questions provide the data that you need to
understand these things.
Research questions are not the same as research hypothese. Research

questions state what you want to learn. Hypotheses, in contrast, are a
statement of your tentative answers to these questionns – what you think is
going on. The use of explicit reseaarch hypotheses is often seen
incompatible with qualitative research. The statement of ideas about what
is going on as part of the process of theorizing and data analysis is called
propositionsrather than hypotheses.
Methods
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There is no”cookbook” for doing qualitative research. The best answer

to almost any question about the use of qualitaive methods is”it depends”.
The value and practicability of your research methods cannot be guaranteed
by adhering to methodological rules; they depend on the specific setting
and phenomena you are studying and the actual consequencies of your
strategy for studying these. (Maxwell, 1996)
One of the most important issues in designing a qualitative study is

how much you should attempt to prestructure your methods. Structured
approaches can help to ensure the comparability of data across sources and
researchers and are thus particularly useful inanswering variace questions,
questions that deal with differences between things and their explanation.
Unstructured approaches, in contrast, allow the researcher to focus on the
particular phenomena studied; they trade generalizability and
comparability for internal validity and contextual understanding and are
particularly useful in understanding the processes that led to specific
outcomes. (Huberman and Miles in Maxwell, 1996)
Validity
Validity in this context commonly refers to the correctness or

credibility of a description, conclusion, explanation, interpretation, or other
sort of account. Validity is a goal rather than a product; it is never
something that can be proven or taken for granted. Validity is also relative:
it has to be assessed in relationship to the purposes and circumstances of
the research,rather than being a context-independent property of method
or conclusions. (Maxwell, 1992). Finally, validity threats are made
implausible by evidence, not methods; methods are only a way of getting
evidence that can help you rule out these threats.
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Maxwell distinguished validity in qualitative research into three main

types of understanding: description, interpretation, and theory.
Description. He main threat to valid description, in the sense of describing

what you saw and heard, is the inaccuracy or incompleteness of the data.
The audio or video recording of observations and interview and
transcriptions of these recording largely solves these problems. If you do
not videotape, you need to make your observational notes as detailed,
concrete, and chronological as possible.
Interpretation. The main threat to valid interpretation is imposing one’s

own framework or meaning, rather than understanding the perspective of
the people studied and the meaning they attach to their words and actions.
The most important check on such validity threats is to seriously and
systematically attempt to learn how the participants in your study make
sense of what’s going on, rather than pigeonholing their words and actions
inyour own framework.
Theory. The most serious threat to the theoretical validity of an account is

not collecting or paying attention to discrepant data, or not considering
alternative explanations or understandings of phenomena you are studying.
9.7. Methods of Data Collection
 Direct observation: The researcher studies people in their natural

environment, simply observing interactions and behaviors as an
outsider, without participating.
 In-depth interviews: The researcher interviews participants in-depth and

one-on-one. The interviewer typically has a general plan of inquiry but
not a specific set of questions that must be asked in a particular order.
Rather, it flows more like a conversation in which the respondent
guides the direction of the interview.
Interviewing is a method of qualitative research in which the

researcher asks open-ended questions orally and records the
respondent’s answers. Interviewing is typically done face-to-face,
but can also be done via telephone.
In-depth interviews are different from survey interviews in that they are
less structured. In survey interviews, the questionnaires are rigidly
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structured – the questions must all be asked in the same order, the
same way, and only the pre-defined answer choices can be given. In-
depth qualitative interviews, on the other hand, are flexible and
continuous. They are not locked in stone and are often not prepared in
advance. In a qualitative interview, the interviewer has a general plan of
inquiry, however he or she has no specific set of questions that must be
asked with particular words and in a particular order. The interviewer
must, however, be fully familiar with the subject, potential questions,
and plan so that things proceed smoothly and naturally. Ideally, the
respondent does most of the talking while the interviewer listens, takes
notes, and guides the conversation in the direction it needs to go. It is
the respondent’s answers to the initial questions that should shape the
subsequent questions. The interviewer needs to be able to listen, think,
and talk almost simultaneously. Interviewing should be an essential
part of the entire field research process. It is often done in conjunction
with other methods, particularly participant observation and
immersion.
Stages of The Interviewing Process
Kvale (1996) identifies seven states in the complete interviewing

process:
1. Thematizing: Clarifying the purpose of the interviews and the
concepts to be explored.
2. Designing: Laying out the process through which you’ll accomplish
your purpose. This should also include ethical considerations.
3. Interviewing: Doing the actual interviews.
4. Transcribing: Creating a written text of the interviews.
5. Analyzing: Determining the meaning of the information gathered in
the interviews in relation to the purpose of the study.
6. Verifying: Examining the reliability and validity of the information
gathered.
7. Reporting: Telling others what you have learned or discovered.
8. Participation: The researcher observes behavior by participating in
the
group and gaining first-hand experiences.
9. Immersion: The researcher immerses themselves into the setting,
living among the participants for months or years. The researcher
"goes native" to get an in-depth and longitudinal understanding of the
subject.
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10. Focus group: The researcher interviews a small group of participants

at the same time. The focus groups are generally more structured and
contain 10-15 participants at a time. Focus groups are used often in
market research.
C. EXERCISE
1. Explain the characteristics of a qualitative research!

2. Explain the role of theories in qualitative research!
3. Draw the Inductive Model of Reseach in a Qualitative Study!
4. Explain how data are collected in qualitative design!
5. Explain how data are analyzed and presented in qualitative design!
D. ASSIGNMENT
Direction:Write your assignment on a separate paper!
The Assignment:
1. Write a theoretical framework of a qualitative study ( 2.3. of the thesis
proposal)
2. Write method of data analysis of a qualitative study (3.4. of your thesis
proposal)
Format:
Type your assignment on A4 paper with the following layout: left margin:
4cm. Right margin: 3 cm, top margin: 4 cm, and bottom margin: 3 cm
A qualitative study is defined as an inquiry process of understanding a social or

human problem, based on building a complex, holistic picture, formed with
words, reporting detailed views of informants, and conducted in a natural
setting. Qualitative researchers are primarily concerned with practice and
process rather than outcomes.
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Qualitative researchers are interested in meaning – how people make sense of

their lives, experiences, and their structures of he world. Researcher is the
primary instrument for data collection and analysis in this qualitative study.
Data are mediated through this human instrument, rather than through
inventories, questionaires, or machines.
Qualitative research is descriptive in that the researcher is interested iin

process, meaning, and understanding gained through words or pictures.The
process of qualitative reseach is inductive in that the researcher builds
abstractions, concepts, hypotheses, and theories from details.
The activity of collecting and analyzing data, developing and modifying theory,
elaborating or refocusing the research questions, and identifying and
eliminating validity threats are usually all going on more or less
simultaneously, each influencing all of the others.(Maxwell,1996)
Validity in qualitative research commonly refers to the correctness or

credibility of a description, conclusion, explanation, interpretation, or other
sort of account.
F. REFFERENCES
1. Anderson, M.L. and Taylor, H.F. (2009). Sociology: The Essentials.

Belmont, CA: Thomson Wadsworth.
2. Babbie, E. (2001). The Practice of Social Research: 9th Edition. Belmont,
CA: Wadsworth Thomson.
6. Kvale, S. (1996). InterViews: An Introduction To Qualitative Research
Interviewing. Sage Publications.
Practice.
SAGE Publications
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Valerry
from:
service- quality
CHAPTER X
DATA GATHERINGAND ANALYSIS
A. INTRODUCTION
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After you have understood well about

the different assumptions, features or
characteristics of the two paradigms –
quantitative and qualitative, it is time
for you to learn about finding and
gathering data for both approaches.
As there are contradictions between
the two, the way of finding and
gathering data is also diffrent.
If you choose to use a

quantitative design for your study (e.g. in program evaluation), one of the
most important concerns you will have will be identifying an appropriate test
or other instrument for measuring the effect of the program. Alternatively, in
quantitative research you can conduct a survey design than provides numeric
description of some fraction of the population – the sample – through the data
collection process of asking questions of people (Fowler in Cresswell, 1994)
On the other hand, if you decide to conduct a qualitative study, the most
common methods for gathering and recording data (in program evaluation)
are observation, interviews, journals, questionaires, and document analysis.
The data that are recorded by these methods may come from a variety of
sources: students, instructors, adminstrators, evaluators,, and other persons
who interact with the program. The data that emerge from a qualitative study
are descriptive. That is, data are reported in words or pictures rather than in
numbers. (Fraenkel & Wallen in Creswell, 1994)
By the end of this session, you are expected to be able to :

1) describe the steps of collecting data of qualitative study.
2) explain the procedure of gathering a quantitative data.
3) explain the difference between Population and Sample
4) explain three different intruments in qualitative research
5) differentiate between Participant vs Non-participant Observation
6) explain the three types of qualitative interview format
7) write at least four types of interview questions and examples
10.1. Data Gathering and Analysis Procedure in Qualitative Design
10.1.1. Data Collecting Procedure
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The data collection steps in qualitative design involve: (a) setting the
boundaries for the study, (b) collecting information through observations,
interview, documents, and visual materials, and (c)establishing the protocol
for recording information.
Identify the parameters for the data collection.
The idea of qualitative research is to purposefully select informants (or

documents or visual material) that will best answer the research questions. No
attempt is made to randomly select informants. Researchers should consider
the four parameters (as suggsted by Miles & Huberman in Creswell, 1994): 1)
the setting (where the research will take place); 2) the actors (who will be
observed or interviewed); 3) the events (what the actors will be doing or what
they will be interviewed about), and 4) the process (the evolving nature of
events undertaken by the actors within the setting)
Indicate the types of data to be collected and provide a rationale for the data
collection.
Data collection procedures in qualitative research involve four basic types:

observations, interviews, documents, and visual images.
Use Protocol
Before entering the field, plan your approach to data recording. Design
and advance protocols for collecting information. A protocol or form for
recording information is needed to note observations in the field. You may
want to separate descriptive notes from reflective notes. Descriptive notes are
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portraits of the informants, a reconstruction of dialogue, a description of

physical setting, accounts of particular events, and activities. Reflective notes
on the other hand, are an opportunity for the researcher to recod personal
thoughts such as “speculation, feelings, problems, ideas, hunches, impressions,
and prejudices. (Bogdan & Biklen in Creswell, 1994)
A protocol is also useful in conducting interviews. This protocol would

include the following components: (a) heading, (b) instructions to the
interviewer (opening statement), (c) the key research questions to be asked,
(d) probes to follow key questions, (e) transition messages for the interviewer,
(f) space for recording the interviewer’s comments, and (g) space in which the
reseacher records reflective notes.
Researchers record information from the interviews by using notetaking

or audiotapes. The recording of documents and visual materials can follow the
protocol format outlined above. A protocol for recording information could be
established that identifies: (a) information about the document or material
and (b) key categories that the researcher is looking for in the source of
information.
10.1.2. Data Analysis Procedure in Qualitative Research
Data analysis in qualitative study requires that the researcher be

comfortable with developing categories and making comparisons and
contrasts. It also requires that researcher be open to possibilities and see
contrary or alternative explanations for the findings. Also the tendency is for
beginning researchers to collect much more information than they can
manage or reduce to a meaningful analysis. Paton in Creswell (1994) notes:
The data generated by qualitative methods are voluminous. I found no way of
preparing students for the sheer massive volumes of information with which
they will find themselves confronted when the data collection has ended.
Sitting down to make sense out of pages of interviews and whole files of field
notes can be overwhelming.
Focusing
The first step in the nonlinear process for qualitative data analysis is to
focus the evaluation (Lynch, 1996). One useful way of doing this is to develop
a thematic framework that represents the most important evaluation questions
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to be answered. In the process of gathering data, the naturalistic evaluator will

have gained new insight regarding these original evaluation issues.
The data then need to be systematized in some way, so that the evaluator
knows where everything is. This system may reflect the data gathering
techniques – for example, putting all the observational data in one file, all the
iinterview data in another. Another system would be to organize the data by
the source – for example, all of the data gathered from students in one file,
data from teachers in another.
Coding the data
At this stage, the evaluator (in this case the researcher) needs to read
through the entire data set, using the thematic fraework as a guide but being
alert to new themes, patterns, and examples in the data. This first pass through
the data will help the evaluator decide on a preliminary system for coding the
data. Codes are simply abbreviated labels for the themes and patterns that
evaluator is beginning to identify.The code should be short enough to serve its
purpose as a time saving data marker, but long enough so that it is easily
interpretable and distinguishable from other codes, revising the latter as new
patterns emerge that suggest better ways of labeling the data.
Classifying and Reducing the Data
Coding the data represents the beginning of a classification system, which

is expanded in the next stage of adata analysis. Although some data reduction
is accomplished during the coding stage, the evaluator needs now to reduce
the data further by using classification schemes such as category system,
typologies, and display matrices. The creation of a category system flows
naturally from the preliminary thematic framework, and coding. The basic
idea is to look for recurring patterns in the data and to find ways of grouping
those patterns and themes.
Another classification system that can be used to reduce data is a typology.

Typologies are normally characterized as indigenous or analyst-constructed,
where the former refers to ways of grouping or describing persons or
phenomena that come from the participants themselves, and the latter refers
to a typology created by the researcher/ evaluator.
The final stage in naturalistic data analysis involves interpreting the

reduced data and forming conclusions.
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Several points can guide the development of the analysis of qualitative data:
1) Suggest in the plan that the data analysis will be conducted as an activity
simultaneously with data collection, data interpretaion, and narrative
reporting writing. In this respect, qualitative analysis clearly differs from
quantitative approach of dividing and engaging in the separate activities of
data collection, analysis, and writing the results. In qualitative analysis,
several simultaneous activities engage the attention of the researcher:
collecting information from the field, sorting the information into categories,
formating the information into a story or picture, and actually writing the
qualitative text.
2) Indicate how the process of qualitative analysis will be based on data

reduction and interpretation. The researcher takes a voluminous amount of
information and reduces it to certain patterns, categories, or themes and
then interpret this information by using some schema.
3) Mention a plan for representing the information in matrices. Miles &

Huberman in Creswell (1994) support the concept of displays of the
information, a spatial format that presents information systematically to the
reader. These displays are tables of tabular information. They show the
relationship among categories of information, display categories of
informants, site, demographic variables, time ordering of the information,
role ordering, and many other possibilities.
4) Identify the coding procedure to be used to reduce the information to themes

or categories.Flexible rules govern how one goes about sorting through
interview transcriptions, observational notes, documents, and visual material.
It is clear that one forms categories of information and attaches codes to
these categories. These categories and codes form the basis for the emerging
story to be told by the qualitative researcher.
5) Mention any specific data analysis procedures that are inherent in qualitative
design. Some design types in qualitative research have detailed protocols for
data analysis. In case study research Yin in Creswell (1994) discussed
dominant modes of data analysis, such as: (a) the search for patterns by
comparing results with patterns predicted from theory or literature; (b)
explanation building, in which the researcher looks for causal links and/or
explore plausible or rival explanations and attempts to build an explanation
about the case; and (c) time-series analysis in which the researcher traces
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changes in a pattern over time, a procedure similar to time-series analysis

conducted in experiments and quasi-experiments.
10.1.3. Research Intruments for Gathering Qualitative Data
The most common method for gathering an recording data (esp.in a

naturalistic program evaluation) are observation, interviews, journals,
questionaires, and document analysis. The data that are recorded by these
methods can come from a variety of sources: students, instructors,
administrators, evaluators, and other persons who interact with the program.
10.1.3.1. Observation
Successful observation requires

something more than just sitting
and watching. Abilities that are
considered to be important include
question-generating skills, the use
of flexible and efficient note-taking
and coding devices, observer
frame-of-mind preparation skills,
and being able to” see more to
see.”(Lynch, 1996). The recording
of the observation data is usually
referred to as field notes. The most important characteristic of field notes is
that they are descriptive. This means that they need to be detailed and clear,
and this descriptive quality needs to be distinguished from evaluative or
interpretative statements.
Another aspect of recording detailed and clear field notes is the need to
avoid labeling something that is observed without explaining whay the label
was chosen. Your strategy for recording field notes will often need to change
over time, adapting itself to the observation context and changes in what you
decide to focus on.
10.1.3.1.1. Participant vs Non-participant Observation
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As an observer, you are immediately faced with a basic choice: Will you
actually participate in the setting you plan to observe, or will your role be that
of a nonparticipating outsider? It may be more accurate to think of this choice
as involving various degrees of participation. Non-participant observation may
occur only in the case of someone who observes from behind a one-way
mirror, or someone who uses a videotape recording of a classroom for
observation data (without having been present for recording).
Spradley (1980) defined different types of participant observation based

on the level of involvement with the setting:
1) Passive participant observation – in which the observer does not actively

participate in the classroom interactions and does not have a role to
play other than observer. This type of observation is often labeled
nonparticipant, and corresponds to the type of observation that
normally occurs for teacher development purposes in most language
programs.
2) Complete participant observation – where the observer already has an
established role within the setting, such as when a teacher decides to
gather observational data of his or her own classroom. One advantage
when attempting a complete participant observation is that you have
already solved the problem of gaining entry to the setting.
3) Active participant observation – occurs when the observer takes on a
typical role within the setting, such as jooining hte class as a student.
This active participant observation has the advantage of allowing the
observer to come into the setting without preconceived notions of
what it is like. The major disadvantage lies in the potential diffulty in
gaining the entry – will the observer be accepted and treated as an
ordinary participant, or will the participants act differently iin her
presence?
4) Moderate participant observation – is defined by the observer
alternating between active and passive roles within the setting. In this
type of observation, the observer has the advantage of being able to
sample the role of insider while still being able to step back and
observe the large picture. The major disadvantage is the difficulty of
obtaining an accurate sense of the setting from the insider’s
perspective. A moderate paricipant observer could choose to stand
apart from the activity and record student behavior – expressions,
interactions with other students, comments to the teacher –in great
detail. This observation experience would result in a better
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understanding of the activity than if observer had actually tried to

participate in it.
10.1.3.1.2. Observational Focus
If you are gathering data through observation, then, you will most likely
need to attempt at least an initial period when the focus is extremely broad.
Patton in Lynch (1996) points out: It is not possible to observe everything.” To
aid in the process of deciding what to observe, he suggests sensitizing
concept.Rather than replacing a holistic approach with preordinate, fixed
categories, these concepts act as a guide to help you manage the observational
task.
10.1.3.2. Interview
10.1.3.2.1. Structured versus Unstructured Interviews
As with observational data

gathering, interviews can be carried
out using different formats that vary
along a structured to unstructured
continum. Depending on the
evaluation goals, the specific
evaluation context, and the type of
qualitative design chosen for the
evaluation, a more or less structured
interview format will be required. When a highly naturalistic design is guiding
the evaluation and the concerned is for data that are grounded in the variety
of individual experiences that exist in the program, a less structured interview
format will be best. If the most important concerns are getting the same
information from all persons interviewed and demonstrating a comprehensive,
systematic approach to data gathering, then a more structured interview is
prefered.
Patton (1980) discusses three types of qualitative interview format: the

informal conversational interview, the interview guide, and the standardized
open-ended interview.
1) Informal Conversational Interview
The informal conversational interview is the unstructured end of the

continum, where the interviewer attempts to engage the interviewee in a
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natural conversation in which the questions arise more or less spontaneously.

This approach works best if the interviewer has already established some sort
of relationship with the interviewee – for example, as a result of moderate to
active participant observation or ather legitimate contact with the program.
The interview has no predetermined agenda or set of questions; instead, it
allows the interaction between interviewer and interviewee to establish its
own dynamic.
The interviewer’s job is to be sensitive to the immediate conversation and

to seek clarification and elaboration of the interviewee’s comments and
responses. Instead of attempting to identify or confirm hypotheses expressed
in terms created by the intervierwer, the informal conversational approach
puts a premium on discovering the interviewee’s perceptions of the program in
his or her own words.
The major advantage of this approach is that the interview can be tailored
to the individual being interviewed. This maximizes the amount of relevant
information that interviewer can obtain from each interview. Topics that the
interviewer may not have predicted can arise and be pursued, and topics
already familiar to the interviewer can be developed in relation to the
iinterviewee’s understanding of them.
The major disadvantage of the informal converstional interview is that is

requires a great deal of time. Usually, one interview per person will not be
enough to gain the desired in-depth understanding. Finally, the analysis of
these interview data is difficult and time consuming because the iinterviews
each generate different sets of questions and answers, making patterns more
difficult to identify.
2) Standardized open-ended interview
At the most structured end of the qualitative interview continum is the

standardized open-ended interview. Under this format, the exact wording and
order of questions to be asked is determined in advance. Like structured
observation, this form of interviewing is not acceptable to many naturalistic
researchers, given the preordained set of questions to be answered by the
interviewee. However, this approach to interviewing may be useful towards
the end of an evaluation study,when the major themes have had the
opportunity to emerge from less structured data gathering.
The obvious advantage to the standardized open-ended interview is its

efficiency. The interviewer knows in advance where the interview is going and
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how the questions will be asked. This is especially important in evaluation

contexts in which there is a limited amount of time available for data
gathering.Because in this approach the interviewer is assured of obtaining the
same information across the various interviews and will usually need to
conduct only one interview per person, the information collected in these
interviews will be easier to compare across persons; patterns in the data will
be easier to identify. This approach is especially useful when more than one
person is collectin the interview data.
The inflexibility of this format is obviously the disadvantage. The

interviewer is locked into a set of questions and an order for asking them.
Spontaneity and naturalness in the interaction with the interviewee become
difficult. Topics that have not been predicted in advance are not allowed to
emerge or be elaborated.
3) The interview guide
The interview guide allows the interviewer to specify a range of questions

to be covered in advance, but also allows the interviewer to formulate the
wording of the questions as well as the order for asking them as the interview
progresses. The range of queswtions is written out prior to the interview in the
form of outline. This outline acts as a checklist, to make certain that each
interview covers the same information. Unlike the standardized interview, the
interview guide has the flexibility to adapt the questions to the individual
being interviewed and to establish a relatively natural conversational
interaction.
The major advantage of this approach is that it combines some of the best
characteristics of the two extremes on the structured-unstructured continuum.
The guide allows the interviewer to make eficient use of time and to be
systematic and complete across iinterviews. At the same time , the interviewer
can phrase the questions in response to the nature of the individual being
interviewed and in response to the natural flow of theinterview conversation.
Like the standardized open-ended iinterview, the interview guide has the
potential for failing to encounter and pursue important topics that have not
been articulated in advance. There is also potential for different interviewers
asking somewhat different questions of different interviewees, resulting in
data that are difficult to compare and analyzed. However, the resulting data
will be more systematic than that of the informal conversational approach.
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10.1.3.2.2. Individual versus Group Interviews
Most often,we think of interview as being a one-on-one encounter, or, at

least, that there is only one iinterviewee. There are several advantages,
however, to conducting interviews with small groups of people. The most
obvious advantage is the ability to sample a greater number of people within
the same amount of time that a one-on-one iinterview might take.
Another advantage of the group iinterview is that the participants

canquestion and clarify each other’s responses. There are, of course,
disadvantages to using the group interview. Certain individuals may feel
uncomfortable saying anything in a larger group, especially anything that
might be controversial. This will limit the range of information available to the
interviewer. In this case, you can attempt to draw out less responsive
iindividuals with non threatening questions. In other cases, you can attempt to
read nonverbal behavior (facial expressions, gestures) that indicates, for
example, a lack of agreement with what is being said. Those individuals who
seem to be reticent can be approached later for following up one-on-one
iinterviews where possible.
10.1.3.2.3. Question Types
Whether the interview is group or one-on-one, structured or unstructured,

the aim of gathering naturalistic interview data is to arrive at the participants’
perspective on the program in their own words. The types of questions asked
by the interviewer are critical to achieving this aim. It is easy for an
interviewer to constrain or condition the response of the interviewee by the
way the question is worded. For instance, if the interviewer asks “ Is this
program helping you to learn English for science and technology” the goal of
the program has alrady been identified and labeled, to a certain extent, in
words chosen by the interviewer that may or may not reflect the interviewee’s
perspective. The question also, on the surface, calls for a yes and no answer,
which further constrains the response from the interviewee. You might want
to rephrase ths question as “What kinds of things have you learned in this
program?”or “What do you think about this program?” although such
questions may seem overly general or vague, they allow the interviewee to
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choose his own terms and categories for communicating his experience of the
program.
Patton in Lynch (2004) offers a set of question types that can help in
organizing an interview.
Observe the following question types and the examples:
 Behavior/experience questions: Tell me about what happens to you,

what you do, during a typical class hour.
 Opinion/value questions: What is the most important aspect of this
program for you?
 Feeling questions: Tell me about anything in the classroom that makes
you feel uncomfortable.
 Knowlege questions: How are students chosen for this program?
 Sensory questions: Describe the physical environment of your
classroom. What is the lighting like? Noise level?
 Demographic/background questions: How many years did you study
ESL before coming to this program? What type of study was that?
10.1.3.3.Questionaire
Questionaires are a time-efficient means

of gathering data from a large number of
people: they can be mailed or otherwise
delivered without the need to arrange
individual or group appointments.
Because one set of questions is being
asked, you are assured of obtaining
roughly the same information across the
various questionaire respondents, and ,
as a result, questionaire data are easier to analyze for patterns than data
acquired by less structured techniques.
Questionaires can produce current, first hand data you can tabulate and
analyze. Of course, to achieve meaningful results, you must survey a random
sample – that is, each one must represent the whole population in terms of
age, sex, race, education, income, residence, and other factors. Various degrees
of bias can creep into the questionaire unless you remain objective. Thus, use
the formal survey only when you are experienced with test and measurements
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as well as with statistical analysis or when you have an intructor who will help
you with the instrument.
Unlike interview format, in which the interviewer can attempt to make

certain that questions are answered, the questionaire format is more likely to
result in incomplete data. Respondents will fail to answer certain questions,
for a variety reasons, and some questionaires will not be returned at all. The
potential for inccomplete data poses problems for determining the
reprensentativeness of the responses. Like the standardized open-ended
interview, it is probably best to use this data gathering technique toward the
end of an evaluation study, regardless of the design, when the major themes
have already emerged from less structured data gathering.
10.2. Data Gathering and Analysis Procedure in Quantitative Design
Hopefully you still remember the

discussion about quantitative and
qualitative paradigm. (for details See
chapter II for types, chapter VIII for
quantitative design, chapter IX, for
qualitative design.
To be consistent with the

methodology of positivist framework,
instruments will be used to collect
data in quantitative research.
Becaause reality can be measured and it exists apart from the researcher, the
validity and realibility of results will become important.
Through careful the design of data collection, the quantitative researcher

attempts to eliminate bias and to select a representation sample from the
pupulation. When using a positivist methodology (=another term for
quantitative approach), one also establishes “cause and effect”.
The two most common intruments to collect quantitative data are survey
and experiment test.
Survey
A survey design provides a quantitative or numeric description of some

fraction of the population – the sample – through the data collection process
of asking questions of people. (Fowler in Creswell, 1994). This data collection,
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in turn , enables a researcher to generalize the findings from a sample of

responses to a population.
Experiment
An experiment tests cause-and-effect relationshipsroup in which the

researcher randomly assigns subjects to groups. The researcher manipulates
one or more independent variables and determine whether these
manipulations cause an outcome. The researcher tests cause and effect
because ,theoretically, all (or most) variables between the manipulated
variable and the outcome are controlled in the experiment.
The Survey Design
The purpose of survey research is to generalize from a sample to a population

so that inferences can be made about characteristic, attitude,or behavior of
this population.
1o.2.1. Population and Sample
The Population includes all objects of interest

whereas the sample is only a portion of the
population. Parameters are associated with
populations and statistics with samples.
There are several reasons why we don't
work with populations. They are usually
large, and it is often impossible to get data
for every object we're studying. Sampling
does not usually occur without cost, and the
more items surveyed, the larger the cost.
10.2.1.1. Population
Population is generally a large collection of individuals or objects that is

the main focus of a scientific query. It can be said that a population is the total
of all the individuals or objects that have certain characteristics and are of
interest to a researcher.It is for the benefit of the population that researches
are done. However, due to the large sizes of populations, researchers often
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cannot test every individual in the population because it is too expensive and
time-consuming. This is the reason why researchers rely on sampling
techniques.
A research population is also known as a well-defined collection of
individuals or objects known to have similar characteristics. All individuals or
objects within a certain population usually have a common, binding
characteristic or trait.Usually, the description of the population and the
common binding characteristic of its members are the same. "Government
officials" is a well-defined group of individuals which can be considered as a
population and all the members of this population are indeed officials of the
government.(https://explorable.com/research-population)
10.2.1.2.Sample
A sample is simply a subset of the population. The concept of sample

arises from the inability of the researchers to test all the individuals in a given
population. The sample must be representative of the population from which
it was drawn and it must have good size to warrant statistical analysis.The
main function of the sample is to allow the researchers to conduct the study to
individuals from the population so that the results of their study can be used
to derive conclusions that will apply to the entire population.
Samples are important within many models of scientific research
because it is impossible (from both a strategic and a resource
perspective) to study allthe members of a population for a research
project. It just costs too much and takes too much time. Instead, a
selected few participants (who make up the sample) are chosen to
ensure that the sample is representative of the population.
10.2.1.3. Different types or technique of sampling
What are the main types of sampling and how is each done?
1) Simple Random Sampling: A simple random sample (SRS) of size n is

produced by a scheme which ensures that each subgroup of the population of
size n has an equal probability of being chosen as the sample.
2) Stratified Random Sampling: Divide the population into "strata". There

can be any number of these. Then choose a simple random sample from each
stratum. Combine those into the overall sample. That is a stratified random
sample. (Example: Church A has 600 women and 400 women as members.
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One way to get a stratified random sample of size 30 is to take a SRS of 18

women from the 600 women and another SRS of 12 men from the 400 men.)
3) Multi-Stage Sampling: Sometimes the population is too large and

scattered for it to be practical to make a list of the entire population from
which to draw a SRS. For instance, when the a polling organization samples US
voters, they do not do a SRS. Since voter lists are compiled by counties, they
might first do a sample of the counties and then sample within the selected
counties. This illustrates two stages. In some instances, they might use even
more stages. At each stage, they might do a stratified random sample on sex,
race, income level, or any other useful variable on which they could get
information before sampling.
How does one decide which type of sampling to use?
The formulas in almost all statistics books assume simple random

sampling. Unless you are willing to learn the more complex techniques to
analyze the data after it is collected, it is appropriate to use simple random
sampling. To learn the appropriate formulas for the more complex sampling
schemes, look for a book or course on sampling.
Stratified random sampling gives more precise information than simple

random sampling for a given sample size. So, if information on all members of
the population is available that divides them into strata that seem relevant,
stratified sampling will usually be used.
If the population is large and enough resources are available, usually one
will use multi-stage sampling. In such situations, usually stratified sampling
will be done at some stages.
C. EXERCISE
1.Explain the difference between Population and Sample

2. Explain three different intruments in qualitative research
3. Differentiate between Participant vs Non-participant Observation
4. Explain the three types of qualitative interview format
5. Write at least four types of interview questions and examples
D. ASSIGNMENT
Direction:Write this assignment on a separate paper!
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Write 15 Questionairs for students regarding the implementation of a teaching

method. Write the questions in different view:
a) How the students view the teacher.
b) How the students view the materials and activities
c) How the students view themseves concerning the problems and
difficulties in joining the lesson
Format:
The data collection steps in qualitative design involve: (a) setting the
boundaries for the study, (b) collecting information through observations,
interview, documents, and visual materials, and (c)establishing the protocol
for recording information.
The parameters of data collection in qualitative study include: 1) the setting

(where the research will take place); 2) the actors (who will be observed or
interviewed); 3) the events (what the actors will be doing or what they will be
interviewed about), and 4) the process (the evolving nature of events
undertaken by the actors within the setting)
Data collection procedures in qualitative research involve four basic types:

observations, interviews, documents, and visual images. A protocol or form
for recording information is needed to note both observations and interview in
the field.
Data analysis in qualitative study includes: Focusing, Coding the data,

Classifying and Reducing the Data, interpreting the reduced data and forming
conclusions.
F. REFFERENCES

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4. Explorable.com. Research Population – The Focus Group of a Scientific

Query. Accessed on November 18th,2015. From
:https://explorable.com/research-population
Practice.
SAGE Publications
Valerry
from:
service- quality
11. Us.sagepub. What Is the Difference Between a Sample and a Population,
and Why.
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CHAPTER XI
QUOTING SOURCES AND CITING REFERENCE
A. INTRODUCTION
It is essential that every research paper includes quotations from relevant

primary texts. In my classes, it is impossible to get any grade above a B-
without providing adequate references to the material you are discussing. And,
in such a case, in order to get a B-, the rest of the paper must be close to
perfect.
Most students intuitively understand the importance of quotes and go out

of their way to include them in their papers. However, many students, even
when they go out of their way to include quotes, misunderstand how to
incorporate them into their writing and do more harm than good. When
misused, quotes can be disastrous. They may break up the flow of the text
instead of contribute to the narrative. When used as space-fillers instead of
idea enhancers, they can make the author seem lazy and sneaky. And, more
often then not, when no adequate transition is provided, they may seem
disconnected from the rest of the paper and end up being very distracting.
The Purpose of Quotes:
(1) Quotes highlight main points. Writing a summary of a philosophical text

can be very difficult. Writers tend to over-emphasize the general and under-
emphasize the specific. Quotes force the author to refer to specific
philosophical claims and, when used properly, narrow the discussion to a
specific premise, assumption or conclusion.
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(2) Quotes provide precision.Philosophical language is very specific. When

students describes theories in his or her own words -- and all students must do
this, it is an essential part of any paper -- the student has a tendency to move
away from the specific terminology used by the philosopher who is the subject
of the paper. Quotes return the reader to the language of the philosopher and
demand that the author stay true to the terminology.
(3) Quotes provide focus.We all have a tendency to follow our train of thought
too far in a paper. Sometimes, we find ourselves writing comments that are
only tangentially related, and the reader has a difficult time seeing the
relevance of the comments. Quotes force the author to stay on topic. They
provide a link to the main argument and a link to the primary text.
(4)Quotes offer evidence.All research papers and summaries are interpretations

of philosophical work. Even if the student doesn't realize it, he or she is
putting forth their own views on the text they are discussing. There is rarely
any "objective" or "perfect" summary of a sophisticated philosophical text and
interpretations will differ. The quote, when properly constructed, is a way of
providing proof that the philosopher can be understood as saying that which
the author claims. If the quote supports the author's interpretation, than the
larger argument of the paper is more believable.
(5) Quotes indicate that you did your homework. Lets face it, all your school
papers are tools of assessment, and one of the thing that professors look for is
whether or not you did the reading, and whether or not you are prepared for
class. The first thing that comes to my mind when I read a paper that has no
quotes in it is that the author has not read the texts, and that the lack of
references is an indication of a lack of preparation. When a paper contains an
adequate number of quotes, and these quotes represent numerous different
sections of the reading, I am more inclined to assume that you are well
prepared for your work.
Any quote which is longer than three lines must be "indented". A longer
quote must be distinguished from the rest of the text. The standard form for a
research paper is double spaced. the left and right margins should not be any
larger than an inch wide. Yet, a quote longer than three lines in length should
have a larger margin and should be single spaced. Most word processors have
tools that will indent the quote automatically. For example, on later versions of
Microsoft Word, the the indent and un-indent icons are located on the right
hand side of the tool bar.
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At the end of this session, you are expected to be able to :
1) explain the importance of quotation in a research paper

2) explain the the purposes of quotation
3)describe an APA Style of formatting
4) write quotations using APA Style of formatting
5) describe an MLA Style of formatting
6) write quotations using MLA Style of formatting
11.1. Different System of Quoting Source and Citing Reference – APA vs

MLA Style
11.1.1. APA Style
APA citation basics
When using APA format, follow the author-date method of in-text

citation. This means that the author's last name and the year of publication for
the source should appear in the text, for example, (Jones, 1998), and a
complete reference should appear in the reference list at the end of the paper.
If you are referring to an idea from another work but NOT directly
quoting the material, or making reference to an entire book, article or other
work, you only have to make reference to the author and year of publication
and not the page number in your in-text reference. All sources that are cited in
the text must appear in the reference list at the end of the paper.
In-text citation capitalization, quotes, and italics/underlining
 Always capitalize proper nouns, including author names and initials: D.

Jones.
 If you refer to the title of a source within your paper, capitalize all
words that are four letters long or greater within the title of a source:
Permanence and Change. Exceptions apply to short words that are
verbs, nouns, pronouns, adjectives, and adverbs: Writing New Media,
There Is Nothing Left to Lose.
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(Note: in your References list, only the first word of a title will be
capitalized: Writing new media.)
 When capitalizing titles, capitalize both words in a hyphenated

compound word: Natural-Born Cyborgs.
 Capitalize the first word after a dash or colon: "Defining Film Rhetoric:
The Case of Hitchcock's Vertigo."
 Italicize or underline the titles of longer works such as books, edited
collections, movies, television series, documentaries, or albums: The
Closing of the American Mind; The Wizard of Oz; Friends.
 Put quotation marks around the titles of shorter works such as journal
articles, articles from edited collections, television series episodes, and
song titles: "Multimedia Narration: Constructing Possible Worlds"; "The
One Where Chandler Can't Cry."
Short quotations
If you are directly quoting from a work, you will need to include the
author, year of publication, and the page number for the reference (preceded
by "p."). Introduce the quotation with a signal phrase that includes the
author's last name followed by the date of publication in parentheses.
According to Jones (1998), "Students often had difficulty using APA style,
especially when it was their first time" (p. 199).
Jones (1998) found "students often had difficulty using APA style" (p. 199);
what implications does this have for teachers?
If the author is not named in a signal phrase, place the author's last name, the
year of publication, and the page number in parentheses after the quotation.
She stated, "Students often had difficulty using APA style" (Jones, 1998, p. 199),
but she did not offer an explanation as to why.
Long quotations
Place direct quotations that are 40 words, or longer, in a free-standing block of

typewritten lines, and omit quotation marks. Start the quotation on a new line,
indented 1/2 inch from the left margin, i.e., in the same place you would begin
a new paragraph. Type the entire quotation on the new margin, and indent the
first line of any subsequent paragraph within the quotation 1/2 inch from the
new margin. Maintain double-spacing throughout. The parenthetical citation
should come after the closing punctuation mark.
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Jones's (1998) study found the following:

Students often had difficulty using APA style,
especially when it was their first time citing sources. This difficulty could be
attributed to the fact that many students failed to purchase a style manual or
to ask their teacher for help. (p. 199)
Summary or paraphrase
If you are paraphrasing an idea from another work, you only have to
make reference to the author and year of publication in your in-text reference,
but APA guidelines encourage you to also provide the page number (although
it is not required.)
According to Jones (1998), APA style is a difficult citation format for first-time
learners.
APA style is a difficult citation format for first-time learners (Jones, 1998, p.
199).
11.1.2. MLA Formatting Quotations
Short quotations
To indicate short quotations (fewer than four typed lines of prose or

three lines of verse) in your text, enclose the quotation within double
quotation marks. Provide the author and specific page citation (in the case of
verse, provide line numbers) in the text, and include a complete reference on
the Works Cited page. Punctuation marks such as periods, commas, and
semicolons should appear after the parenthetical citation. Question marks and
exclamation points should appear within the quotation marks if they are a part
of the quoted passage but after the parenthetical citation if they are a part of
your text.
For example, when quoting short passages of prose, use the following
examples:
According to some, dreams express "profound aspects of personality" (Foulkes

184), though others disagree.
According to Foulkes's study, dreams may express "profound aspects of

personality" (184).
Is it possible that dreams may express "profound aspects of personality"

(Foulkes 184)?
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When short (fewer than three lines of verse) quotations from poetry, mark
breaks in short quotations of verse with a slash, ( / ), at the end of each line of
verse (a space should precede and follow the slash).
Cullen concludes, "Of all the things that happened there / That's all I
remember" (11-12).
Long quotations
For quotations that are more than four lines of prose or three lines of
verse, place quotations in a free-standing block of text and omit quotation
marks. Start the quotation on a new line, with the entire quote indented one
inch from the left margin; maintain double-spacing. Only indent the first line
of the quotation by an additional quarter inch if you are citing multiple
paragraphs. Your parenthetical citation should come after the closing
punctuation mark. When quoting verse, maintain original line breaks. (You
should maintain double-spacing throughout your essay.)
For example, when citing more than four lines of prose, use the following
examples:
Nelly Dean treats Heathcliff poorly and dehumanizes him throughout her
narration:
They entirely refused to have it in bed with them, or even in their room, and I
had no more sense, so, I put it on the landing of the stairs, hoping it would be
gone on the morrow. By chance, or else attracted by hearing his voice, it crept
to Mr. Earnshaw's door, and there he found it on quitting his chamber.
Inquiries were made as to how it got there; I was obliged to confess, and in
recompense for my cowardice and inhumanity was sent out of the house.
(Bronte 78)
When citing long sections (more than three lines) of poetry, keep formatting
as close to the original as possible.
In his poem "My Papa's Waltz," Theodore Roethke explores his childhood with
his father:
The whiskey on your breath
Could make a small boy dizzy;
But I hung on like death:
Such waltzing was not easy.
We Romped until the pans
Slid from the kitchen shelf;
My mother's countenance
Could not unfrown itself. (quoted in Shrodes, Finestone, Shugrue 202)
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When citing two or more paragraphs, use block quotation format, even if the
passage from the paragraphs is less than four lines. Indent the first line of each
quoted paragraph an extra quarter inch.
In "American Origins of the Writing-across-the-Curriculum Movement," David

Russell argues,
Writing has been an issue in American secondary and higher education

since papers and examinations came into wide use in the 1870s, eventually
driving out formal recitation and oral examination. . . .
From its birth in the late nineteenth century, progressive education has
wrestled with the conflict within industrial society between pressure to
increase specialization of knowledge and of professional work (upholding
disciplinary standards) and pressure to integrate more fully an ever-widerning
number of citizens into intellectually meaningful activity within mass society
(promoting social equity). . . . (3)
Adding or omitting words in quotations
If you add a word or words in a quotation, you should put brackets around the
words to indicate that they are not part of the original text.
Jan Harold Brunvand, in an essay on urban legends, states, "some individuals

[who retell urban legends] make a point of learning every rumor or tale" (78).
If you omit a word or words from a quotation, you should indicate the deleted
word or words by using ellipsis marks, which are three periods ( . . . ) preceded
and followed by a space. For example:
In an essay on urban legends, Jan Harold Brunvand notes that "some

individuals make a point of learning every recent rumor or tale . . . and in a
short time a lively exchange of details occurs" (78).
Please note that brackets are not needed around ellipses unless adding
brackets would clarify your use of ellipses.
When omitting words from poetry quotations, use a standard three-period

ellipses; however, when omitting one or more full lines of poetry, space several
periods to about the length of a complete line in the poem:
These beauteous forms,

Through a long absence, have not been to me
As is a landscape to a blind man's eye:
....................
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Felt in the blood, and felt along the heart;

And passing even into my purer mind,
With tranquil restoration . . . (22-24, 28-30)
11.2. Direct and Indirect Quotation
Direct quotation is a report of the exact words of an author or speaker.

Unlike an indirect quotation, a direct quotation is placed inside quotation
marks. For example, Dr. King said, "I have a dream."Direct quotations are
commonly introduced by a signal phrase (also called a quotative frame), such
as Dr. King said or He wrote.
Meanwhile, indirect quotation is a paraphrase of someone else's words.

Also called indirect discourse.An indirect quotation (unlike a direct quotation)
is not placed in quotation marks. For example, Dr. King said that he had a
dream.
A mixed quotation is an indirect quotation that includes a directly quoted

expression (in many cases just a single word or brief phrase): King melodiously
praised the "veterans of creative suffering," urging them to continue the struggle.
11.3. Writing Source
A bibliography is not just “works cited.” It is all the relevant material you
drew upon to write the paper the reader holds.
 If you read any articles or books in preparing you paper, you need a
bibliography or footnotes.
 If you cite the arguments of “critics” and “supporters,” even if you don’t
name them or quote them directly, you are likely referring to
information you read in books or articles as opposed to information
you’ve gathered firsthand, like a news reporter, and so you need a
bibliography.
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 If you quote sources and put some of the reference information in the
text, you still need a bibliography, so that readers can track down the
source material for themselves.
 If you use footnotes to identify the source of your material or the

authors of every quote, you DO NOT need a bibliography, UNLESS
there are materials to which you do not refer directly (or if you refer to
additional sections of the materials you already referenced) that also
helped you reach your conclusions. In any event, your footnotes need to
follow the formatting guidelines below.
11.4. How to Write a Bibliography
These guidelines follow those of the American Psychological

Association and may be slightly different than what you’re used to, but we will
stick with them for the sake of consistency.Notice the use of punctuation.
Publication titles may be either italicized or underlined, but not both.
Books
Books are the bibliography format with which you’re probably most familiar.
Books follow this pattern:
Author Last Name, Author First Name. (Publication Year) Title.

Publisher’s City: Publisher. Page numbers.
Alexander, Carol. (2001) Market Models: A Guide to Financial Data Analysis.

New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons. pp. 200-220.
Periodicals
Periodicals remove the publisher city and name and add the title of the
article and the volume or issue number of the periodical. Notice article titles
are put in quotation marks and only the publication title is italicized or
underlined.
Author Last Name, Author First Name. (Publication Date—could be

more than a year) “Article Title.” PublicationTitle, Vol. #. (Issue #), Page
numbers.
Salman, William A. (July-August 1997) “How to Write a Great Business Plan.”

Harvard Business Review 74. pp. 98-108.
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Web versions of printed material
Because web sources are time-sensitive, meaning that web content can
change day by day, it is important to include the day of retrieval and the URL
from which you quoted the material. You include this in a retrieval statement.
The format for online versions of print publications should basically

follow the same format as above, meaning if you’re referencing an online book,
you should follow the book format with the addition of the retrieval statement.
If you’re referencing an online periodical, you should follow the periodical
format with the addition of the retrieval statement.
Note that you should not break the Internet address of the link, even if
it requires its own line. Very long URLs, such as those that occur when using
an online database, can be shortened by removing the retrieval code. (The
retrieval code usually consists of a long string of unintelligible letters and
numbers following the end point “htm” or “html.” Remove everything that
occurs after that point to shorten.)
Author. (Date of Internet Publication—could be more than a year)

“Document Title.” Title of Publication. Retrieved on: Date from Full
Web Address, starting with http://
Grant, Linda. (January 13, 1997) “Can Fisher Focus Kodak?” Fortune. Retrieved
on August 22, 1997 from
www.pathfinder.com/@@ctQzLAcAQQIIP/fortune/1997/970113/kod.html
C. EXERCISE
1. What is the importance of quotation in a research paper?

2. What are the purposes of quotes?
3. What is an APA Style of formatting?
4. How do we quote from APA Style of formatting?
5. What is an MLA Style of formatting?
6. How do we quote from MLA Style of formatting?
D. ASSIGNMENT
Direction: Write this assignment on a separate paper!
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Give samples of quotation in your research paper. Choose one style of

formatting (APA or MLA) and be consistent with your style!
Format:
APA (American Psychological Association) style is most commonly used to cite

sources within the social sciences. This resource, revised according to the 6th
edition, second printing of the APA manual, offers examples for the general
format of APA research papers, in-text citations, endnotes/footnotes, and the
reference page. For more information, please consult the Publication Manual
of the American Psychological Association, (6th ed., 2nd printing).
Note: APA style requires authors to use the past tense or present perfect tense
when using signal phrases to describe earlier research, for example, Jones
(1998) found or Jones (1998) has found...
MLA (Modern Language Association) style is most commonly used to write

papers and cite sources within the liberal arts and humanities. This resource,
updated to reflect the MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers (7th ed.)
and the MLA Style Manual and Guide to Scholarly Publishing (3rd ed.), offers
examples for the general format of MLA research papers, in-text citations,
endnotes/footnotes, and the Works Cited page.
When you directly quote the works of others in your paper, you will format
quotations differently depending on their length. Below are some basic
guidelines for incorporating quotations into your paper. Please note that all
pages in MLA should be double-spaced.
F. REFFERENCES
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1. Direct Quotation. Grammar.About.Com. Available online in

http://grammar.about.com/od/d/g/dirquoteterm.htm
2. How to include quotes in your paper. UND Edu. Available online in
http://www.und.edu/instruct/weinstei/including_quotes.htm
3. How to write a bibliography and cite sources in a text. UIOWA Edu.

Available online in
http://tippie.uiowa.edu/accounting/writing/bibliography.cfm
4. Indirect Quotation. Grammar.About.Com. Available online in

http://grammar.about.com/od/d/g/indirquoteterm.htm
5. Lester, D. James. 2004. Writing Research Papers: A Complete Guide. Eleventh

7. Russell, Tony.at.al. Purdue OWL Staff. In-Tetxs Citations: The Basics. OWL
English Purdue Edu. Available online
https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/560/02/
8. ________. Purdue OWL Staff. MLA Formatting Quotations. OWL English
Purdue Edu. Available online in
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CHAPTER XII
RESEARCH PROPOSAL
A. INTRODUCTION
Most students and beginning researchers do not

fully understand what a research proposal means,
nor do they understand its importance. To put it
bluntly, one's research is only as a good as one's
proposal. An ill-conceived proposal dooms the
project even if it somehow gets through the
Thesis Supervisory Committee. A high quality
proposal, on the other hand, not only promises
success for the project, but also impresses your
Thesis Committee about your potential as a
researcher.
A research proposal is intended to convince others that you have a

worthwhile research project and that you have the competence and the work-
plan to complete it. Generally, a research proposal should contain all the key
elements involved in the research process and include sufficient information
for the readers to evaluate the proposed study.Regardless of your research area
and the methodology you choose, all research proposals must address the
following questions: What you plan to accomplish, why you want to do it and
how you are going to do it.
The proposal should have sufficient information to convince your readers

that you have an important research idea, that you have a good grasp of the
relevant literature and the major issues, and that your methodology is sound.
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The quality of your research proposal depends not only on the quality of your
proposed project, but also on the quality of your proposal writing. A good
research project may run the risk of rejection simply because the proposal is
poorly written. Therefore, it pays if your writing is coherent, clear and
compelling.
A Thesis proposal is a short document that explains what the thesis you
want to write will be about, what type of research you would do to write it, and
what sort of problem you are attempting to solve by writing it. Though it is
short compared to other academic papers you may write, it can still be quite
lengthy. If it is not well written or well researched, or you don’t clearly make
your point, it may be rejected. You would then need to submit a new thesis
proposal.
Research and writing the project cannot start until the proposal has been
approved.Because the thesis proposal is so important, you should know what
to include and see examples so that you can ensure your proposal is accepted
the first time.
A thesis proposal is, in many respects, the blueprint for your research. Its
main aim is to help you define a what, where, when, why and how for your
project. Writing a good proposal requires plenty of thought and preparation.
However, this should be an enjoyable process, giving you the chance to explore
your areas of interest and share your research plans with your
advisor/examiners.
Before starting work on your draft proposal, it is a good idea to make

initial contact with your prospective supervisor(s), in order to express interest
and discuss some of the practicalities of your research. Certainly, successful
proposals tend to be those which are developed over a substantial period of
time. In the early stages of putting a proposal together, potential students
normally find that they benefit from the feedback of the prospective
supervisor(s).
A successful research proposal will provide evidence of:
 a strong proposition or clear central question that you want to pursue
 a description of the originality and potential contribution of your
research
 a basic plan for the thesis structure
 preliminary ideas about your methodology
 familiarity with existing research in your chosen area
 an awareness of the resources, skills and sources required to
successfully complete the project
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After completing this section, students are expected to be able to:

1) Write a well-organized and correct thesis proposal
2) Present their thesis proposals in the Pre-Thesis Examination.
12.1. What is a Research Proposal
A research proposal is a
document that is typically written
by a scientist or academic which
describes the ideas for an
investigation on a certain topic.
The research proposal outlines
the process from beginning to
end and may be used to request
financing for the project,
certification for performing
certain partsof research of the
experiment, or as a requiredtask before beginning a college dissertation.
A research proposal is a document that provides a detailed

description of the intended program. It is like an outline of the entire research
process that gives a reader a summary of the information discussed in a
project.
Research proposals are written for various reasons, such as requesting a

budget (grant) for the research they describe, certification requirements for
research (as from an institutional review board committee if the experiment is
to be done on human beings or animals protected by animal rights laws), as a
task in tertiary education (e.g., before performing research for a dissertation),
or as a condition for employment at a research institution (which usually
requires sponsor-approved research proposals). They may be considered as
grey literature.
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The main purpose of a research proposal is to show that the problem

you propose to investigate is significant enough to warrant the investigation,
the method you plan to use is suitable and feasible, and the results are likely to
prove fruitful and will make an original contribution. The level of
sophistication or amount of detail included in your proposal will depend on
the stage you are at and the requirements of your department and University.
12.2. The Proposal as an Argument
A proposal is an argument for your study by which you need to explain the
logic behind your proposed study, rather than simply describe your study. It
should not, however, attempt o defend your anticipated conclussions; doing so
is almost certain to raise serious questions about your own biases. Each piece
of your proposal should be a clear answer to every question about your study.
The essential feature of a good argument is coherence, and a proposal

needs to be coherent in two different senses of this term. First, it has to cohere
– flow logically from one point to the next and hang together as an integrated
whole. The connections between different components of your design are
crucial to this coherence. You need to understand whay you are doing what
you are, rather tha blindly following rules, models, or standard practice.
Without this, you won’t be able to give a coherence justification for your
design.
Second, it has to be coherent – make sense to the reviewers. You need to

put yourself in your readers’ part and think about how what you say will be
understood by them. Often, a key to writing in a way that will make sense to
these readers is avoiding jargon, unnecesarily complext style and classy
writing.
12.3. The Purpose of a Proposal
The structure of a proposal is not governed by an arbitrary set of rules; it is

closely tied to the purpose of a proposal. This purpose is so fundamental that
when you are working on a proposal you should post it above your desk or
computer.
The purpose of a proposal is to explain and justify your proposed study and to
an audience of nonexperts on your topic.
There are four key concept on this statement:
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1) Explain: You want your readers to clearly understand what you plan to do.
Locke et.al (1993) emphasize that advisers and reviewers misunderstand
student proposal far more often than they disagree with what is proposed.
(p.123). So, in writing and editing your proposal, clarity is a primary goal.
2) Justify : You want the readers of your proposal to understand not only what
you plan to do, but why - your rationale for doing this. Proposals are often
turned down, even when the study is clearly described, because it is not clear
why the author wants to do the study this way. Your readers may not
understand how your proposed methods will provide valid answers to your
research questions, or how the questions address important issues or
purposes. They may also question whether you have a good reason for doing
the study this way.
3) Your proposed study: Your proposal should be about your study, not the
literature, your research topic, or research method in general. You should
ruthlessly edit out anything in the proposal that doesn not directly contribute
to the explanation and justification of your study. A proposal is no place to
display your general knowledge of the literature on your topic.
4) Noneexperts : You cannot assume any particular specialized knowledge on

the part of your readers. Grant proposal in social sciences and related fields are
generally not assigned to readers on the basis of their expertise on your
specific topic and students often will have faculty reviewing their proposals
who are not knowledgeable about the specific area of the proposed study. You
need to carefully examine your proposal to make sure that everything in it will
be clear to a nonspecialist. (the best way to do this is generally to give the
proposal to some nonspecialists and ask them to tell you what isn’t clear.
A successful research proposal:

1) is innovative
2.Includes specific aims
3.Includes preliminary data
4.Describes approach
5.Indicates the significance of the proposal with regard to the specific award
and conveysits impact on science and your personal growth.
12.3. Judging a Research Proposal
These are general indicators to evaluate a research proposal
 a viable and researchable problem

 an acceptable plan of action for undertaking the research
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 done sufficient preparation to establish the rationale for the research

 a feasible chance of completing the research
The order of the layout suggested below may be changed and certain sections
may be combined; additional points may also be added. The suggested
headings serve as road signs to indicate to the evaluator:
 what the research problem is

 how the candidate intends doing the research
 what the outcomes could be
1) Title
The title should be concise, as long titles are cumbersome to accommodate

in information retrieval systems. Select appropriate key words or phrases,
and avoid rambling and meaningless statements such as: An investigation
into the possibility of conducting research in . . . Do not start a title with a
present participle, such as Investigating, or Analysing. The title should
rather read: An analysis of …
2) Clarification of basic terms and concepts
The same words may have different connotations to people, especially if

they work in various disciplines. List and clarify or define the main words
and concepts that you will use in your research. It may also be useful to
provide a list of abbreviations and acronyms with their full names, e.g.
SMME. Commonly used abbreviations/acronyms (such as UK, USA) need
not be included.
3) Statement of problem
This is the heart of the proposal. Normally a sentence, or at most a

paragraph, is all that is required to describe exactly what the problem is.
Many candidates have difficulty in describing the problem: instead they list
the objectives, outcomes, needs or other irrelevant aspects.
If the research problem is not adequately or precisely described, it is likely

to be rejected. The National Research Foundation (NRF) reports that most
research proposals are “characterised by poorly formulated problems”.
Furthermore, “researchers often indulge in jargon, which seems to obscure
rather than explain what the research problem is”. Candidates should
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ensure that the problem and their objectives remain the focus of their
thinking and writing.
4) Background to the study
Since the statement of the problem should be very brief, it is necessary to

explain separately what the background to the problem is. Clarify the area
of concern, or what needs justify the research (this could be a sub-heading).
Any information that helps the evaluator to understand the problem may be
included. Indicate why you believe that it is, in fact, a researchable problem.
This section could be combined with the literature review, or form a sub-
section of it.
5) Literature review
An adequate literature review is required in all research proposals,

especially if funding is required. The purpose of the literature review
should:
 Provide evidence to the faculty research committee that you are well
acquainted with past and current research in the field of study.
 Prove that the thesis/dissertation will not duplicate past or current
research.
 Indicate how the intended research relates to similar and past
research; in other words, the literature review positions your
research within the existing body of knowledge.
Some faculties also require candidates to indicate, from their review of the
relevant literature, what related aspects require further research.In the final
thesis/thesis, a much more complete and extensive list of References (all
sources cited) or a Bibliography (more comprehensive) will have to be
presented than in the initial review.
6) Objectives of the study
Clarify the aims and objectives of the research. Where feasible, objectives
should be divided into main and subsidiary objectives, and should be
numbered. In writing the proposal, it is important to remain focused on
the objectives.
7) Research methodology
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This is a cornerstone of the research proposal, and therefore a critically

important section. Failure to address it properly can lead to the research
proposal’s rejection and even to the rejection of the proposal/thesis by
examiner.
Clarify your method of investigation, e.g.:
 Questionnaires
 Personal interviews
 Focus groups
 Design techniques, etc.
Indicate your sampling methodology, e.g.:
 Size of sample
 Population
 Experimental and control groups
 Prevention of bias, etc.
Indicate statistical methods and substantiate why you intend using the
proposed specific statistical methods.
8) Significance of the Study
Indicate the significance of the research. Why is it important? Whom, or

what industry, will it benefit? This is usually vital for funding.What
contribution will this research make to the body of knowledge in the
particular field of study?
9) References cited
This is a list of the literature referred to in your research proposal. Do not

include titles not cited, or that have no relevance to your research
problem. You should have read the references you list (or at least the
relevant parts). Indicate how they relate to your research.
Distinguish clearly between a list of References cited and a Bibliography.

The latter includes all material consulted, including background reading
not necessarily cited. Alternatively you may provide separate lists of
References Cited and Other References.
12.5. Considering your audience
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◦ Thinking of asking a friend or a senior, your lecturer to read your drafts

to help you edit them?
◦ Your audience is the people who will read your thesis.
◦ Ask yourself:
What does my audience know about my topic?
Your purpose is your reason for writing
Ask yourself:
What am I trying to accomplish? Am I explaining or persuading?
12.6. Checking and Revising Your Research Proposal
1. Revising by Deleting:
- Materials that are off the topic.

- repetition of what you have already said or stated
2. Revise by Elaborating
Elaborating means adding relevant support to a draft.

Use relevant support: details, facts, definitions, examples, statistics, and
quotation.
Problem Solution
Point Require specific facts, examples and

unclear expert opinions to explain the topic fully
Vague Add details drawn from your sense, focus

writing on things that you can observe
3. Revise by Rewording
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By rewording means you replace words and revise sentences to make

your writing accurate and fresh
What you can do:

- Look for words that you use too often
- Replace repeated nouns with pronouns
- Substitute other repeated words with synonyms
- Look for and use precise words for some terms
4. Revise for unity
Use transition words between sentences rather than conjunctions:

in addition, on the other hand, for example, however, therefore,
consequently, also etc.
5. Revise the punctuation and capitalization
Correct Errors
Some common errors are:

- Commonly confused words ( such as there, their, they’re)
- Dangling participle
- Misplace modifiers
- Spelling errors
- Run-on sentence
- Fragments (incomplete sentence)
- Illogical sentence
- Lack of parallel structure
- Unclear pronoun reference
- Misused adjective and adverb (e.g. good vs well)
- Errors in agreement of subject and verb
12.7. Check the consistency
- Consistent in the use of font size, capitalization,

bolding, numbering, paging, layout, paragraphing,
indentation, quotation
- Consistent in the use of tenses:

 When explaining facts , use present simple
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 Do not use future expressions such as will or be going to.

 Use passive rather than active sentence.
12.8. Presenting a Research Proposal
PowerPoint Oral Presentation Instructions
- Please arrive earlier in order to save your work on the PC that we will be
using.
- Unless a specific time frame is specified, plan on a 10 minute
PowerPoint of your project, so that the audience is able
to follow your presentation, followed by 5 minutes for questions and
answers. Practice your presentation, and stay
within the allotted time.
- We encourage you to discuss your slides with your research mentor
before you present.
- At the time of your presentation, please introduce yourself and let the
audience know how you obtained the research position and what
interested you about the project.
Suggested format
We suggest a PowerPoint that includes the following:
Title of Project
Begin your presentation with the title of your project. State the name of
the University and your faculty research mentor’s department, your name,
and the name of your faculty research mentor.
Introduction
State why you chose your particular project; tell why it is of interest or
worthy of the attempt. State the explicit hypothesis (or hypotheses) that
was (were) tested.
Materials and Methods

Give sufficient details of methods (including information on materials
used) to allow someone to duplicate your work, especially with respect to
those factors that may have had major effects on results. Note any special
problems and how you overcame them (e.g., protein precipitated unless
pH was buffered).
Results
Present a summary of your data. This is where you cite your figures and
tables. Graphs will usually be most appropriate for showing your findings,
but data summaries (do not reproduce all your data) may be tabular.
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Include any non-quantitative observations in the text. Describe the

analysis of the data including any statistical tests performed.
Discussion/Conclusion
State your conclusion. Was your null hypothesis rejected? How much
confidence may one have in your results; how reliable are your results?
Have additional questions been raised? Have you satisfied the objectives of
your project? If you were to try to do the project again, would you do it
differently?
Acknowledgements
Acknowledge the persons, program, institution, etc.
Questions?
Take time to answer any questions the audience has on your project.
12.9. An Example of Proposal Outline:
Study the following outlines as a guide to write your thesis proposal.
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
1.1. Background of the Study
Step 1: Write at least one paragraph about general issue

Example:
Topic: Register, Start with : Language and Society
Topic: Conflict, Start with: Human life and Literature
Topic: Implicature, start with: Language in Communication
Step 2: Write at least one paragraph about the subject of your study (the
scope).
Example:
Register: Sociolinguistics
Conflict: Literary Criticism (Psychological Criticism)
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Implicature: Pragmatics
Step 3: Write at least one paragraph about your issue (topic) and examples
Step 4: Connect the issue (topic) with the object of study
Step 5: Write your reasons for choosing the topic and object of your
study
1.2. Statements of the Problem

(Write minimum 2 research questions)
1.3. Scope and Limitation of the Study
Scope : subject of your study, Limitation: Topic and object of thestudy
1.4. Goals of the Study
(List the goals of the Study.Goals must be relevant or consistent with the
statements of the problems)
1.5. Functions of the Study
(List the advantages of your study for you (the writer), for readers, and for
further study (next writers)
1.6. Systematical Presentation
(Descibe the content of each chapter (I-III) in paragraph form
CHAPTER II
RELATED STUDIES, REVIEW OF LITERATURE,
AND THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
2.1. Related Studies

Step 1: Write a brief introduction
Step 2: Write your related studies (at least 3). Use sequental words: The
first study...., the second..., the third / One of the study ..., another study...,
the other study ..
Each related study must include: 1) name of the writer ( Only last name)
and year ; 2) title of the study; 3) the purpose / focus of the study;
4) methodology of research and theory used; findings of the study in
brief.
Step 3: Write one paragraph comparing the three related studies above
with your study (what are the similarities and the diffrences between
them)
2.2. Review of Literature

Start from the widest scope of discussion for instance: analysis of jargon
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should start from: 2.2.1 Sociolinguistics; 2.2.2. Types of Jargon, etc.,

Analysis of Character should start from 2.2.1 Literature, 2.2.2. Novel, 2.2.3.
Elements of Novel, 2.2.4 Character & Characterization, etc.
Analysis of Maxim Violation should start from: 2.2.1. Pragmatics, 2.2.2.
2.2.2. Cooperative Principles, 2.2.3. Types of Maxim, etc.
Mix short direct quotation of 2-3 lines (included in paragraph), longer
direct quotation of more than 3 lines (put in hanging with single space),
and indirect quotation or paraphrasing. Every quotation must be follwed
by comment. Don’t forget to put the source (the author’s last name, year
and page)
2.3. Theoretical Framework

Clearly state which or whose theory will be used to analyze your data (the
Expert’s Last name only) and include his statement related to the data you
are going to analyze.
CHAPTER III
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.1. Approach of the Study

Choose one approach of study (qualitative or quantitative) depending on
the problem or phenomena to be analyzed, form of data and type of
research you are conducting.e.g. For Literature and Linguistic studies are
better analyzed by qualitativeapproach. For experimental studies, quasi
and
survey research are best analyzed by quantitative as the data will be
numeric and will be presented in statistical analysis.
Include supporting detail with relevant expert’s quotation.
3.2. Data Source

Data source is the object of your study.Explain where your data are taken
From. e.g. The data were takenfrom The Jakarta Post, which edition?,
How many edition? which articles?
3.3. Technique of Collecting Data

Clearly state the steps of collecting data
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3.4. Method of Data Analysis

Describe how the data that have been collected are going to be
presented and analyzed in chapter IV.
AN ANALYSIS OF ILLOCUTIONARY ACTS IN “BLACK SWAN” FILM

Bibliography
BY DARREN
Bibliography must be complete RONOFSKYR
and alphabetically ordered
A Thesis Proposal
Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Sarjana Sastra
(S.S)
BUNGA
12.10. An Example of Complete CITRA LESTARI
Proposal
Use the following example only as a20090060033

guide to write your thesis proposal.
ENGLISH DEPARTMENT
ENGLISH DEPARTMENT
FACULTY OF LETTERS
UNIVERSITAS PAMULANG
2017
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
COVER.............................................................................................................i
TABLE OF CONTENTS.................................................................................ii
CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION................................................................... 1
1.1. Background of the Study ........................................................................... 1
1.2. Statements of the Problem ...................................................................... 4
1.3. Scope and Limitation of the Study .......................................................... 4
1.4. Goals of the Study .................................................................................... 4
1.5. Functions of the Study ............................................................................. 5
1.6. Systematical Presentation ....................................................................... 5
CHAPTER II RELATED STUDIES, REVIEW OF LITERATURE, AND

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK ....................................... 7
2.1. Related Studies ......................................................................................... 7
2.2. Review of Literature ................................................................................ 9
2.2.1. Linguistics ...................................................................................... 9
2.2.2. Pragmatics ......................................................................................11
2.2.3. Speech Acts ....................................................................................12
2.2.4. Illocutionary Acts ..........................................................................12
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2.2.5.Context ...........................................................................................13
2.2.6. Direct and Indirect Speech Acts ..................................................15
2.3. Theoretical Framework ..........................................................................16
CHAPTER III RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ....................................17

3.1. Approach of the Study ............................................................................17
3.2. Data Source .............................................................................................18
3.3. Collecting Data .......................................................................................19
3.4. Method of Data Analysis .......................................................................19
ii
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of the Study
In daily life people always do communication with others. The kind of
communication can be offering, asking, greeting, inviting, apologizing,
requesting, persuading, expecting, alarming, warning, informing, promising,
thanking, amusing, convincing, surprising, etc. For Example “I’ll be here
tomorrow morning at 7 o’clock” (Promising). When people do those kinds of
communication actually they perform speech acts.
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In simple, speech act is actions performed via utterances. There are
three types of Speech Acts, those are Locutionary Acts, Illocutionary Acts,
and Perlocutionary Acts. Illocutionary Act is the center point of speech acts;
it is an intended action by the speaker, utterances which have a certain
(conventional) force. According to Huang (2007) there are five classifications
of illocutionary acts, those are Representatives or Assertives, Directives,
Commisives, Expressives, and Declaratives.(106) For example, when
someone says “It’s very hot outside” the act he does is informing because he
gives information that outside is very hot. The kind of this Illocutionary act is
Assertive.Speech acts can also be identified from their forms; direct and
indirect speech act.
Another important part of speech act is context. Context is a
background knowledge shared by speaker and hearer which help the hearer
get the meaning of the speaker’s utterances. For example, if a mother asks her
daughter “What time is it?” in context this conversation happened late at
night. The function of this utterance could be ordering instead of asking.
Hence this speech act is categorized into indirect speech act because the
function of the utterance is not exactly the same with the form of utterance;
the utterance is asking, but the function is ordering. The mother does not
really ask about the time to her daughter; instead, she orders her daughter to
go to bed because it is already late night. So, it is very important to
understand the context because different context will have different meaning
and different form (whether direct or indirect speech act).
Speech acts are occasionally found in film’s dialogues since film is a
representation of human’s daily life.The script writer uses the dialogues to
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build the plot or story.Since dialogues are process of communication, it is
likely that in a film speech acts such as illicutionary occur in the dialogues
among characters.
Black Swan is an American psychological thriller film directed by
Darren Aronofsky.There are a lot of utterances that are supposed to be
illocutionary acts in this movie. It is important that one understand the
caharacters’s utterances, their functions and implied meaning when he or she
watches a film. The writer is interested in analyzing and classifying
Illocutionary acts of the dialogue in this film to give more information to
readers about what kinds of illocutionary acts found in Black Swan film.
Therefore, the title of the thesis is “An Analysis of Illocutionary Acts in
“Black Swan”Film by Darren Aronofsky”
1.2 Statements of the Problems
The problems to be analyzed in this study are formulated as follow:
1. What types of Illocutionary Act are found in the utterances of Black
SwanFilm?
2. What contexts underlaying Illocutionary Acts are used in the utterances of
Black SwanFilm?
3. What direct and indirect form of speech acts are found in the utterances of
Black SwanFilm?
1.3 Scope and Limitation
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Pragmatics is a branch of Linguistic Field that concernsspeech acts in
communication. This study is very interesting because it shows the way people
communicate meaningfully. Speech act is one of the pragmatic subfields; it deals
with how people perform an action by saying it. Illocutionary act is the center point
of this field, and is a very interesting topic to be analyzed. In order to narrow the
analysis, the writer analyzes only Illocutionary Acts from the main character’s
utterances of Black SwanFilm who is Nina Sayers.
1.4 Goals of the Study
Based on the problems mentioned above, the goals of analyzing Illocutionary
Act in Black SwanFilm are:
1. To identify types of Illocutionary Act found in the utterances of Black
SwanFilm.
2. To explain the contexts underlaying Illocutionary Act found in Black
SwanFilm.
3. To analyze direct and indirect form of speech acts found in Black SwanFilm.
1.5 Functions of the Study

The functions of this study are:
1. To improve the writer’s knowledge and skill in analyzing speech acts
especially about Illocutionary Act.
2. To give information and improvement knowledge of the Illocutionary Act
for readers.
3. To be a reference for English Department Students who want to analyze
pragmatic subject regarding Speech Act and Illocutionary Act.
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1.6 Systematical Presentation
This thesis proposal is divided into three chapters, they are:
Chapter I is introduction that consists of background of the study, statements
of the problems, scope and limitation of the study, goals of the study, functions of the
study and systematical presentation. Background of the study contains description
about general issues, object of the study, and reasons for choosing the topic. The
problems to be analyzed are formulated in the statements of the problem which are
then narrowed in scope and limitation of the study. Goals and functions of the study
justify the objectives of this study and the advantages gained from it. Lastly,
systematical presentation is inteded to ease readers to map the contents of ths study.
Chapter II consists of related studies, review of literature and theoretical
framework. In the related studies the writer explains the similarities and differences
between this study and the other studies quoted in this chapter. In addition, some
theories and opinios from variuos experts in pragmatics are quoted and documented
in review of literature to support the analysis. Specifically, the main theory which is
used to analyze data of illocutionary acts is explained in theoretical framework.
Chapter III research methodology consisting of approach of the study, data
source, data collection, and method of data analysis.To conduct a study, the right
approach needs to be chosen. It is described in the approach of the study. Data source
describes the object of this study. In data collection, the steps of collecting data are
explained. To give description about how the collected data are presented in data
finding and analysis, the way of presenting and analyzing data is explained in the
method of data analysis.
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CHAPTER II
RELATED STUDIES, REVIEW OF LITERATURES, AND
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
2.1 Related Studies
As an interesting topic, there have been some college students who analyzed
the same topic. They are Wardani (2011), Sahroni (2012), Ismiyati (2012), and Riana
(2013).
Wardani (2011) in her thesis entitled “An Analysis of Illocutionary Act of
Prince of Persia Movie: The Sand of Time Movie” analyzed the context that underlay
the illocutionary act and the types of illocutionary act found.Using descriptive
qualitative approach by employing the theory from Austin (1962) and Searle (1976),
she gave description of the contexts, and e a complete analysis of illocutionary acts
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both the form of the utterances and the types of illocutionary acts found in the
movie’s dialogues.
Another study is“An Analysis of Speech Acts in the Monalisa Smile Film”
conducted by Sahroni (2012). In his study, he used the theory of Huang (2007) and
Cruse (2004) to analyze the types of illocutionary acts found in the film.Even though
he used the speech act as his title, in his study he focused only on analyzing and
classifying the types of illocutionary acts found in the film. He did not describe the
context of the utterances.
Another interesting study about Illocutionary Acts was conducted by Ismiyati
(2012) in her study entitled“An Illocutionary Acts Analysis in the Lake NewsNovel
by Barbara Delinsky” Using the theory of speech acts from Searle (1976) in
analyzing her data of Illocutionary Acts in the novel, sheanalyzed and classified the
types of illocutionary acts and how the illocutionary acts were used in the
conversation. She analyzed how messages from each dialogue were percieved by the
hearers.
The other study is “An Analysis of Illocutionary Acts in Gangs of New York
Film by Martin Scorsese” conducted by Riana (2013). She gave a complete analysis
of illocutionary acts found. She classified the illocutionary acts of the film dialogues
based on the theory of speech acts from Searle (1976) and Yule (1996). She also
identified whether the illocutionary act was a form of direct speech act or indirect
speech act.
There are some similarities and differences between Wardani’s, Sahroni’s,
Ismiyati’s, Riana’s, and the writer’s study. The similarity is in the topic chosen for
the analysis which is illocutionary acts. The other similarity is the kind literary work
chosen as the object os study, which is film.In this case, only Ismiyati who used a
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novel as the data source.The difference lies in the analysis of the illocutionary act
itself. Most of them focus only on the classification of the illocutionary acts found
and onhow they are used by the characters in the literary works. Among the four
studies, Wardani and Rianaanalyzed more than just illocutionary acts
classification.Wardani described the contexts of the illocutionary acts, whereas Riana
identified whether the illocutionary act was the form of direct or indirect speech act..
In this study, the writer analyzes the types of illocutionary acts, the contexts
underlaying illocutionary acts, and finally identifies the form of speech acts whether
it is direct or indirect speech acts. The other difference is the theory used in the
analysis. Wardani used theory of speech acts from Searle (1976) and Austin (1962),
Sahroni used the theory of Cruse (2004) and Huang (2007), Ismiyati used the theory
of Searle, Riani used the theory of Searle (1976) and Yule (1996), whereas the
theory of speech acts used in this study is the theory of Yule (1996) and Huang
(2007).
2.2.Review of Literature
2.2.1.Linguistics
The basic study of this analysis is Linguistics. Linguistics is a study about
language that concerned with how languages employ logical structures and real-
world references to convey, process, assign meaning, and manage and resolve
amibuity as well. This category includes the study of semantics (how meaning is
inferred from words and concepts) and pragmatics (how meaning is inferred from
context).
According to Freeman (2004:x) the good reason of studying linguistics is that
language distinguishes human. For example, people can identify both the tribe and
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the social status of somebody based on the language he uses. French cannot speak as
Chinesse speak even though they used the same language because their accents are
different and it is so difficult to be changed. The way worker class speak also
different from the way the executive class speak even though they used the same
language in the same accents.
Linguistics has many sub-fields concerned with particular aspects of
linguistics structure. These sub-fields range from those focused primarily on form to
those focused primarily on meaning, they are:
- Phonetics is the study of the physical properties of speech or signed
production and perception.
- Phonology is the study of sounds (or sign) as discrete, abstract elements in
the speaker’s mind that distinguish meaning (phonemes).
- Morphology is the study morphemes, or the internal structures of words and
how they can be modified.
- Syntax is the study of how words combine to form grammatical sentences.
- Semantics is the study of the meaning of words (lexical semantics) and fixed
word combinations (phraseology), and how these combine to form the
meanings of sentences.
- Discourse analysis is the analysis of language use in texts (spoken, written, or
signed).
- Stylistics is the study of linguistics factors (rhetoric, diction, stress) that place
a discourse in context.
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- Semiotics is the study of signs and sign process (semiosis), indication,
designation, likeness, analogy, methapor, symbiolism, signification, and
communication.
- Pragmatics is the study of how utterances are used in communicative acts,
and the role played by context and non-linguistic knowledge in the
transmission of meaning.
- Sociolinguistics is the study of the usasge of language in society.
- Psycholinguistics is the study of linguitics in its relation to the psychological
term.
2.2.2. Pragmatics
Pragmatics is the study of utterances meaning with systematical applied in
language. Yule (1996: )defines, “Pragmatics is concerned with the study of
meaning as communicated by a speaker (or writer) and interpreted by a listener (or
reader)”.It means that Pramatics is the study about meaning in communicative where
what spoken by the hearer is interpreted by the listener.
Pragmatics encompasses speech act theory, conversational implicature, talks
in interaction and other approaches to language behaviour in philosophy, sociology,
and linguistics and anthropology. Unlike Semantics, which examine examines
meaning that is conventional or “coded” in a given language, pragmatics studies how
the transmission of meaning depends not only on structural and linguistics
knowledge of the speaker and listener, but also on the context of the utterance, any
preexisting knowledge about those involved, the inferred intent of the speaker, and
other factors.
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According to Chaika (2000:39)“Pragmatics are the social uses of language
especially in terms of the preconditions and presuppositions that bring about meaning
of what is said.” It means that Pragmatics the social interaction with presuppositions
that give meaning of what is said.Whereas Kearns (2011:1) defines, “Pragmatics is
the ways of the speaker to get the understanding of the hearer of what speaker mean
with a particular expressions.” It means that Pragmatics is a study about meaning
where the speaker must have ability to get the hearer understanding.
In the same view with Kearns, Kreidler (2002)defines pragmatics as a study
about person’s ability in deriving meanings. He points out:
“…The chief focus of pragmatics is a person’s ability to derive meanings

from specific kinds of speech situations—to recognize what the speaker is
referring to, to relate new information to what has gone before, to interpret
what is said from background knowledge about the speaker and the topic of
discourse, and to infer or ‘fill in’ information that the speaker takes for
granted and doesn’t bother to say”
Based on some definitions of Pragmatics above, the writer concludes that
Pragmatics is the study-field of Linguistics that deals with meaning; how the way the
speaker do in delivering his message to the hearer based on context that shared by
speaker and the hearer.
2.2.2.1.Speech Act
According to Huang (2007:93), “Speech act theory is that the uttering of a
sentence is, or is part of, an action within the framework of social institutions and
conventions.” It means that utterances of sentence which conveyed by the speaker
within framework of social institutions so that the hearer will do an action as the
respond to the speech act done by the speaker.
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Whereas Yule (1996) defines that Speech Act is action performed via
utterances. It means whenever we speak something we are doing something. For
example, when we say “I’ll call you tomorrow morning” we are do promising, and
as an effect of what we done the hearer will wait for our call tomorrow morning.
On the other hand, Searle (1969: ) points out:
“Speaking a language is performing speech acts, acts such as making

statements, giving commands, asking questions, making promises, and so on;
and more abstractly, acts such as referring and predicating; and, secondly, that
these acts are in general made possible by and are performed in accordance with
certain rules for the use of linguistic elements”
From the theory above the writer concludes that whenever we use language to
accomplish something we are performing speech act. These kind of speech act might
be offering, greeting, congratulating, apologyzing, ordering, asking, requesting,
inviting, etc. A speech act is an utterance that serves a function in communication.
The basic theory of Speech Act came from J.L. Austin who distinguished
speech act in three kinds, they are locutionary, illocutionary, and perlocutionary acts.
Locutionary act is every utterances that produced and has a meaning. For example,
“I have to do my assignment”. Illocutionary act is the communicative purpose, in
this case the hearer has to know the purpose of the speaker in her utterances. For
example, the locutionary act above has the illocutionary act belong to assertives
illocutinary act because the speaker affirms the hearer that she has to do her
assignment. And the last one is Perlocutionary act, it is when the hearer does
something in affection of what the speaker said to the hearer. For example, the hearer
will leave the speaker since she thinks the speaker is busy.
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2.2.2.2.Illocutionary Acts
Huang (2007:102) defines, “The illocutionary act refers to the type of
function the speaker intends to fulfill or the the type of action the speaker intends to
accomplish in the course of producing an utterance”.Further, Huang classifies
Illocutionary Act in five types, they are Representative or Assertive, Directives,
Commisives, Expressives, and Drclaration or Declaratives. Huang (2007:106) points
out:
Representative or Assertives are those kinds of speech act that commit the
speaker to the truth of the expressed proposition, and thus carry out a truth-
value. They express the speaker’s belief. Paradigmatic cases including
asserting, claiming, concluding, reporting, and stating. In performing this
type of speech act, the speaker represents the world as he or she believes it
is, thus making the words fit the world of belief.”
It means that Representative or Assertives are the utterances that express the
speaker’s belief. For example, “I came to your house late night, but you weren’t at
home.”The speaker reported that he or she was coming to her or his friend’s house
but she or he was not at home.
Commisives according to Huang are those kinds of speech act that commit
the speaker to some future course of action that express the speaker’s intention to do
something. E.g:offerings, pledging, promising, refusing, and threating. For example,
“I’ll pay you back next month.” It is promising, the speaker promises to the hearer
that she or he will pay the money back next month.
Expressives are those kinds of of speech act that express a psychological
attitude or state in the speaker such as joy, sorrow, likes/dislike. E.g. apologizing,
blaming, congratulating, praising, and thanking. For example, “I do apologize for not
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coming to your wedding”. The speaker apologizes to the hearer because she or he did
not come to the hearer’s wedding.
Declaration or Declaratives are those kinds of speech act that effect imidiate
change in some curent state of affairs. Because they tend to fely on elaborate
extralinguistic institutions for their successful performance, they may be called
institutionalized performatives. In performing this type of speech act, the speaker
brings about changes in the world; that is, he or she affects a correspondence
between the propositional content and the world. E.g. bidding in bridge, declaring
war, excommunicating, firing from employment, and nominating a candidate
2.2.2.3.Context
In this respect, pragmatics explains how language users are able to overcome
apparent ambiguity, since meaning relies on the manner, place, time, and etc of an
utterance. In the other words, the pragmatics is focus on the meaning of
communication that using utterance in external meaning, but semantics is focus on
the meaning of sentence or internal meaning.
Pragmatics is also the study of the contributibution of context to meaning.
The context itself consists of physical context, epistemic context, linguistic context,
and social context.
Physical context encompasses what is physically present around the
speakers/hearers at the time of communication. What objects are visibles, where the
communication is taking place, what is going on around, etc. For example, “He is
sitting on that corner” (accompanied by pointing).
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Epistemic context refers to what speaker knows about the world. For
example, the background knowledge is shared by the speakers is crucially part of our
epistemic knowledge whe we have a conversation with someone else. For example,
someone says, “Global warming is getting worst, the weather becomes hotter”, then
her or his friend answers, “Yeah, and what I heard is it become worst more and more
because the usage of some technologies”.
Linguistic context refers to what has been said already in the utterance. For
example, if someone begin a discussion by referring to Andromeda Clutch and in the
next sentence refer to “her” as being a top model, the linguistic context lets us know
that the antencedent of “her” is Andromeda Clutch.
Social context refers to the social relationship among speakers and hearers.
For example, we cannot say “Mr. Chairman, stops bugging me and goes home!” We
also cannot say something like, “I do hereby humbly request that you might come to
my house tonight”to our friend as well.
2.2.2.4. Direct and Indirect Speech Acts
Direct speech (quotation) and indirect (reported) speech are two different
ways of express what somebody says or said. Yule (1996:55) points out,“Whenever
there is a direct relationship between a structure and a function, we have a direct
speech act. Whenever there is indirect relationship between a structure and a
function, we have an indirect speech act.” What Yule says is an ideal in
identifying a direct and indirect speech act by relationship between the structure and
the function in sentences and utterances. For example, “Is the airconditioner could
not be turn on?” if the sentence is used to make a question it is a direct speech act,
meanwhile if the sentence is used to make an order it is indirect speech act.
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Furthermore, direct speech is also used when speaker report what someone
says by the exact words. For example:
George: This house was bought by my mother. (original statement)

George said, “This house was bought by my mother.” (direct speech)
It shows event though speaker sends a message not in direct but still use the
same words just repeating the exact words. Thus, it is called as direct speech act.
Meanwhile, indirect speech (also called reported speech) is when someone give the
same meaning of someone says without repeating the exact words. For example:
George: Thishouse was bought by my mother. (original statement)

George said that the house was bought by his mother. (indirect speech)
In this case, the speaker sends a message in different structure without
repeating the exact words but still in the same meaning. So, direct and indirect
speech acts are could be identified by knowing its structure of the sentence then the
function of that sentences to the hearer.
is not must to do something because the hearer ables to do it.
2.3. Theoretical Framework
To analyze the Illocutionary Acts and their types, theory from Huang (2007)
is used. According to Huang (2007:102) illocutionary act refers to the type of
function the speaker intends to fulfill, or we might say the type of action the speaker
intends to accomplish by producing an utterance. For example, someone says,
“Would you come to my party tonight?” Actually, he or she is performing an action;
inviting.Further, Huang (2007) classifies Illocutionary Act in five types, they are
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Representative or Assertive, Directives, Commisives, Expressives, and Declaration
or Declaratives.
Pragmatics explains how language users are able to overcome apparent
ambiguity, since meaning relies on the manner, place, time, and etc of an utterance.
Pragmatics is also the study of the contributibution of context to meaning. The
context itself consists of physical context, epistemic context, linguistic context, and
social context.
In analyzing direct and indirect forms of speech acts, the writer uses theory
from Yule (1996). Direct speech (quotation) and indirect (reported) speech are two
different ways of express what somebody says or said. Yule (1996:55) points
out,“Whenever there is a direct relationship between a structure and a function, we
have a direct speech act. Whenever there is indirect relationship between a structure
and a function, we have an indirect speech act.”What Yule says is an ideal in
identifying a direct and indirect speech act by relationship between the structure and
the function in sentences and utterances. Direct and indirect speech acts also could be
identified by knowing the function of that sentences to the hearer.
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211
CHAPTER III
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.1 Approach of the Study
The writer uses the Qualitative Approach because the writer tries to
analyze illocutionary acts of film’s dialogues in the form of essay. It means
that the data are utterances used by the characters collected by watching the
film, and these data are a part of qualitative data as they are in word forms,
not numeric. Besides, they are identified based on the concept of illocutionary
acts as one of the phenomena occur in communication.
Woods (2006:3) defined qualitative approach as an attempt to ensure
that the data and analysis will closely reflect what is happening:
“Qualitative research is concerned with life as it is lived, things as they

happen, and situation as they are constructed in the day-to-day,
moment-to-moment course of events. Qualitative researchers seek lived
experiences in realia situation. In general, they try not to disturb the
scene and to be unobtrusive in their methods. This is an attempt to
ensure that data and analysis will closely reflect what is happening.”
It means that in qualitative research the researchers take the data from events
and issues linked to what happen in daily life and explain the reflection of what is
happeningbased on their experience as they observe the real situation as represented
in the literary works.
3.2 Data Source
The data taken for this analysis is from Black Swanfilm’s dialogues. Black
Swan is an American psychological thriller film directed by Darren Aronofsky;
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written by Mark Heyman, Andres Heinz, John McLaughlin, produced by Ari Handel,
Scott Franklin, Mike Medavoy, Arnold Messer, and Brian Oliver, and released by
Fox Searchlight Pictures on 2010. The writer is interested in analyzing this film
because the writer found some illocutionary acts in its dialogues.
3.3 Collecting Data
To get appropriate data the writer did the some steps. First, the writer
watched the film several times to understand the whole story. Second, the writer
identified utterances that were supposed to be Illocutionary Acts. Besides, the writer
also read the film script to get complete data. Third, the writer marked and
collectedthe utterances by reading the film script and refering to the theory of speech
act. Fourth, the writer identified the data of the context. Finally, the writer
categorizes the illocutionary acts into appropriate classification and form of
illocutionary acts.
3.4 Method of Data Analysis
The data that have been collected from the dialogues of Black Swan film,
first are classified into the types of illocutionary Acts. Then they are identified
based on their context and are classified into direct or indirect speech acts. All the
data are explained in essay. The data are presented in the form of utterances from
film script followed by s analysis. The theories used in analyzing data of
illocutionary acts are theories of Yule (1996) and Huang (2007).
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213
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Austin, J.L. (1962). How to do things with words. NewYork: Oxford University
Press
Chaika, E. 2000. Linguistics, Pragmatics and Psychotherapy. London : Providence
College.
Cruse, A. 2004. Meaning in Language An Introduction to Semantics and
Pragmatics. New York: Oxford Univrsity
Freeman. 2004. Essential Linguistics: What you Need to Know to Teach Reading,
ESL, Spelling, Phonic, and Grammar. United States:Heinemann
Huang, Y.2007. Pragmatics. New York : Oxford University
Ismiyati.2012.An Illocutionary Acts Analysis in the Lake News Novel by Barbara
Delinsky. Undergraduate Thesis. South Tangerang: Pamulang University
Kearns, K.2011. Semantics. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmilan
Kreidler, Charles, W.2002. Introduction to English Semantics. London: Tylor and
Francis e-Library
Leech, G.N. 1983.Principles of Pragmatics. California:Longman
Riana, Sany, Cindy. 2013. An Analysis of Illocutionary Acts in Gangs of New York
Film by Martin Scoserse. Undergraduate Thesis. South Tangerang: Pamulang
University
Sahroni.2012 An Analysis of Illocutionary Acts in Monalisa Smile Film
Undergraduate Thesis. South Tangerang: Pamulang University
Searle, John, R.1969. Speech Act an Essay in the Philosophy of Language. London:
Cambridge University
Wardani, Nur Azni.2011.An Analysis of Illocutionary Acts in Prince of Persia: The
Sand of Time Movie. Undergraduate Thesis. Jakarta: State Islamic University
Syarif Hidayatullah
Wood, Peter. 2006. Successful Writing for Qualitative Researchers.New York:
Madison Ave
Yule, George.1996.Pragmatics. New york: Oxford Universsity
_____. 1996. The Study of Language. New York: The University of Cambridge
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C. EXERCISE
1. What is a research proposal?

2. What is the importance of a research proposal?
3. What is the purpose of research proposal?
4. What are usually the contents of a research proposal?
5. How to evaluate a research proposal?
D. ASSIGNMENT
Direction: Write your proposalon A4 paper, : 2ith lay out/margin: left :4 cm,
right:3cm, top: 4 cm, bottom: 3 cm, font type and size: Times New
Romance 12, space; 2
The Assignment:Create a full research proposal range for 5-15 pages!
A research proposal is a document that is typically written by a scientist

or academic which describes the ideas for an investigation on a certain topic.
A research proposal is a document that provides a detailed description of the

intended program. It is like an outline of the entire research process that gives
a reader a summary of the information discussed in a project.Research
proposals are written for various reasons, such as requesting a budget (grant),
certification requirements for research (as from an institutional review board
committee, as a task in tertiary education, etc.The main purpose of a research
proposal is to show that the problem you propose to investigate is significant
enough to warrant the investigation, the method you plan to use is suitable
and feasible, and the results are likely to prove fruitful and will make an
original contribution. The level of sophistication or amount of detail included
in your proposal will depend on the stage you are at and the requirements of
your department and University.
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215
F. REFFERENCES
1. Guidelines for Research Proposals. CPUT. Available Online in

https://www.cput.ac.za/images/research/documents/guidelines_for_res
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2. Klazema, April.2004. Thesis Proposal: Example of Outline and Structure.

Accessed on Nov.21, 2015 from: https://blog.udemy.com/thesis-
proposal-example/ .
3. Presentation, Proposal & Research Paper Guidelines. Miami Edu. Available

Online in
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unity_outreach/research_opportunities_for_um_undergrads/presentati
ons_research_papers/
4. Research Proposals. Business Dictionary.Com. Available Online in

http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/research-proposal.html
5. Research Proposal. UQ Edu. Available Online in

https://www.uq.edu.au/student-services/phdwriting/phfaq01.html
6. Wong, Paul T. P. How to Write a Research Proposal. Langley, BC, Canada:

Trinity Western University. Available Online in
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tm
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Bogdan, R.C., & Biklen, S.K. 1992. Qualitative Research for Education : An
Introduction to Theory and Methods. Boston: Allyn & Bacon
Creswell, W.John.1994. Researach Design: Qualitative & Quantitative
Fielding, N.G., & Lee, R.M.1991. Using Computers in Qualitative Research.
Newbury Park, CA:Sage
Fowler, F.J. 1988. Survey Research Methods. Newbury Park, CA: Sage
Kerlinger, F.N. 1973. Foundations of Behavioral Research. New York: Holt,
Rinehart &Winston
Lester, D. James. 2004. Writing Research Papers: A Complete Guide. Eleventh
Lynch, K. Brian.1996. Language Program Evaluation: Theory and Practice.
Lock, L.F, Spirduso, W.W., & Silverman, S.J.1987. Proposals that Work: A
Guide for Planning Dissertations and Grant Proposals (2nd ed.).
Newbury Park, CA: Sage
Marriam, S.B. 1988. Case Study Research in Education: Qualitative
Approach.San Francisco; Jossey-Bass
Marshall, C., & Rossman, G.B. 1989. Designing Qualitative Research. Newbury
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Maxwell, A.Joseph. 1996. Qualitative Research Design: An Interactive
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Miles, M.B., & Huberman, A.M.1984. Qualitattive Data Analysis: A Source Book
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Rozakis, E.Laurie. The Complete Idiot’s Guide to Research Methods. USA:
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ABOUT THE WRITER
Ratmo, S.Pd, MM was born in Wonosobo, Central Java

on December 13, 1968. He is the first son of Mr.
Miharjo, a dilligent farmer who cares very much to his
son’s education. Mr. Ratmo Graduated from Teacher’s
Institute of Education (IKIP PGRI) Semarang in 1993
majoring in English Teaching. He took his Master
Degree in Educational Management at Universitas Budi
Luhur, Jakarta in 2008. However, he had started his
career in Education in 1992. He was an English teacher
at State Senior High School (SMAN I) Banjarnegara,
Central Java (1992 – 1995). In 1996 he moved to Bogor and continued teaching
English at a PGRI Senior High School in Cibinong, Bogor (1996-1998). Beside a
school teacher, he spent his idle time teaching at some English cources:
Michigan International Language School (1996-1997), Citeureup College (1997),
ELTI- Gramedia Group (1998-1999), LPIA (2000). In 1997 he began teaching at
Higher Education – Institutes and Universities: Trisakti Institute of Tourism,
Jakarta (1997 – 2008), STIE Bunda Mulia, Jakarta (1999), Sahid Institute of
Tourism, Jakarta (2000-2010). He is now an English Advisor at BMB (Bina
Mutu Bangsa) for HORESTRA (Hotel, Resort and Resturant Management
Training) (2010 – present). In 2009 he joined UNPAM up to the present he is a
senior Lecturer at Faculty of Letters, Pamulang University, South tangerang.
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1

Doing a research is indispensable for university

1) Explain at least 5 reasons for researching with examples

1.1. Defining Research

In our daily life we conduct informal research all

Research is a disciplined attempt to address or solve problems through the

1.2. Why research?

1.2.1. To fulfil curiousity

Since humans were born, they have been

Since humansare always curious, they always

1.2.2. To know causality

Lester (2004) argues that causal

1.2.3. To increase quality

Let’s read the following story taken

1.2.4. To test efficiency

Some researches that test efficiency for

1.2.5. To satisfy sense of discovery

Since ancient time, humans have been

Still another example is a

In 2003, after the discovery of sizable

In modern era the discovery of

1.3. Purposes of Research

In general, research is aimed at:

1) Developing critical and analytical

4) Training investigative techniques;

5) Helping university students to prepare undergraduate thesis (S1), graduate

6) Adding or improving information, data, and theories for knowledge

1.4. Functions of Research

Research is presented as an integral

conduits for the progress of the technique of teaching. It strengthens and

1.5. Characteristics of Research

Some Characteristics of Research are:

1) Research is an organized and deliberate effort to collectnew

1.6. Scope of Literature, Linguistics, and Educational Research

The scope of literary research includes prose, poetry, drama, literary

educational research includes teaching the four language skills, teaching

The scope of Literary Research can be described in the following figure:

drama film studies

Figure 1.1. Scope of Literary Research

In addition, the scope of Research on Lingusitics can be observed from the

semantic & socio-

Figure 1.2. Scope of Research on Linguistics

Moreover, the scope of Educational Research can be described in the following

Figure 1.3. Scope of Educational Research

The overall content of a study is usually reflected its abstract. Following

Subject: Literary Criticism (Qualitative )

Keywords : Mythology criticism, intrinsic elements, characters, Mythical

Key words: teaching speaking, role-play technique, qualitative, observation,

Key words: Sociolinguistics, communication, code mixing, code switching,

Thesis proposal should be free from grammatical errors as it is a kind of

misformation types, followed by omission, and addition. Regarding to the

This research is aimed at analyzing influence of organization culture to lecturer’s

= 45,9% . It means that motivation factor influences performance as much as 45,9%.

Key words : organization culture, leadership style, motivation, achievement,

Questions for Review:

Directions: Write the following assignment on a separate paper.

Format:Type your answer on A4 paper using Times New Romance font

Knowing reasons for reseaching can help you find alternatives ,

Research can also be used to diagnose and anticipate causes of certain

In business, research may be used to increase service or product’s quality

The purpose of researching in general is to develop critical and analitical

The functions of researching besides it is central to individual and

Research is characterized as an organized effort to collect new information