ROBOTICS

ME 424 A Unit1

Dr.Ch.Lakshmi Srinivas
Syllabus
UNIT – 1
Introduction to Robotics, major components of a robot, robotic like devices, classification
of robots – Classification by coordinate system and by control method, Specifications of
robots, fixed versus flexible automation, economic analysis, Overview of robot
application.

Learning Objectives

After completing this unit, you will be able to:

 Know the historical background in the development of industrial robots

 Differentiate robot and robotic like devices
 Understand the major components of the robotic system
 Justify the potential applications of industrial robots
 Understand the importance of robots in computer integrated manufacturing
 Describe the specifications of a robot
 Visualize the work envelopes of various types of robots
 Understand the various classification methods of industrial robots
 Appreciate the savings due to installation of robots

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 INTRODUCTION TO ROBOTICS

 ROBOT entered the English language through Czech play titled “Rossums
Universal Robots” by Karel Capek in early 1920’s.

Fig. 1.1 Cover page of Rossums Universal Robots

 Czech word ROBOTA means Forced worker. The English translation of robota is
ROBOT

 Capek’s play was pure science fiction.

 The term “ROBOTICS” was coined by Isaac Asimov in his short story
“RUNAROUND” first published in 1942. This work is also notable because of
the so called three Laws of Robotics are presented.

1. A robot may not injure a human being or through inaction, allow

one to harm.
2. A robot must obey the orders given by it by human beings except
where such orders would conflict with the first law.
3. A robot must protect its own existence as long as such protection
does not conflict with the first or second laws.

Asimov has stated that workers in the field of AI indicated to him that these three
laws should serve as a good guide as the field progresses.

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  Real inventors who made original contributions to the technology of industrial
robotics are Cyril W Kenward and George C Devol.

 Cyril W Kenward is a British inventor, who devised a manipulator that moved on

an x-y-z axis system. In 1954 he applied for patent and 1957 patent was issued.

 George C Devol (An American) credited with two inventions

(i) Device for magnetically recording electrical signals so that the

signals could be played back to control the operation of machinery.
This was invented around 1946, and US patent was issued in 1952.

(ii) Robotic device, which he called it as Programmed Article Transfer

in 1950. This device was intended for parts handling. Patent was
issued in 1961. This was a prototype for the hydraulically driven
robots that were later built by Unimation Inc

.
Fig. 1.2 Operation of PAT (Programmed Article Transfer)

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  Although Kenward’s robot was chronologically the first in terms of patent dates,
Devol’s robot proved more important in the development of commercialization of
robotic technology.

 Joseph Engleberger got Physics degree in 1949. As a student he read several

science fiction novels about robots. Mid 1950’s he was working for a company
that made control systems for jet engines.

 By the time a chance meeting occurred between Engleberger and Devol in 1956.
Meeting took place at a cocktail party in fair field, Connecticut, USA.
Engleberger was Pre disposed by education, avocation and occupation towards
the notion of robotics.

Fig. 1.3. Joseph Engleberger (left) and George Devol being served
drinks by a Unimate robot.

 Devol described his PAT (Programmed Article Transfer) invention to

Engleberger and subsequently they began to think how to develop the device as a
commercial product.

 In 1962, Unimation Inc founded with Engleberger as president. The first product
was “UNIMATE” a polar configuration robot. The application of this robot was
unloading a die casting machine at General Motors plant in New Jersey in 1961.

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 Fig. 1.4 Unimate robot for unloading of parts from die casting machine

 The development of robotics technology was followed the development of NC

and are quite similar. They both involve coordinated control of multiple axes
(axes are called joints in robotics) and thus both use dedicated digital computers
as controllers.

 NC machines are designed to perform specific processes like machining, sheet

metal work, thermal cutting etc. Robots are designed for a wider variety of tasks.
Typical applications are spot welding, material transfer, machine loading, spray
painting, assembly etc.

 RIA (Robotics Industries Association) formerly Robotics Institute of America

defined robot as “ An industrial robot is a reprogrammable,
multifunctional manipulator designed to move materials, parts, tools or
special devices through variable programmed motions for the
performance of a variety of tasks”

 Qualities that make industrial robots commercially & technologically important

are
 Robots can be substituted for humans in hazardous or un comfortable
environments.
 A robot performs its work cycle with a consistency and repeatability that can’t
be attained by humans.
 Robots can be reprogrammed.
 Robots are controlled by computers and can therefore be connected to other
computer systems to achieve CIM.

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  In the late 1980’s with the availability of cheap electronic devices like touch
sensors, vision cameras, etc robots actually began interacting with the
environment and thus started the application artificial intelligence in robotics.
Smart material based sensors and actuators and an interest in emulating biological
design paradigms in later 1990’s led to development of robots that could emulate
humans in both form and function.

Fig. 1.5 the Humanoid robot ASIMO developed by Honda.

(Advanced Step in Innovative Mobility)

Summary of events in the history and development of Robotics

1922 Czech author Karel Capek wrote a story called Rossum’s Universal Robots
and introduced the word rabota (worker).

1946 George Devol developed the magnetic controller, a playback device.

Eckert and Mauchley built the ENIAC computer at the University of
Pennsylvania.

1952 The first numerically controlled machine was built at MIT.

1954 George Devol developed the first programmable robot.

1955 Denavit and Hartenberg developed homogeneous transformation matrices.

1961 U S patent 2,988,237 was issued to George Devol for “Programmed

Article Transfer”, a basis for Unimate robots.

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 1962 Unimation was formed, the first industrial robots appeared, and GM
installed its first robot from Unimation.

1967 Unimate introduced Mark II robot. The first robot was imported to Japan
for paint spraying applications.

1968 An intelligent robot called Shakey was built at the Stanford Research
Institute (SRI).

1972 IBM worked on a rectangular coordinate robot for internal use. It

eventually developed the IBM 7565 for sale.

1973 Cincinnati Milacron introduced T3 model robot which became very

popular in industry.

1978 The first PUMA robot was shipped to GM by Unimation.

1982 GM and Fanuc of Japan signed an agreement to build GMFanuc robots.

1983 Robotics became a very popular subject, both in industry and academia.
Many programs in the nation started teaching robotic courses.

1983 Unimation was sold to Westinghouse Corporation, who subsequently sold

it to the Staubli of Switzerland in 1988.

1986 Honda introduced its first humanoid robot called H0. First ASIMO
(Advanced Step in Innovative Mobility) was introduced in 2000.

2005 Between January and March, over 5,300 robots were ordered by the North
American manufacturing companies at a value of $302 million.

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 MAJOR COMPONENTS OF A ROBOT

 Although the mechanical, electrical and computational structure of robots can

vary considerably, most have the following four major components in common.
1. A Manipulator (or) Arm (The mechanical unit)
2. One or more sensors
3. A Controller (The brain)
4. Power supply unit

Fig. 1.6 Major components of a Robot

THE MANIPULATOR

The manipulator of an industrial robot consists of a series of joints and links.

Robot anatomy is concerned with the types and sizes of these joints and links and
other aspects of the manipulators physical construction.

In fact, robot and manipulator are often used interchangeably, although strictly
speaking this is not correct.

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 A joint of an industrial robot is similar to a joint in the human body. It provides
relative motion between two parts of the body.

Each joint or axis provides the robot with a so called degree-of-freedom (d o f) of

motion. In nearly all cases, only one degree of freedom is associated with each
joint.

Robots are often classified according to the total number of degrees -of-freedom
they posses.

Connected to each joint are two links, an input link and an output link.

Links are the rigid components of the robot manipulator. The purpose of the joint
is to provide controlled relative movement between the input link and the output
link.

Fig. 1.7 Illustration showing robot made up of a series of joint-link combinations.

The joint-link numbering scheme is illustrated in the above figure.

Link1 is the input link to joint2; Link2 is the output link of joint2 and so on.

Nearly all industrial robots have mechanical joints that can be classified in to one
of five types given below. Two types provide translational motion, three types
provide rotary motion.

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  Linear Joint (L-Joint): The relative movement between the input link and the
output link is a translational sliding motion, with the axes of the two links
parallel.

 Orthogonal Joint (O-Joint): This is also a translational sliding motion, but the
input and output links are perpendicular to each other during the motion.

 Rotational Joint (R-Joint): This type provides rotational relative motion with
the axis of rotation perpendicular to the axes of the input and output links.

 Twisting Joint (T-Joint): This joint also involves rotary motion. But the axis
of rotation is parallel to the axes of the two links.

 Revolving Joint (V-Joint): In this joint type, the axis of the input link is
parallel to the axis of rotation of the joint, and the axis of the output link is
perpendicular to the axis of rotation.

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 Each of these joint types has a range over which it can be moved. The range for a
translational joint is usually less than a meter, but for large gantry robots, the
range may be several meters. The three types of rotary joints may have a range as
small as a few degrees or as large as several complete turns.

SENSORY DEVICES

These elements inform the robot controller about the status of the manipulator.
This can be done continuously or only at the end of a desired motion. Regardless
of how it is used, the information provided by the sensors can be analog, digital or
a combination.

Sensors used in modern robots can be divided in to two general classes.

i. Non Visual (Proximity sensors, photo electric, mechanical position
sensors, optical encoders, potentiometers, resolvers etc)
ii. Visual (Vidicon, Charge Coupled Device (CCD), Charge Injection
Device (CID), TV cameras coupled to appropriate image-detection
hardware etc. essentially used for object recognition or object grasping
etc)

THE CONTROLLER

Robot controllers generally perform three functions:

1. They initiate and terminate the motion of the individual components of the
manipulator in a desired sequence and at specified points.
2. They store position and sequence data in their memory.
3. They permit the robot to be interfaced to the outside world via sensors
mounted in the area, where work is being performed. (i.e. the work station)

To carry out these tasks, controllers must perform the necessary arithmetic
computations for determining the correct manipulator path, speed, and position. They
must also send signals to the joint-actuating devices (via interfaces) and utilize the
information provided by the robot’s sensors. Also, they must permit communication
between peripheral devices and the manipulator.

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Robot controllers usually fall in to one of the following classes.

 Simple step sequencer

 Pneumatic logic system
 Electronic sequencer
 Micro computer
 Mini computer

THE POWER SUPPLY UNIT

The purpose of this part of the robot is to provide the necessary energy to the
manipulator’s actuators.
(e.g.: power amplifier in case of servo motor controlled actuated system, remote
compressor system, Hydraulic power pack , AC motors, DC motors, Stepper
motors etc).

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 ROBOTIC LIKE DEVICES

There are a number of devices that utilize certain facets of robot technology and are
therefore often mistakenly called robots. In fact, Engleberger has referred to them as
“near relations”.

There are at least four such classes of mechanisms:

1. PROSTHESES: These are often referred to as “robot arms” or “robot legs”. Even
though they can make use of either hydraulic or servo motor actuators, utilize
servo control and have mechanical linkages, they do not have their own brains
and are not truly programmable. The impetus to produce an action (called the
‘command signal’) in such a device originates in the brain of the human being. It
is then transmitted via nerves to the appropriate appendage, where electrodes
sense the nerve impulses. These are processed electronically by a special-purpose
computer (on board the prosthesis), which in turn controls the motion of the
substitute limb (or hand).

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 2. EXOSKELETONS: These are a collection of mechanical linkages that are made
to surround either human limbs or the entire human frame. They have the ability
to amplify a human’s power. However, it is clear that they can’t act
independently and as such are not robots. When an exoskeleton device is used,
the operator must exercise caution due to increased forces and / or speeds that are
possible.

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 3. TELECHERICS: These devices permit manipulation or movement of materials and /
or tools that are located many feet away from an operator. Even though,
telecheric mechanisms use either hydraulic or servomotor actuators which are
usually controlled in a closed loop manner with the help of human operator
taking appropriate decisions about the position and speed.

Such devices are especially useful in following applications: Dealing with

hazardous substances like radioactive waste, bombs, under sea exploration,
underground drainage systems etc.

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 4. LOCOMOTIVE MECHANISMS: These are devices that imitate human beings or
animals by having the ability to walk on two or four legs. Although the multiple
appendages can be highly sophisticated collections of linkages that are
hydraulically or electrically actuated under closed loop control, a human operator
is still required to execute the locomotive process. (i.e. taking decisions
concerning the desired direction and coordination of various movements).

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 CLASSIFICATION OF ROBOTS

In general Robots are classified according to

(i) Work envelope geometries

(ii) Motion Control method
(iii) Drive technologies

A robot manipulator can be divided in to two sections:

 Body and arm assembly (usually 3 D O F associated with it)

 Wrist assembly (usually 2 or 3 D O F associated with it)

At the end of manipulator’s wrist is a device related to the task that must be accomplished
by the robot. This device is called “end effector”.

An end effector may be a gripper for holding a work part or a tool for performing some
process.

The body-and-arm of the robot is used to position the end effector and the robot wrist is
used to orient the end effector.

Classification according to work envelope geometries

The gross work envelope of a robot is defined as the locus of points in three-dimensional
space that can be reached by the wrist.

According to work envelope geometries, the commercial industrial robots are

classified as:

(i) Polar configuration (Two revolute pairs and one prismatic pair)
(ii) Cylindrical configuration (one revolute and two prismatic pairs)
(iii) Cartesian coordinate robot (Three prismatic pairs)
(iv) Jointed arm robot (Three revolute pairs )
(v) SCARA (Two revolute and one prismatic pair)

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1. Polar Configuration robot (Spherical-coordinate robot)( RRP):
This configuration consists of sliding arm (L joint) actuated relative to the body,
which can rotate about both a vertical axis (T joint) and a horizontal axis (R joint).
Joint notation is TRL.

Fig. 1.8 Polar configuration robot body and arm assembly

The work volume or work envelope of the manipulator is defined as the

envelope or three dimensional spaces within which the robot can manipulate the
end of its wrist. Work volume is determined by the number and types of joints in
the manipulator, the ranges of the various joints, and the physical sizes of the
links. The shape of the work volume depends largely on the robot configuration.

Fig. 1.9 Work envelope of a Polar coordinate robot

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 The working envelope of this configuration sweeps out a volume between two
partial spheres as shown in figure 1.9. There are physical limits imposed by the
design on the amount of angular movement in both the vertical and horizontal
planes. These restrictions create conical dead zones both above and below the
Robot structure.

2. Cylindrical Configuration robot (RPP):

This robot configuration consists of a vertical column, relative to which an
arm assembly is moved up or down. The arm can be moved in and out relative to
the axis of the column. Joint notation is TLO.

Fig. 1.10 Cylindrical body and arm assembly

Fig. 1.11 Work envelope of a Cylindrical coordinate robot

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 The working envelope of this configuration is as its name suggests a
cylinder. The cylinder is hollow, since there is a limit to how far the arm can
retract; this creates a cylindrical dead zone around the Robot structure as shown
figure 1.11.

3. Cartesian coordinate robot (PPP):

The other names for this configuration are rectilinear robot, xyz robot. As
shown in fig 1.12, it is composed of three sliding joints, two of which are
orthogonal. Joint notation is LOO.

Fig. 1.12 Cartesian coordinate body and arm assembly

The working envelope of the Cartesian configuration is a rectangular

prism. There are no dead zones within the working envelope and the Robot can
manipulate its maximum payload throughout the working volume.

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 Fig. 1.13 Work envelope of a Cartesian coordinate robot

4. Jointed arm robot (RRR):

This robot manipulator has the general configuration of a human arm. The
jointed arm consists of a vertical column that swivels about the base using a T
joint. At the top of the column is a shoulder joint (shown as R joint), whose output
link connects to an elbow joint (another R joint). Joint notation is TRR.

Fig. 1.14 Jointed-arm body and arm assembly

This configuration has a large working envelope relative to the floor space
it occupies. The shape of the working envelope depends on the individual design.
The two most common designs are shown below. The design in fig 1.15 (a) has a
complex cusp shaped envelope (b) allows almost a true sphere to be reached,
whilst the design in.

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 Fig. 1.15 Work envelope of a jointed arm robot

5. SCARA robot (RRP):

SCARA is an acronym for Selective Compliance Assembly Robot Arm.
This configuration is similar to the jointed arm robot except that the shoulder and
elbow rotational axis are vertical, which means that the arm is very rigid in the
vertical direction, but compliant in the horizontal direction. This permits the robot
to perform insertion tasks (for assembly) in a vertical direction, where some side
to side alignment may be needed to make the two parts properly. Joint notation is
VRO.

Fig. 1.16 SCARA body and arm assembly

The SCARA configuration has a working envelope that can be loosely described
(fig 1.17) as a heart or kidney shaped prism, having a circular hole passing through the
middle. This allows large area coverage in the horizontal plane but relatively little in the
vertical plane.

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 Fig. 1.17 Work envelope of a SCARA robot

WRIST CONFIGURATIONS:
The robot’s wrist is used to establish the orientation of the end effector. A robot
wrist usually consists of two or three degrees of freedom. Figure 1.18 shows one possible
configuration for a three degree of freedom wrist assembly.

Fig.1.18 Typical configuaration of a three-degree-of-freedom wrist assembly

showing roll, pitch, and yaw

The three joints are defined as follows:

(1) Roll, using a T joint to accomplish rotation about the robots arm axis
(2) Pitch, which involves up and down rotation, typically using a R joint
(3) Yaw, which involves right and left rotation, accomplished by R joint

A two degree of freedom wrist typically includes only roll and pitch joints (T and R
Joints).

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JOINT NOTATION SCHEME:
The letter symbols for the five joint types (L, O, R, T and V) can be used to define
a joint notation system for the robot manipulator. In this notation system, the manipulator
is described by the joint types that make up the body-and arm assembly, followed by the
joint symbols that make up the wrist.

Example: The notation, TLR: TR represents five degrees of freedom manipulator, whose
body and arm is made up of a T joint, L joint and a R joint. The wrist is made up of a T
joint and a R joint.

Classification according to Motion Control method

The actuations of the individual joints must be controlled in a coordinated

fashion for the manipulator to perform a desired motion cycle. Microprocessor
based controllers are commonly used today in robotics as the control system
hardware. The controller is organized in a hierarchical structure as shown in
fig.1.19. Each joint has its own feedback control system and a supervisory
controller coordinates the combined actuations of the joints according to the
sequence of the robot program.

Fig. 1.19 Hierarchical control structure of a robot microcomputer controller

According to motion control method, the robot controllers are classified in

to four categories.
1. Limited sequence control
2. Playback with point to point control
3. Playback with continuous path control
4. Intelligent control

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Limited Sequence Control:
 This is the most elementary type control and is used for simple motion cycles
such as pick and place operation. It is usually implemented by setting limits or
mechanical stops for each joint and sequencing the actuation of the joints to
accomplish the cycle. Feedback loops are sometimes used to indicate that the
particular joint actuation has been accomplished so that next step in sequence can
be initiated. However, there is no servo control to accomplish precise positioning
of the joint. Many pneumatically driven robots are limited sequence robots.

Playback with point to point control:

 Playback robots represent a more sophisticated form of control than limited
sequence robots. Playback control means that the controller has a memory to
record the sequence of motion in a given work cycle as well as the locations and
other parameters (such as speed) associated with each motion and then to
subsequently play back the work cycle during execution of the program. In PTP
control, individual positions of the robot arm recorded in to memory.
 These positions are not limited to mechanical stops for each joint as in limited
sequence robots. Instead, each position in the robot program consists of a set of
values representing locations in the range of each joint of the manipulator.
Feedback control is used during the motion cycle to confirm that the individual
joints achieve the specified locations in the program.

Playback with continuous path control:

 Continuous path robots have the same playback capability as the PTP type. The
difference between these two is same as that in NC. The main features of
continuous path control are greater storage capacity and interpolation calculations.

 The various interpolation methods are linear interpolation, circular interpolation,

helical interpolation, parabolic interpolation and cubic interpolation.

 Consider a three axis Cartesian coordinate manipulator in which the end of arm is
moved in x-y-z space. In point-to-point systems, the x, y and z axes are controlled
to achieve a specified point location within the robot’s work volume. In
continuous path systems, not only are the x, y and z axes controlled, but the
velocities dx/dt, dy/dt and dz/dt are controlled simultaneously to achieve the
specified linear or curvilinear path. Servo control is used to continuously regulate
the position and speed of the manipulator. It should be mentioned that a play back
robot with continuous path control has the capacity for PTP control.

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Intelligent control:
 Industrial robots are becoming increasingly intelligent. An intelligent robot is one
that exhibits behavior that makes it seem intelligent. Some of these capabilities
are interact with its environment, make decisions when things go wrong during
the work cycle, communicate with humans, make computations during the motion
cycle and respond to advanced sensor inputs such as machine vision.

Classification according to Drive technologies

This classification of robots is based on the source of power used to drive
the joints of the robot. Robots joints are actuated using any of the following three
types of drive systems.

1. Electric
2. Hydraulic
3. Pneumatic

 Pneumatic drive is typically limited to smaller robots used in material transfer

applications.
 Electric drive and hydraulic drive are used on more sophisticated industrial
robots.
 Electric drive has become the preferred drive system because it readily adaptable
to computer control.
 Electric drive robots are relatively accurate compared with hydraulically powered
robots. By contrast, the advantages of hydraulic drive systems are greater speed
and strength.
 The drive system, position sensors and feedback control systems for the joints
determine the dynamic response characteristics of the manipulator.

The important dynamic response characteristics of the manipulator are the speed
with which the robot can achieve a programmed position and the stability of its
motion.

Speed refers to the absolute velocity of the manipulator at its end-of-arm. Other
factors that influence the speed of motion are the weight (mass) of the object that
is being manipulated and the precision with which the object must be located at
the end of a given move.

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 Stability refers to the amount of overshoot and oscillation that occurs in the robot
motion at the end-of-arm as it attempts to move to the next programmed location.
More oscillations in the motion are an indication of less stability.

Fixed versus Flexible Automation

Up to the time of the first robot (i.e. the early 1960s) the automated machines developed
have been designed to perform essentially one task with little capability for changing.

In general machines developed for a specific task are called fixed automated devices and
the process that incorporates them is called fixed or hard automation.

With the advent of the industrial robot a new method of automating products became
possible and is called flexible automation. (A single complex machine can able to
perform a multitude of jobs with relatively minor modifications and little downtime
needed when changing from one task to another).
The three major advantages of flexible automation over fixed one are:
1. Reaction time
2. Debugging
3. Resistance to Obsolescence

1. Reaction Time
In general, when a fixed automated device is to be used in a process for the first
time, it must be designed, built, and tested before it can be used. Such a process
may take several months or years. By that time the product may lose its
competitive edge.

In case of flexible automation, the robot is installed in a very short span of

time as it is an off-the-shelf device. Once the appropriate type of unit is selected, a
rather short period will elapse before the robot is delivered to the factory. Once it
is uncrated, it is essentially “ready to go”.

It is clear that use of a robot may significantly reduce the lead time
required to start producing a new product and will facilitate changes necessitated
by process variability.

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2. Debugging
Once a fixed automated device is delivered to the plant, it must be placed
in to operation. Due to the fact that it is a special-purpose electro mechanical
device, for which there is little or no past history of operation, this will often
require a good deal of “fine tuning”. In some instances, it may even be necessary
to redesign and rebuild entire portions of the machine before satisfactory
operation is achieved. All of this, no doubt make the debugging or shakedown
part of the procedure a time-consuming affair.

On the other hand, if a robot is to be used to perform the same task, the
debugging operation will take a significantly shorter time. Since the robot is an
off-the shelf piece of automation, power connections, perhaps compressed air
lines, and proper positioning will be required.

As noted above the robot itself will be operational almost immediately.

However, additional time will be required for the programming of the device. It is
evident that debugging time for the robot is likely to be considerably shorter than
for the special-purpose, hard automated device.

3. Resistance to Obsolescence
Engelberger has said that resistance to Obsolescence is the “very essence of a
robot”. Unlike a piece of fixed automation which is capable of performing only a
single, specific task, the robot is not limited by the nature of the product, the type
of operations to be performed, or the particular industry. It is this aspect that
makes flexible automation such an attractive alternative to companies that
regularly require model changes that necessitate retooling (e.g., the automobile
industry). These industries use robots by reprogramming and by utilizing different
types of grippers whenever such changes take place.

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 Economic considerations
The robots have relieved humans from “4D jobs” (i.e. a very dull, very dirty, very
dangerous, or very difficult), the fact remains that manufacturing plant managers are
extremely concerned with the reduction in labor costs.

A survey of robot users and potential users conducted in 1981 indicated the primary
reason for selecting a robot is to reduce labor costs. The other reasons are elimination of
dangerous jobs, increased output rate, improved product quality, increased product
flexibility, reduced materials waste, reduced labor turnover and reduced capital cost.
Thus regardless of how potentially beneficial robots may appear to be with respect to
humans, if they cannot be justified economically, they will not be purchased.

Another advantage of robots is that they can be used for a very long time since they do
not become obsolete. Thus it is expected that the user will realize a considerable profit
over the robots useful life.

Economic analysis
In order to analyze the economic justification of installing a robot, we have to consider
the total cost and the anticipated savings of the robot system.

Apart from the direct robot cost, there are other costs which are to be considered.

These costs are due to the following;

Robot gripper mechanism

Sensors in the robot and in the system
Layout changes necessary for installation of the robot
Feeders or other devices necessary to present parts in a predetermined orientation
Maintenance cost (usually 10% of the robot cost)
Savings could be generated in several ways:
1. Labor replacement: the cost should include direct pay as well as fringe
benefits. A robot could replace one or more operators in one, two or three
shifts.
2. Quality improvement: A robots work is more reliable and consistent than
that of a human operator. This could lead to an improvement in quality in
some applications. Wherever possible, it is a good idea to try to quantify
this improvement by multiplying the number of additional acceptable parts
anticipated in 1 year by the part cost ( = × ).

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 3. Increase in productivity: In operations where cycle time was determined
by the speed of the human operator rather than machine time, a robot may
reduce cycle time and increase productivity by using robots however; it is
difficult in general to quantify the value of increase. (rough estimates 25%
increase in productivity)
4. Indirect savings: A robot may produce indirect savings, such as savings in
materials, reduced scrap or rework, and reduced workers compensation
costs because of injuries.

The cost and savings items are summarized as under:

R = Robot cost
G = Robot gripper
S = Sensors
D = Layout changes
F = Feeders
M = annual maintenance cost

Annual savings:
L = Labor saving
Q = Quality improvement
I = Production increase

The total capital investment C is given by

= + + + +

The total annual savings A are

= + +

The Payback period (P) is the length of time required for paying back the initial
investment.
( )=
−

Return on Investment (ROI) is the measure of anticipated return on investment. It is

defined as the ratio of the total annual savings realized from the equipment divided by the
total investment, if the ROI is larger than the current percentage rate of barrowing money,
the purchase is usually justified.

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 (1 + )
− =
(1 + ) − 1

Where ‘i’ is the interest rate or ROI, ‘n’ is the number of years used as the planning
horizon (usually n= 5 years).

Example problem:
A robot used for machine loading is priced at $46,000, the special gripper required for it
costs $5000, the sensors cost $1000, and the feeder cost is $30,000. There are no layout
changes. The robot will replace one operator. The operator’s rate is $16 per hour
including fringe benefits and the operator works 250 days a year, 8 hours a day. No
production increase or quality improvements are anticipated. What is the payback period
for one-shift and for two-shift operations? Also find the ROI for a 5 year planning
horizon.

Solution
The values of the various variables are
R= $46,000
G= $5000
S= $1000
D= 0
F= $30,000
L= $16/hour x 250 days/year x 8h/day = $32,000/year/shift
Q= 0
I= 0
M= $4600 (10% of $46,000)

The total cost is = + + + + = $82,000

The total annual savings are

= + + = $32,000 ℎ , $64,000 ℎ .

The payback period is calculated as

,
= = 2.99 for one-shift operation
, ,

,
= = 1.38 for two-shift operation
, ,

Considering the planning horizon of 5 years, ROI is calculated as 20% for one-shift
operation and 67% for two-shift operation.

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 Resolution, repeatability and accuracy of a manipulator

The capacity of a robot to position and orient the end of its wrist with accuracy and
repeatability is an important control attribute in nearly all industrial applications.

In the context of robot move its joints to achieve accurate ad repeatable positioning, the
following characteristic terms are used.
Control Resolution
Accuracy
Repeatability

In robotics these characteristics are defined at the end of the wrist and in the absence of
any end effector attached to the wrist.

Resolution is important for both record and playback applications and off-line
programming. Essentially it defines the ability of the manipulator to be able to reach
position close enough during initial training or defines the smallest move that the robot
can make.
Control resolution refers to the capability of the robot’s positioning system to divide the
range of the joint into closely spaced points, called addressable points, to which the joint
can be moved by the controller.
Spatial resolution is defined as the worst case distance between two adjacent addressable
points.
The capability to divide the range into addressable points depends on two factors:
(a) Limitations of the electromechanical components that make
up each joint-link combination. (CR1)
(b) The controller’s bit storage capacity for that joint.(CR2)

Fig. 1.20 Illustration of control resolution, accuracy, and repeatability

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A number of electromechanical factors affect control resolution, including lead screw
pitch, gear ratio in the drive system, and the step angle in a stepper motor for an open-
loop system or the angle between slots in an encoder disk for a closed loop system.
=

Where, CR1 is the control resolution of the electromechanical components (mm,

in),
p = is the lead screw pitch (mm/rev, in/rev)
ns = number of steps per revolution
rg = gear ratio between the motor shaft and the lead screw

The second factor that limits control resolution is the numbers of bits used by the
controller to specify the axis coordinate value. This limitation may be imposed by the bit
storage capacity of the controller. If B = the number of bits in the storage register for the
axis, then the number of control points into which the axis range can be divided = 2B.

Assuming that the control points are separated equally within the range, then

=
Where CR2 is the control resolution of the computer control system (mm, in)
L= axis range (mm. in)
The control resolution of the positioning system is the maximum of the two
values CR1 and CR2.
CR= Max {CR1, CR2}
The desirable criterion is CR2≤CR1.

Accuracy is the robot’s ability to position the end of its wrist at a desired location in the
work volume.
= +3
2

Repeatability is a measure of the robot’s ability to position its end of wrist at a previously
taught point in the work volume. Each time the robot attempts to return to the
programmed point it will return to a slightly different position. Repeatability variations
are mainly due to mechanical errors.
= ±3

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 ROBOT SPECIFICATIONS

There are a lot of variations in specifying a robot by different manufacturers. However,

we look at some important aspects:
1. The load carrying capacity (pay load): it does not define the additional weight
that the manipulator can carry above the weight of its end effector or tool.
Thus, when designing an application, both the weight of the tool and any parts
it may carry must be considered since together they constitute the payload.
2. The repeatability: It is a measure of the ability of a manipulator to return to a
position in space where it had been previously. It is measured by going to that
position in exactly the same way. (i.e., over the same path, with the same pay
load, speed, acceleration, temperature etc). Repeatability may be defined in
three-dimensional; space or on a joint by joint basis.
3. The maximum tip speed, no load is an attempt to define how fast the
manipulator can move.
4. The coordinate system (number of axes) defines the configuration of the
robot.
5. The maximum movement places bounds on the robot’s work space. It is
usually measured at the tool-mounting flange. The Reach and stroke of a
manipulator are rough measures of the size of the work envelope. The
horizontal reach is defined as the maximum radial distance the wrist mounting
flange can be positioned from the vertical axis about which the robot rotates.
The horizontal stroke represents the total radial distance the wrist can travel.

Fig. 1.21 Reach and Stroke of a cylindrical robot

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 6. Type of drives defines the joint actuator’s source of power (e.g., electric,
hydraulic, or pneumatic)
7. The control defines the method used to control the axes. (i.e., servo versus
non-servo) and whether continuous –path or point-to-point motion is possible.
Various applications may require one or more of these features.
8. Memory devices define both internal memory types and mass storage
capabilities.
9. Programming method defines the type of robot training via a key board; teach
pendant, walk-through (in the case of painting robots), mechanical setup (for
non servo units) or CAD/CAM (off-line programming).
10. Memory capacity gives an indication of the number of program steps or points
that the robot controller (without mass storage) can handle.

It is clear that the user must know exactly what he or she wants to do with a robot
and ask the correct questions of the manufacturer to ensure that the robot in
question will perform properly.

INDUSTRIAL ROBOT APPLICATIONS

The general characteristics of industrial work situations that tend to promote the
substitution of robots for human labor are the following:

1. Hazardous work for humans

2. Repetitive work cycle
3. Difficult handling for humans
4. Multi shift operation
5. Infrequent changeovers
6. Part position and orientation are established in the work cycle

Robots are being used in a wide field of applications in industry. The applications
can usually classify in to one of the following categories:

(1) Material handling

(2) Processing operations
(3) Assembly and inspection

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 Material Handling Applications:
In material handling applications, the robot moves materials or parts from one
place to another. To accomplish the transfer, the robot is equipped with a gripper
type end effector. The gripper must be designed to handle the specific part or
parts that are to be moved in the application.
Here are two categories:

(i) Material transfer (pick-and –place, palletizing, de-palletizing, stacking

operations, insertion operations)
(ii) Machine loading, machine unloading, machine loading/unloading. (Die
casting, plastic molding, metal machining operations, forging, press
working and heat treating.

Fig. 1.22 Typical example of pick-n-place task

Processing operations:
In processing operations, the robot performs some processing operation on a work
part, such as grinding or spray painting. Here the robot is equipped with some
type of tool as its end effector.
Examples are, spot welding, continuous arc welding, spray coating,

Other processing applications include drilling, routing, grinding, wire brushing,

water jet cutting, laser cutting and riveting.

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 Fig. 1.23 Typical example of Spray coating task

Assembly and inspection:

Assembly involves the combination of two or more parts to form a new entity,
called a subassembly or assembly. The new entity is made secure by fastening the
parts together using mechanical fastening techniques (e.g., screws, bolts and nuts,
rivets) or joining processes (e.g., welding, brazing, soldering or adhesive bonding)
Inspection: there is often a need in automated production and assembly systems to
inspect the work that is done. Inspections accomplish the following functions:

(i) Making sure that a given process has been completed

(ii) Ensuring that parts have been added in assembly as specified
(iii) Identifying flaws in raw materials and finished parts

Fig. 1.24 Typical example of Peg in Hole assembly task

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 Fig. 1.25 Typical example of Inspection task

Inspection tasks performed by robots can be divided in to the following two cases:

1. The robot performs loading and unloading tasks to support an

inspection or testing machine.
2. The robot manipulates an inspection device, such as mechanical probe,
to test the product.

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 Review Questions

1. Explain the different phases of development in robotics.

2. What are the three laws of robotics formulated by Isaac Asimov?
3. Why do you not classify a CNC machine as a robot although both these systems
can be reprogrammed?
4. How would you define a robot?
5. Describe the functions of robot four basic components of a robot.
6. Name the four basic arm configurations that are used in robotic manipulators.
7. Give all possible classifications of robots.
8. Describe the role of arm and wrist of a robotic manipulator.
9. Define the term work envelope.
10. Discuss and sketch the work volumes of a typical
(a) Polar configuration arm
(b) Cylindrical configuration arm
(c) Articulated configuration arm
11. Briefly describe the four basic configurations of arm in robotic manipulators.
12. How many degrees of freedom are normally provided in the arm of a
manipulator?
13. How many degrees of freedom can a wrist have? What is the purpose of these
degrees of freedom?
14. Define the following
(a) Load carrying capacity
(b) Resolution, accuracy and repeatability
(c) Reach and stroke
(d) End effector
15. Write about major industrial applications of robots.

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