A Study on perception of gender role on shaping the sexual behaviour of college

students in Chennai.

John Rajadurai. P* and Dr. M.Thamilarasan**

*Research Scholar, ** Assistant Professor
Department of Sociology, University of Madras, Chennai - 600005.
E-Mail: john.mkp@gmail.com

ABSTRACT

Indian parents are reluctant to discuss sexual matters with their adolescent children. The lack of
school based sex education programmes in Chennai further contributes to adolescents’ poor
understanding of sexuality and sexual health. As a result, many adolescents in Chennai have
misperceptions about sexuality; this can expose them to risky sexual behaviour. Adolescents in
Chennai generally have inadequate communication skills to negotiate safe sex. They also have
insufficient knowledge of ways to protect themselves from risky sexual behaviour and the
consequences of unsafe sex. The present study has the objectives like, i. To study the perception of
adolescent on sexuality and reproductive health, ii. To measure the influence of social factors upon
the perception of adolescence on sexuality and reproductive health and consequences. The present
study has conducted among adolescent (college students of chennai). The sample size of the present
study is 200, which has selected from 20 colleges of Chennai city. The primary data has been
collected from 200 respondents (100 boys and 100 girls) in the age group of 17-24.

In homo sapiens, reasoning and reflection have played the greatest role in encouraging sexual
selection. This selection occurs in two obvious, time-honoured ways: the choice of males by females
and the choice of females by males. Thus each gender, as it were, would help shape the sexual
behaviour of the other, stimulating the opposite sex to evolve in the image of its own tastes, its own
sexual ideal. Following are the sex related problems faced by human kind.

Keywords: - Perception, Sexuality, Gender-Role, Heterosexuality, Homosexuality, Lesbianism,

Zoophilia, Teenage Sexuality, Tran sexuality, Sex and Marriage, Heterosexuality.

***

1
 A STUDY ON PERCEPTION OF GENDER ROLE ON SHAPING THE SEXUAL
BEHAVIOUR OF COLLEGE STUDENTS IN CHENNAI.

John Rajadurai. P* and Dr. M.Thamilarasan**

*Research Scholar, ** Assistant Professor
Department of Sociology, University of Madras, Chennai - 600005.
E-Mail: john.mkp@gmail.com

INTRODUCTION

Indian parents are reluctant to discuss sexual matters with their adolescent children. The lack of
school based sex education programmes in Chennai further contributes to adolescents’ poor
understanding of sexuality. As a result, many adolescents in Chennai have misperceptions about
sexuality; this can expose them to risky sexual behaviour.
Adolescents in Chennai generally have inadequate communication skills to negotiate safe sex. They
also have insufficient knowledge of ways to protect themselves from risky behaviour and the
consequences of unsafe sex.

Perception: In psychology and the cognitive sciences, perception is the process of acquiring,
interpreting, selecting, and organizing sensory information. It is a task far more complex than was
imagined in the 1950s and 1960s, when it was proclaimed that building-perceiving machines would
take about a decade, but, needless to say, that is still very far from reality. The word perception comes
from the Latin perception-, percepio, meaning "receiving, collecting, and action of taking possession,
apprehension with the mind or senses." Methods of studying perception range from essentially
biological or physiological approaches, through psychological approaches through the philosophy of
mind and in empiricist epistemology, such as that of David Hume, John Locke, George Berkeley, or
as in Merleau Ponty's affirmation of perception as the basis of all science and knowledge.

There are two basic theories of perception: Passive Perception (PP) and Active Perception (AP). The
passive perception is addressed in this article and could be surmised as the following sequence of
events: surrounding - > input (senses) - > processing (brain) - > output (re-action). Although still
supported by mainstream philosophers, psychologists and neurologists, this theory is nowadays losing
momentum. The theory of active perception has emerged from extensive research of sensory illusions
with works of Professor Emeritus Richard L Gregory in a lead. This theory is increasingly gaining
experimental support and could be surmised as dynamic relationship between “description” (in the
brain) < - > senses < - > surrounding.

History of the study of perception

Perception is one of the oldest fields within scientific psychology and there are correspondingly many
theories about its underlying processes. The oldest quantitative law in psychology is the Weber-
Fechner law, which quantifies the relationship between the intensity of physical stimuli and their
perceptual effects. It was the study of perception that gave rise to the Gestalt school of psychology,
with its emphasis on holistic approach.

2
Perception and reality
Ambiguous images: Many cognitive psychologists hold that, as we move about in the world, we
create a model of how the world works. That is, we sense the objective world, but our sensations map
to percepts, and these percepts are provisional, in the same sense that scientific hypotheses are
provisional (cf. in the scientific method). As we acquire new information, our percepts shift, thus
solidifying the idea that perception is a matter of belief. Abraham Pais' biography refers to the
'esemplastic' nature of imagination. In the case of visual perception, some people can actually see the
percept shift in their mind's eye. Others who are not picture thinkers, may not necessarily perceive the
'shape-shifting' as their world changes. The 'esemplastic' nature has been shown by experiment: an
ambiguous image has multiple interpretations on the perceptual level. Just as one object can give rise
to multiple percepts, so an object may fail to give rise to any percept at all: if the percept has no
grounding in a person's experience, the person may literally not perceive it.

This confusing ambiguity of perception is exploited in human technologies such as camouflage, and
also in biological mimicry, for example by Peacock butterflies, whose wings bear eye markings that
birds respond to as though they were the eyes of a dangerous predator. Perceptual ambiguity is not
restricted to vision. For example, recent touch perception research (Robles-De-La-Torre & Hayward
2001) found that kinesthesia-based haptic perception strongly relies on the forces experienced during
touch. This makes it possible to produce illusory touch percepts.

Cognitive theories of perception assume there is a poverty of stimulus. This (with reference to
perception) is the claim that sensations are, by themselves, unable to provide a unique description of
the world. Sensations require 'enriching', which is the role of the mental model. A different type of
theory is the perceptual ecology approach of James J. Gibson. Gibson rejected the assumption of a
poverty of stimulus by rejecting the notion that perception is based in sensations. Instead, he
investigated what information is actually presented to the perceptual systems. He (and the
psychologists who work within this paradigm) detailed how the world could be specified to a mobile,
exploring organism via the lawful projection of information about the world into energy arrays.
Specification is a 1:1 mapping of some aspect of the world into a perceptual array; given such a
mapping, no enrichment is required and perception is direct.

Perception-in-Action
The ecological understanding of perception advanced from Gibson's early work is perception-in-
action, the notion that perception is a requisite property of animate action, without perception action
would not be guided and without action perception would be pointless. Animate actions require
perceiving and moving together. In a sense, "perception and movement are two sides of the same
coin, the coin is action." (D.N. Lee) A mathematical theory of perception-in-action has been devised
and investigated in many forms of controlled movement by many different species of organism,
General Tau Theory. According to this theory, tau information, or time-to-goal information is the
fundamental 'percept' in perception.

Perception and action

We gather information about the world and interact with it through our actions. Perceptual
information is critical for action. Perceptual deficits may lead to profound deficits in action.

3
Types of perception
 Amodal perception
 Color perception
 Depth perception
 Form perception
 Haptic perception
 Speech perception
 Perception as Interpretation
 Numeric Value of Perception
 Perceive

Reviews

In 2001–2002, a study was carried out at four sites in Chennai to explore adolescents’ perceptions and
attitudes toward gender roles, ways in which gender norms and beliefs shape their sexual experiences
and expectations, perceptions of risk and responsibility in sexual encounters and relationships, and
use of contraceptives (especially condoms) during sexual encounters.

Until recently, the problem of teen dating violence in the Chennai has not been the issue for social
research initiatives. Only in 2004, Researchers conducted an action research, which showed that 60%
of adolescents have experienced some kind of relationship violence, and that 43% of young people
acted violently in their relationships.

In 2007, Researchers carried out a more comprehensive research with the goal of exploring
prevalence rates, forms, reasons, consequences, as well as the risk factors for teen dating violence.
The aim of this research was to improve the understanding of the needs and problems young people
face in the context of teen dating violence, and to inform creation and implementation of quality and
effective school-based education and prevention programs. 1014 students, aged 16-19, from 42
secondary schools in the Chennai participated in the research.

Most of the surveyed young people already had some dating experience, and many of them consider
teen dating violence to be a serious problem. For some respondents, the knowledge about partnership
violence is a part of their everyday interactions and social networks: around third of youth socialize
within peer groups, which include friends in a violent relationship, and every fifth young person is
first-hand familiar with someone who is involved in a violent relationship.

More than two thirds of adolescents reported experiencing some form of violent behavior form their
partner, and a little less than half of adolescents stated that they were at least once violent towards
their partner. Generally, the results show that the prevalence of teen dating violence varies according
to the forms of violent behaviors. The observed patterns indicate that the most common forms of
dating violence are those by which young people try to dominate and control their partners –
excessive jealousy, possessive and controlling behavior, accusations and emotional blackmails.
Sexual violence and physical aggression are present to a less extent.

Partner's excessive jealous behavior is the experience that characterized the relationships of more than
half of respondents. In addition, a quarter of young people have experienced violent behaviors
motivated by jealousy, which are instrumental for establishing and maintaining control and
dominance in a relationship. It is indicative that considerable proportion of adolescents does not

4
recognize these behaviors as violent, while for some youth this is also true for sexual and physical
forms of dating violence. Lack of awareness and ignorance of violent behaviors, as well as the belief
that some forms of violence are a 'normal' part of every relationship, could lead to young people's
tolerance of risky and violent relationships, and could mean that they cannot find enough reasons to
end this kind of relationship. While jealousy was recognized by most of adolescents as the main
reason for the perpetration of dating violence, at the same time, large numbers of respondents
consider jealousy to be a way of showing love, and not the form of dominance and control in a
relationship. Besides jealousy, young people were often violent to their partner because of the fear of
breaking up, and violent behaviors were also motivated by the partner's 'provocation', as well as by
communication problems.

Identified risk factors related to victimization, but also to perpetration of emotional/psychological

forms of teen dating violence include: lower self-respect, frequent alcohol consumption,
witnessing/experiencing family violence, acceptance of traditional gender stereotypes, permissive
attitudes towards the use of violence, communication problems in relationship, and influence of peers
and media. It is also worth mentioning that about the half of adolescents reported being both the
victim and the perpetrator of dating violence.

In relation to sex/gender dimension of the problem, girls tend to be both the victims and perpetrators
of emotional/psychological forms of dating violence in the significantly larger proportion, while boys
tend to be exclusively perpetrators of sexual violence towards their partner in the significantly larger
proportion. In addition, boys tend to approve of traditional and sexist attitudes about gender roles in
the significantly larger proportion, as well as the attitudes that justify the use of violence in particular
situations, and tend to be more ignorant about recognizing certain behaviors as the violent ones.

While both boys and girls experience dating violence, feelings and reactions stated by respondents as
the consequences of partner's violent behavior clearly show that teen dating violence is not a gender
neutral problem. For girls, the consequences are considerably more negative and more serious, and,
for them, experienced violence results more in the feelings of hurt, sadness, insecurity, fear, shame,
guilt, and uneasiness. Boys, on the other hand, reported that after the violent episode in a relationship
they were more indifferent and unconcerned, and that they found the violent situation 'to be funny'.

Fear, shame, lack of awareness, distrust, and the lack of relevant information and resources, are the
main reasons why adolescents mainly try to solve the problem of dating violence by themselves, and
rely on their own capacities and skills to eventually end the violent relationship, and most often do
not decide to report violence to adults, nor seek help and advice outside a peer group. Considering the
reactions to a hypothetical situation of a physical dating violence, the answers given by respondents’
show that extremely low number of adolescents would decide to contact relevant persons and
institutions/organizations, as well as to report violence, and ask for help and support.

Around three quarters of the surveyed students reported that there are no programs or activities
related to the prevention of teen dating violence in their schools. Research results point to the
following needs for the education and prevention of teen dating violence: raising awareness about,
and the recognition of emotional/psychological forms of violence and the warning signs for a violent
relationship; change of attitudes about violence and gender stereotypes, understanding of the
dynamics of power and control in adolescents’ relationship; development and strengthening of self-
respect and self-confidence, communication skills, and problem solving skills as the aspects of
healthy and non-violent relationships; raising awareness and promotion of sex/gender equality and
the right to live without violence as a basic human right; raising awareness about the influence of

5
peers and media; additional education for relevant social actors; anonymity, confidence and expertise;
encouraging, counseling and support for teen dating violence victims; informing about mechanisms
and resources for reporting teen dating violence; as well as psychological-social work with
perpetrators of teen dating violence.

Gender Role

The changing social system is a universal factor which also brings change in the status of its
members. Changes in a particular field have an impact in other realms of the society too. An emergent
phenomenon is the growing flexibility and changes in the gender roles of men and women.

Early societies had rigid roles for men and women with attributes were labelled as being masculine
and feminine. Man was considered as provider of basic necessities for family and woman the child
bearer and caretaker of home. Till recently women were accorded the role of the inferior sex and
prized possession of man.

The changes and flexibility in gender roles which are being evident today has its roots in the changing
social structure. Economic factors, advancement in sciences and changed value system have
contributed to a preference for nuclear family thus doing away with the concept of joint family.
Consequently the ambit of economic and household responsibilities has changed.

Earlier in the joint family system there was a clear-cut division of responsibilities or duties with
women looking after the domestic matters and the men taking charge of out of home and financial
matters. Today the nuclear set-up allows for no such demarcation the man is no longer the sole bread-
winner and woman no longer a mere caretaker of the house. This is also due to the economic
compulsions. With the financial security provided by joint family system no longer available and cost
of living ever increasing there is a need for an extra earning member to supplement the income of the
family. The women are thus forced to earn as well to meet the cost of domestic demands. In the initial
stages of this phase the women were not offered any help in domestic affairs and she performed both
the supplementary role of an earning member and her natural role of a housewife. Gradually the
attitude of men is changing to a certain extent that men adopted the woman’s role at least when
compulsion to do so arose.

While the acceptance of man’s gender role has been willingly taken up by women, the same does not
always hold true for men. The present scenario is still that while a girl is groomed to become an
efficient career woman as well as an efficient house maker, men are expected to excel mainly in
professional fields.

The situation is that while any effort from men to undertake a domestic job is welcomed and assisted
by their counterparts, any such effort by women in the professional field is still seen as a threat to
male supremacy. Hence men do not have to struggle hard to prove their worth, women most of the
time has to work harder to prove not just that they are efficient but that they can work much harder
and deliver the results.

Lately the domain of feminity has expanded to include the social and professional fields, traditional
notions about gender roles are undergoing transformation that has been mainly because of education.
An open and educated society is paving the way for role-swapping which seems to be gaining ground
in the highly demanding developmental social structure. Domestic life has become almost
unthinkable without flexibility in gender roles. While men are beginning to shed their inhibitions

6
about working in the kitchen women are already working late hours. The changing trends are
reflected in men and women taking up unconventional work such as pilots and astronauts while men
are honing their skills as chefs and fashion designers.

Changing roles to accommodate the social or professional pressures has become a common
phenomenon. However it is in the urban centres that the flexibility is most evident. The rural society
though in transition has a long way to go in this context. The flexibility in gender roles needs to be
taken to the extent where finally the concept of respective gender roles is done away with.

Gender role-plays a vital role in public and private sector companies. The research “Equal
Opportunities on the Labour Market” was carried out on the public and private sector companies, as
well as among the employees from the different companies in the Chennai area in order to gain a
better insight in the position of women on the labour market and more efficient monitoring of the
implementation of the legal framework on gender equality. The goal (of the research) was to
establish, whether and in which degree, the Labour Law and Law on gender equality are respected in
the recruitment process, employment conditions, remuneration, education, career promotion, and to
demonstrate the individual experiences of the employees, about “equal opportunities” on the labour
market primarily in regard to gender, but also some other independent variables (for example:
company ownership, educational structure of the employees and similar). Research was carried out
with two separate questionnaires: one directed to the Personnel offices in the private and public sector
companies and the other intended for employees of the private and public sector companies.

According to the results of the research, there is a significant difference between

companies/institutions of the private and public sector regarding employment conditions, promotion
and the employees’ satisfaction at work.
Public sector companies provide higher social security (women utilize entire maternity leave, workers
use daily break etc.), but with lower pay and less transparent recruitment process. Public sector
companies employ more women and, according to the research, they mostly hold university degree,
master’s degree and doctorate degree.

In the private sector companies the most important employment criteria are personal skills and prior
acquaintance of the candidates. The pay in these companies is, in average, higher then in public sector
companies, which enables a higher level of satisfaction of employees. Private sector companies have
stricter conditions and work dynamic (fewer days off, no reduced working hours, employees do not
know each other’s salary amounts; women do not use entire maternity leave etc.).

The survey addressed to private and public sector companies demonstrates almost ideal working
conditions: no unjustified dismissal, no gender based discrimination, they all facilitate training and
development for their workers; most of them adopted gender equality guidelines.
The data given by the public and private sector companies differs from the data given by the
employees of those companies. Employees noted that half of the employers do not facilitate adequate
training opportunities; there are cases of the gender-based discrimination and mobbing; there are
cases of violation of their rights and there are cases of unjustified dismissals.

The examinees’ answers show that women have more difficult situation at the labour market than
men, especially ones with family obligations. Women experience more difficulties getting the job,
they have to try harder to keep it and they are highly underrepresented in the managing positions of
the companies. They are more frequently exposed to mobbing and violations of dignity (gender-based
discrimination) than their male colleagues.

7
The research demonstrated that the examinees are not aware of “unequal opportunities” on the labour
market. Most of them emphasize that the gender, marital and family status is not important for the
employment, pay amount, education, career promotion etc. In spite of employees’ lack of awareness,
the research shows that objectively there are differences and “unequal opportunities” on the labour
market - statistics show that men occupy most of the leading positions. Women mostly work in
typically female occupations - social, educational, scientific or administrative services. These services
are predominantly carried out in public companies, while men dominate in private sector. Family
obligations are still mostly female duty affecting their promotion opportunities and job selection.

IMPORTANCE OF THE STUDY

In homo sapiens, reasoning and reflection have played the greatest role in encouraging sexual
selection. This selection occurs in two obvious, time-honoured ways: the choice of males by females
and the choice of females by males. Thus each gender, as it were, would help shape the sexual
behaviour of the other, stimulating the opposite sex to evolve in the image of its own tastes, its own
sexual ideal.

However, as women become equals to men in all walks of life and even competitors to them, the
scenario has changed, dotted by environmental and cultural diversity in sexual patterns and sex
appeal, the latter assuming diverse forms and groupings. For humans, sex is not only for
reproduction, but a mechanism for enjoyment--both psychic and erotic. Fashion trends, which are
becoming more individualistic, flamboyant and sexy, will play an increasing role in sexual appeal and
sexual encounters. The media has an even more significant influence. Television, movies and
magazines with a high sexual content, for instance, will increasingly provide a source for sexual
stimulation and experimentation.

Heterosexuality between Adults:

Sex as a basic urge is so designed that it can be gratified only by the male and female organisms'
interactive copulation, employing specific mechanisms typical of an organism across the species. For
the human species, sexual patterns and sex appeal are culturally influenced and thus acquired.

The bad news is that the 21st century will usher in a higher proportion of professionalism in both men
and women, leaving them lesser time for sex. Electronic media like the Internet and television may, to
some extent, serve as a surrogate to generate attractants and designs. The concept of cyber romance is
a sign of the present, and the times to come. In India, thousands of mouse-happy cyberadoes are
cruising the streets of the world of virtual reality looking for companionship. Open the Internet and
you will be greeted by an avalanche of chat sites (termed the singles' bars of the '90s which dot the
Web). On any given night, thousands of persons engage in intimate conversations with strangers on
these sites. The number of sites has doubled and on weekends the number of people logging in has
trebled with the result that the VSNL lines get clogged.

This, along with other trends, has resulted in more frequent inter-gender interaction, with men and
women spending more time outside the home (the workplace is a prime example) to generate
extramarital interests in each other, at times leading to extramarital sex. This will be true for both men
and women. Sexual patterns and sex appeals constitute a personalised approach to satisfaction of the
sexual urge, within the constraints of cultural permissiveness and an individual's personality frame.

8
Trends indicate that individual variation will be exhibited with greater frequency, leading to fewer
generalisations of sexual habits and trends.

Sex and Marriage:

As society becomes increasingly permissive, having an affair, both before and after marriage, will be
less of a social scandal. In most studies of the phenomenon of extramarital sex, the reasons given for
infidelity by straying spouses were sexual frustration, curiosity, desire for revenge, boredom, and the
need to be accepted and recognised as a person.

The rise in extramarital relationships will be the biggest challenge for most urban relationships,
leading to a greater level of acceptance and adjustment. There is an increasing openness about the
subject as we approach the 21st century. It is an indication of the present times and pointer to future
trends in India that the once-taboo subject of extramarital relationships is being openly discussed in
television talk-shows and forms the theme/backdrop of some of the most widely viewed serials on
national television: Saans, Swabhimaan, Hasratein, Kabhie Kabhie, Sailaab, Andaaz, Dard, to name a
few. While psychologists, psychiatrists and social scientists feel this might have the impact of
providing a legitimacy and endorsement for illicit relationships, makers of such serials counter that
they are only mirroring present-day realities. The old question of whether art imitates life or vice
versa has never been conclusively answered.

Marriage-based sex will be essentially for procreation, by and large, with both men and women
opting for extra entertainment to escape boredom, and possibly experimenting with other variations
of sexual relationships. Also, cohabitation before marriage is likely to become more frequent. This
could be between two people who want to `try out' the relationship before plunging into the lifelong
commitment called marriage. It could also be manifested at a younger age level.

Research evidence points to some more trends. Most heterosexual marriages, which do not
approximate to the ``pure or traditional relationship'' are likely to evolve in two directions if they do
not lapse into co-dependence. One would be a version of the companionate marriage (see India Today
Plus, Third Quarter, 1997). Here, the level of sexual involvement between the spouses may be low,
but some degree of equality and mutual sympathy is built into the relationship. The other form is
where marriage is used as a domestic or home base for partners who have a low degree of emotional
involvement in one other. In both cases, sexuality becomes delinked from marriage. In fact, the
delinking of sexuality from marriage (as manifested in teenage sexuality, cohabitation before
marriage, extramarital relationships and homosexual liaisons) is one of the most significant sexual
trends of the present times and coming century.

Do Male and Female perceive sex differently?

Because of the difference in anatomy, body chemistry, and upbringing, men and women tend to have
different ideas about the nature of sex and usually enjoy different aspects of it. Many men are easily
aroused and concerned primarily with the physical act. Women by contrast, tend to need more time to
get ready for sex both physically and mentally. They usually need to be more emotionally involved
and feel a strong rapport with their mate. A woman's desire can be affected by how well she feels her
spouse is performing his roles as a husband and as a father to their children. Those looking for more
details on this subject would find A. Giddens' The Transformation of Intimacy, Sexuality, Love and
Eroticism in Modern Societies, published by the Stanford University Press, an interesting read.

9
Another clearly visible trend is that women are becoming increasingly candid and assertive about
their sexual needs. In times to come, this kind of frank discussion of and laying emphasis on their
sexual needs will become more widespread. Are sexual difficulties and problems (like infidelity)
signs of deeper marital crises? Although sexual troubles can be caused by some underlying conflict in
the marriage, research studies reveal that sexual problems are common even in happy unions. In a
study of 100 couples (from a western population) who viewed their marriage as happy--in some
cases, very happy--nearly half the women reported difficulty in becoming aroused or reaching an
orgasm. Among the men, 10 per cent reported various difficulties at the time of sexual intercourse.
The research concluded that ``very few people have trouble-free sex lives...even when their marriages
are satisfying''.

Males are considered virile, aggressive, and at times, violent in sexual affairs. Polygamy and
mistress-keeping are manifestations of this trait. Age is certainly a factor in male sexuality, the latter
being a function of virility, youthfulness, food habits, money power and alcohol. The desire of men to
prolong their sexually active period will become increasingly manifest in the decades to come. The
Viagra phenomenon, the use of other potions and aphrodisiacs coupled with the desire--and the
means--to look and feel younger, will only accelerate this process.

Wife swapping is another area which could provide much fodder for psychologists and sexologists.
There are signs that this is on the increase in certain sections of society, but psychologists are still
debating whether the emergence of wife-swapping groups has any other sexual logic than the sheer
erotic appeal involved in such sexual acts and the thrill of partaking in forbidden fruit, and of being
`different'. ``Swapping, with its fair exchange of property, is sexist at best, sexless when you consider
it and reduces my girlfriend to the level of a baseball card,'' says Jay Walker, American psychologist.

The Mating Game: In a recent report on sex appeals and heterosexual relationships (``How Females
Choose their Mates'', Scientific American, April 1998), Lee Alan Dugatkin and Jean Guy J. Godin
concluded that females often prefer to mate with the most flamboyant males. Their choice may be
based on a complex interaction between instinct and imitation. Human females are the choosier sex
when it comes to selecting a mate. Men, for the most part, will avoid fighting to death for the hand of
a female (despite what popular fiction and cinema like to portray). Females can distinguish among
various males on the basis of differences in their characteristics; some men are brasher, some are
more intelligent, and some have bigger bank accounts. Women may even engage in mate-choice
copying. To determine whether copying plays a role in how women rate a man's attractiveness,
Dugatkin is currently collaborating with Michael Cunningham and Duane Lundy of the University of
Louisville. They find that women are more likely to express an interest in going out with a man if
they are told that other women also find him attractive.

Studies indicate that the quality and quantity of sex is affected by factors like having an affair, being a
bigamist, and/or being a drug addict. And, as increasing numbers of urban women take to social
drinking, this will have an effect on sexual preferences and performance. The research findings on
this can be succinctly summed up in Shakespeare's words (from Macbeth): ``... it provokes and
unprovokes; it provokes the desire, but takes away the performance.'' The bard, however, was
referring to men. Research points to a different effect on women: as they get more intoxicated, they
feel more aroused and more daring in terms of their sexual behaviour.

Homosexuality, Lesbianism and other Related Activities:

10
There is now and will continue to be a wider prevalence and growing acceptance/tolerance of groups
such as homosexuals and lesbians. In Capitalism and Gay Identity, John D' Emilio says that lesbian
and gay liberation movements may have begun as the struggle of minority groups but what we should
now be trying to liberate is an aspect of the personal lives of all people, namely sexual expression.
Sigmund Freud wrote as early as 1935: ``Homosexuality is assuredly no advantage, but it is nothing
to be ashamed of, no vice, no degradation, it cannot be classified as an illness; we consider it to be a
variation of sexual development.''

A number of studies have been and are being conducted in the West at universities and other research
centres to find out what causes homosexuality. Is there a biological basis? Are the brains of
homosexuals different from heterosexuals? Is there a `gay gene'? Is the phenomenon related to sex
hormones during pregnancy? Or to maternal stress during pregnancy? Perhaps, homosexuality has
nothing to do with biology at all and is the result of upbringing/family environment. These theories
are all intriguing, but remain conclusively unproven. Once there is concrete evidence and proven
theories, we can expect greater changes in attitudes to these groups in the 21st century, apart from the
increasing openness about the issue which is already being witnessed.

There are several long-standing movements in the West championing the rights of gays. In India, the
phenomenon is increasingly `coming out of the closet' as it were. Here, such movements are noticed
as getting more active than before, becoming vocal about their rights and their problems. Even those
with such tendencies are no longer shy of going public with the truth about their preference in sexual
partners. This once-taboo subject is now receiving coverage in our media, both print and electronic.

"Homosexuals expect society to embrace their immoral way of life. Worse yet, they are looking for
new recruits!'' Notwithstanding this lament which echoes the popular complaints against these groups,
the trends point to an increasing tolerance of this phenomenon in the decades to come. At least, it will
no longer be kept as secret or regarded by the practitioners as something to be ashamed of.

Bestiality:

This phenomenon is also known as Zoophilia is a paraphilia involving sexual activity between & non-
human animals have come to stay in Indian society too, following its widespread prevalence in
western society. It will prosper in the 21st century as a consequence of exposure to increasingly
uninhibited mass media. Already, there are reports of a large number of Adults & Teenagers from
urban areas reporting to clinics for sex-related problems and showing signs of trauma.

Teenage Sexuality:

This phenomenon has come to stay in Indian society too, following its widespread prevalence in
western society. It will prosper in the 21st century as a consequence of free mixing between members
of the opposite sex; exposure to increasingly uninhibited mass media; more permissive family/home
environment; and the desire to ``indulge in it just for the kick of it''.

Rural India is not exempt from this phenomenon. Already, there are reports of a large number of
teenagers from rural areas reporting to clinics for sex-related problems and showing signs of trauma.
Teenage sexuality has been noticed as being more frequent among undernourished, slum-dwelling
young women. Here, it is characterised by inadequate sexual knowledge and much of it attributed to a
desire to escape from economically frustrating conditions. Among the upper socio-economic stratum,

11
teenage sexuality can be attributed to permissive domestic environment and peer group pressure, with
desire for sexual experimentation being a potent factor.

Use of drugs and alcohol will facilitate participation in these acts as they become less uncommon in
the coming decades. Non-conformity to a group norm will be employed as one of the designs to
persuade teenagers to take to sexual acts. Some of the younger lot may be successfully persuaded to
take up membership of groups such as homosexuals and lesbians. Research studies on this
phenomenon in western societies, in the past few years, have thrown up some conclusions. These
trends are pointers to what Indian society may see in the coming decades.

 In a representative group of 100 teenagers, three girls and 10 boys will have intercourse before
the age of 12. Nearly 40 per cent of all 13- to 15-year-olds are no longer virgins.
 The younger a girl is at first intercourse, the more likely she is to become pregnant.
 Eight out of 10 unwanted pregnancies happen to girls who use no contraception.
 Up to 95 per cent of all parents have never discussed contraception with their children prior to
puberty.
 Although birth control and abortion facilities are more widely available than ever before,
teenage pregnancy and venereal diseases are reaching epidemic proportions.
 The majority of teenagers who have babies, even those who marry to cover the pregnancies,
will have 90 per cent of their lives scripted out for them. Many of them are likely to drop out
of schools/colleges, find it difficult to earn a decent living, and likely to develop diverse
psychopathologies.

The rich database of the University of Chicago study on this subject reveals trends towards increasing
sexual expression, particularly among younger age groups. For instance, there has been a steady
decrease, over the past few decades, in the age of first intercourse. And, despite AIDS, teenagers have
become more sexually active than ever before.

Tran sexuality:

Transsexuals are biologically normal males and females who question their gender identity and wish
it changed--male to female or female to male. The percentage of such people is not very high. Studies
of this phenomenon done in Sweden, USA, Canada and UK suggest that one out of 35,000 males
over the age of 15, and one out of every one lakh females are transsexual. Though there is no such
comparable study of this phenomenon in India, it is noticed that such tendencies are coming out of
the closet and beginning to find acceptance/tolerance, at least among the urban elite. A recent episode
of the widely viewed family-game show Family Fortunes, featured Sylvie, the Delhi-based highly
successful hair designer, a transsexual, in a prominent role. The well-known singer and Israel's top
pop star, Dana, who has recently won an award, is openly transsexual.

Influencing these tendencies in the 21st century (both towards being transsexual oneself or tolerance
of this phenomenon) will be the fact that already a large percentage of males and females are in the
same-sex dress at the workplace, except at informal situations like get-togethers.

OBJECTIVE.
General Objective:

12
 1. To measure the relationship between male and female in the view of perception.
2. To measure the influence of social factors upon the perception of male and female.
Specific Objective:
1. To measure the dominancy of a specific gender in domestic life.
2. To measure the perception of gender role in sexual matters.
3. To measure the sexual experience influencing the perception of gender role.

STUDY DESIGN AND SAMPLE

 Focus group discussions (FGDs) were conducted with adolescents from Three types of
Colleges (Academic, vocational, and technical) in Chennai.
 A survey was conducted among 200 adolescents (100 boys and 100 girls) aged 17–24 in
Colleges in Chennai.
 The data’s are collected by Stratified Random Sampling technique to cover a large group of
population of College Students.
METHODOLOGY.

This cross-sectional study was conducted during June 2007 to December 2007 in Tamilnadu (India),
Chennai. Twenty out of Thirty Colleges were randomly selected. The data was collected standard
scheduled interview method. The Original interview questions include 20 questions. The Project
guide from Loyola College, Chennai reviewed the questions. Only 15 questions were judged as valid
and included in the study. These questions covered the following categories:
 Demographic information,
 Gender role in Society,
 Sexual perception between male and female.
A total score for knowledge was obtained by adding the points given for each answer. For each
correct answer 1 point and any incorrect answer 0 point were assigned. The sum makes up the total
score, which ranged between 1 and 15. A higher score indicated a greater level of dominancy on
domestic life by a particular gender
A sample size for precision of 5%, expected prevalence of 50% , and confidence interval of 95% was
calculated as 200. The data was evaluated by Chi-square test, analysis of variance (one-way ANOVA)
and Spearman’s Correlation test using “Statistical Package of Social Science” (SPSS Inc., Chicago,
IL) for Windows version 10.0. A p-value of <0.05 was considered statistically significant.

LIMITATIONS OF RESEARCH.

The following are the limitations in the field of research: -

1. Indian culture restricts the researcher to ask in-depth questions about sex and sexuality to
selected sample.
2. Biased information from specific gender (Female) due to the influence of culture and stigma
issues among peer.
3. In religious society like India, because of self-report nature of the questionnaire, the honesty
of the student’s responses may be questioned

13
ANALYSIS & INTERPRETATION OF DATA

Age Group wise who indulge in premarital Sex.

Respondents Gender

Table 1. Characteristics of first sexual intercourse among Chennai College Students.

Girls (%) Boys (%)

79 45
Serious relationship
Type of Relationship
22 55
One-night stand
31 29
None
Contraception at first sex Condoms 58 68
Coitus interruptus 11 3

Consumption of alcohol and drugs at Yes 67

first sex

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

14
4.1 - Major Findings

A majority of adolescents perceive that domestic and public life is dominated by men

 Adolescents of both sexes hold similar perceptions about power imbalances in political and
economic spheres. In the survey, both boys (83%) and girls (87%) agreed that men exercised
more power in politics than women. “When it comes to professional advancement, I think that
it is easier for men, because when a woman is in a high position, it is often thought to have
been achieved through ‘improper’ means.” (girl, FGD).

 The majority of participants reported traditional divisions of labour within their families.
However, adolescents differed sharply in their gender role preferences. For example, more
girls (71%) than boys (48%) said that men and women should spend equal amounts of time
doing housework. Peer networks and communication on sexual matters differ among girls
and boys. Adolescents report difficulty in communicating about sexual matters with the
opposite sex, so most peer group discussions of sexual matters are sex segregated.

 Girls’ networks provide exchange of information on matters of sex, discussion of sexual

experiences and advice on relationships.

 Boys’ networks provide opportunities for reinforcing traditional perceptions of masculinity

and boasting about and exaggerating sexual experiences. Information seeking is rare; boys
fear that revealing ignorance will be interpreted as a sign of inexperience and will undermine
their image of being tough and sexually savvy.

 While communication about sexual matters is poor, adolescents who reported communicating
with their partners about safe sex practices early on in the relationship were significantly more
inclined than others to use condoms in their relationships

4.2 - Sexual experiences are influenced predominantly by perceptions of gender roles

 Half (51%) of the boys and one-third (27%) of the girls reported sexual experience. First
experience of sexual intercourse tended to occur around ages 15–16 for both sexes; however,
only 47% of boys compared to 80% of girls reported one sexual partner ever.

 Boys and girls reported different motives for having sex. Nearly half of the boys (44%)
perceived physical pleasure as a priority in sexual relations. Girls, in contrast, stressed the
importance of emotional pleasure (32%) or a combination of emotional and physical pleasure
(32%) as priorities.

 Gender influences the nature of risky behaviour related to first sexual intercourse (Table 1).
Boys were much more likely to report sex with a casual partner for their first experience as
well as the use of drugs and alcohol in that experience. However, a slightly greater number of
boys than girls reported the use of condoms during their first sexual encounter. Some risky
behaviours applied equally to both sexes: nearly one in three adolescents did not use any
contraception during their first sexual encounter.

4.3 - Conclusions and Policy Recommendations

15
  Sexual experiences reflect gender disparities. A considerably larger percentage of adolescent
boys than adolescent girls have had sex. Male adolescents are more likely than girls to have a
one-night stand, and girls are, in contrast, more likely to have had only one partner and are
less likely to have used alcohol and drugs during the first sexual encounter.

 Condom use declines in long-term relationships as girls turn to coitus interrupts or no

contraceptive use. Additional findings from the study showed that although over half of the
adolescents reported condom use for first sex, condom use becomes increasingly erratic in
long-term relationships.

 Adolescents find it difficult to communicate on sexual matters with their partners. Hence, they
need information and advice in matters of reproductive health and sexuality. As the majority
of 17–24 year old adolescents attend Colleges, College-based education programmes for
sexual and reproductive health should be established. These should emphasize communication
with parents and peers, questioning stereotypical gender-based sexual expectations, and
negotiation skills for safe sex.

KEYWORDS : - Perception, Sexuality, Gender-Role, Heterosexuality, Homosexuality, Lesbianism,

Zoophilia, Teenage Sexuality, Tran sexuality, Sex and Marriage, Heterosexuality.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Correlates of Negative Attitudes Toward Homosexuals in Heterosexual College

Students. Kurdek, Lawrence A. // Sex Roles;Jun88, Vol. 18 Issue 11/12, p727

2. Television Viewing and Adult Sex-Role Attitudes. Ross, Laurie; Anderson, Daniel R.;
Wisocki, Patricia A. // Sex Roles;Jun82, Vol. 8 Issue 6, p589

3. COLLEGE LIVING: ISSUES RELATED TO HOUSECLEANING ATTITUDES. Ogletree,

Shirley M.; Turner, G. Marc; Vieira, Ana; Brunotte, Joshua // College Student
Journal;Dec2005, Vol. 39 Issue 4, p729

4. STUDENTS' VIEWS OF MARKET 'FAIRNESS'. Marcis, John G.; Deck, Alan B.; Bauer,
Daniel L. // Allied Academies International Conference: Proceedings of the Ac;Apr2012, Vol.
15 Issue 1, p33

5. DIFFERENCES OVER TIME AND GENERATION IN SEXUAL ATTITUDES. Atkinson,

Lynn Parkin; Dodder, Richard A. // International Review of Modern Sociology;Autumn90,
Vol. 20 Issue 2, p193

6. Student perceptions of gender in managerial communication. Fine, Marlene G.; Johnson, Fern
L.; Foss, Karen A. // Women's Studies in Communication;Spring91, Vol. 14 Issue 1, p24

7. ACTITUD DE LOS UNIVERSITARIOS ANTE LA PR�CTICA F�SICO DEPORTIVA:

DIFERENCIAS POR G�NEROS. Lores, Ana Pav�n; Antonio, Juan; Murcia,
Moreno // Revista de Psicolog�a del Deporte;2008, Vol. 17 Issue 1, p7

16
8. The Impact of Gender on Instructor Nonverbal Communication from the Perspectives of
Learner Affect and Learners' Perceptions of Instructor. Findley, Melinda; Punyanunt-Carter,
Narissra // Human Communication;Fall2007, Vol. 10 Issue 3, p243

9. Gender Differences in the Perception of Prisoner Abuse. Fallahi, Carolyn; Austad, Carol;
Leishman, Lisa; Gendron, Michael; Wood, Rebecca // Sex Roles;Feb2009, Vol. 60 Issue 3/4,
p261

10. Abdool-Karim, Q., Abdool-Karim, S. & J. Nkomakazi, J. 1991. Sexual Behaviour and
Knowledge Among Urban Black Mothers: Implications for AIDS Prevention Programmes.
South African Medical Journal, 80 (7), 340-343

11. Abdool-Karim, S., Abdool-Karim, Q., Preston-Whyte, E. & N. Sankar. 1992a. Reasons for
Lack of Condom Use Among High School Students. South African Medical Journal, 82, 108-
110.

12. Abdool-Karim, Q., Preston-Whyte, E. & S. Abdool-Karim. 1992b. Teenagers Seeking

Condoms at Family Planning Services: Part 1. A User’s Perspective. South African Medical
Journal 82, 356-359.

13. -----1992c. Teenagers Seeking Condoms at Family Planning Services: Part 11. A Provider
Perspective. South African Medical Journal, 82, 360-362.

14. Akande, A. 1997. Black South African Adolescents’ Attitudes Towards AIDS Precautions.
School Psychology International, 18(4), 325-342.

15. Bateman, C. 2001. Can KwaZulu-Natal Hospitals Cope with the HIV/AIDS Human Tide?
South African Medical Journal, 917(5), 364-368.

16. Bowie, C. & N. Ford. 1989. Sexual Behaviour of Young People and the Risk of HIV
Infection. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, 43, 61-65.

17. Buga, G., Amoko, D. & D. Ncayiyana, 1996. Sexual Behaviour, Contraceptive Practice and
Reproductive Health Among School Adolescents in Rural Transkei. South African Medical
Journal 86(5), 523-527.

18. Buzwell, S. & I. Rosenthal, I. 1996. Constructing a Sexual Self – Adolescent’s Self Perception
and Sexual Risk Taking. Journal of Research on Adolescents, 6(4), 489-513.

19. Davis, K. and Weller, S. 1999. The Effectiveness of Condoms in Reducing Heterosexual
Transmission of HIV. Journal of Family Planning, 31(6), 272-279.

20. Di-Clemente, J. 1990. The Emergence of Adolescents as a Risk Group for Human
Immunodeficiency Virus Infection. Journal of Adolescent Research, 5(1), 7-17.

21. Donovan, B. & M. Ross, M. 2000. Preventing HIV: Determinants of Sexual Behaviour. The
Lancet, 355, 1897-1901.

17
22. Edgar, T., Freimuth, V., Hammond, S., MacDonald, D. & E. Fink. 1992. Strategic Sexual
Communication: Condom Use, Resistance and Response. Health Communication 4(2), 83-
104.

23. Fishbein, M. 2000. The Role of Theory in HIV Prevention. AIDS Care, 12(3), 273-278.

24. Friedland, R., Jankelowitz, M., De Beer, S., De Klerk, V., Khoury, T., Csizmadia, G.,
Paydayachee, G. & S. Levy. 1991. Perceptions and Knowledge About the Acquired
Immunodeficiency Syndrome Among Students in University Residences. South African
Medical Journal, 79, 149-154.

25. Gage, A. 1998. Sexual Activity and Contraceptive Use: The Components of the Decision
Making Process. Studies in Family Planning 29(2), 154-166.

26. Green, K., Korcnor, M., Walters, L., Rubin, D. & L. Hale. 2000. Targeting Adolescent Risk-
Taking Behaviour: The Contributions of Egocentricism and Sensation-Seeking. Journal of
Adolescence 23(4), 439-461.

27. Hingson, R. L. Strunin, L. 1992. Monitoring Adolescents’ Responses to the AIDS Epidemic:
Changes in Knowledge, Attitudes, Beliefs and Behaviours. In DiClemente, R. (ed.)
Adolescents and AIDS: A Generation In Jeopardy. Newbury Park: Sage.

28. Ingham, R., Woodcock, A. & K. Stenner. 1992. The Limitations of Rational Decision-Making
Models as Applied to Young People’s Sexual Behaviour. In Agglenton, D., David, P. and Hart,
G. (eds) AIDS: Rights, Risk and Reason. London: Falmer Press.

29. Jackson, E. & A. Harrison. 1999. Sexual Myths Around HIV/AIDS and Sexuality: The Gap
Between Awareness and Understanding Among Rural South African Youth. Pretoria: Centre
for Epidemiological Research in Southern Africa.

30. Jewkes, R. 2001. Gender-Based Violence, Gender Inequalities and the HIV Epidemic. Paper
presented at the AIDS in Context Conference at the University of the Witwatersrand, April.

31. Kalunde, W. 1997. HIV/ADS and Sexual Behaviour Among Youth in Zambia. Health
Transition Review (Supp.) 3(7), 91-95.

32. Kapiga, S., Nachtigal, G. & D. Hunter. 1991. Knowledge of AIDS Among Secondary School
Pupils in Baganoyo and Dar Es Salaam, Tanzania. AIDS 5, 25-328

33. Kelly, K. & W. Parker, W. 2000. Communities of Practice: Contextual Mediators of Youth
Response to HIV/AIDS. Beyond Awareness Campaign Report. Pretoria: Department of
Health.

34. Kelly, K. 2000. Communicating for Action. A Contextual Evaluation of Youth Responses to
HIV/AIDS. Sentinel Site Monitoring and Evaluation Project Report. Pretoria: Department of
Health.

35. Kelly, K. and Nonjeke 2001. Bambisani Project: Situation Analysis – Community Orientation
to HIV/AIDS Prevention, Care and Support. Equity Project Report. Bisho, Eastern Cape.

18
36. Klepp, K., Ndeki, S. Seha, A., Hannan, P., Lyimo, B., Msuya, M., Irema, Brahne, B. & C.
Reiss. 1995. Predicting Intentions of AIDS-Preventive Behaviour Among Adolescents.
Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 25(23), 2118-2140.

37. Krige, E. 1968. Girls’ Puberty Songs and Their Relation to Fertility, Health, Mortality and
Religion among the Zulu. Africa 38, 173-198.

38. Ku, L., Sonenstein, F. & J. Pleck. 1994. The Dynamics of Young Men’s Condom Use During
and Across Relationships. Family Planning Perspectives 25(6), 246-251.

39. Lear, D. 1995. Sexual Communication in the Age of AIDS: The Construction of Risk and
Trust Among Young Adults. Social Science and Medicine, 41(9), 1311-1323.

40. Leclerc-Madlala, S. 1997. Infect One, Infect All: Zulu Youth Response to the AIDS Epidemic
in South Africa. Medical Anthropology, 17, 363-380.

41. -----. 1999. Demonising Women in the Era of AIDS: An Analysis of the Gender and the
Socioculturalof HIV/AIDS in KwaZulu-Natal. PhD. Thesis, University of Natal, Durban.

42. -----. 2001a. A Pandemic of Silence: AIDS in Africa. Lola International 15, 35-41.

43. -----. 2001b. Virginity Testing: Managing Sexuality in a Maturing HIV/AIDS Epidemic
Medical Anthropology Quarterly, 15(4), 533-552.

44. LoveLife 2001. Looking at LoveLife: The First Year. Preliminary Monitoring and Evaluation
Report. Johannesburg: Reproductive Health Research Unit.

45. Lugoe, W., Klepp, K. & A. Skufke. 1996. Sexual Debut and Predictions of Condom Use
Among Secondary School Students in Arusha, Tanzania. AIDS Care, 8(4), 443-452.

46. Maart, 1998. Risk Business: Issues Affecting Adolescent Sexual Health in South Africa.
Development Update 3(2), 144-158

47. May, J., Kaufman, C., Rutenberg, N., Brown, L., MacIntyre, K. & R. Magnani. 2000.
Transition to Adulthood in the Context of AIDS in South Africa. Research Report. National
Population Council, Tulane University and University of Natal.

48. Mayekiso, T. & N. Twaise. 1993. Assessment of Parental Involvement in Imparting Sexual
Knowledge to Adolescents. South African Journal of Psychology, 23(1), 21-23.

49. Medical Research Council. 1999. Durban Transitions to Adulthood. (Available:

www.mrc.ac.za). Durban.

50. Mnyika, K., Klepp, K., Kvale, G., Schreiner, A. & M. Seha. 1995. Condom Awareness and
Use in Arusha and Kilamanjaro Regions, Tanzania: A Population-based Study. AIDS
Education and Prevention, 7, 403-414.17

19
51. Muli, A. 2000. HIV/AIDS Awareness: What Impact on Behaviour Change? Kenya Partner
News (on-line). http://www.ms-dan.dk/uk/country/ms-
ken/partnernews/3200/hivawareness.htm.

52. Museveni, Y. 1997. AIDS: A Socioeconomic Disease. The Pan-Africanist,1(2): 39-41.

53. Naidoo, L., Williams, P. and Knight. 1991. A Survey of Knowledge about AIDS and Sexual
Behaviour Among Students at the University of Natal, Durban. AIDS Committee Project.

54. Nash, E. 1990. Teenage Pregnancy- Need a Child Bear a Child? South African Medical
Journal, 77(3), 147-151.

55. National Progressive Primary Health Care Network. 1996. Youth Speak Out: A Study on
Youth Sexuality. Johannesburg: NPPHCN.

56. Ngubane, H. 1977. Body and Mind in Zulu Medicine. London: Academic Press.

57. Nicholas, L. 1992. AIDS Knowledge and Attitudes of Black South African First-year
Students1990-1992. University of Western Cape: AIDS Counselling Report.

58. Ntlabati, P., Kelly, K. & A. Mankayi. 2001. The First Time: An Oral History of Sexual Debut
in a Deep Rural Area. Paper Presented at the AIDS in Context Conference at the University of
the Witwatersrand, April.

59. Nzyoko, S., Lurie, P., McFarland, W., Leyden, W., Nyamwaya, D. & J. Mandel. 1997.
Adolescent Sexual Behaviour Along the Trans-Africa Highway in Kenya. AIDS 11, 21-26.

60. Oliver, M. 1996. Adolescents’ Perceptions of Sexuality. South African Journal of Education,
16(1), 5-8.

61. Peguegnat, W. & E. Stover. 2000. Behavioral Prevention is Today’s AIDS Vaccine! AIDS
14(2), 1-17.

62. Perkel, A., Strebel, A. & G. Joubert. G. 1991. The Psychology of AIDS Transmission: Issues
for Intervention. South African Journal of Psychology, 21(3), 148-152.

63. Preston-Whyte, E. & M. Zondi, M. 1991. Adolescent Sexuality and its Implications for
Teenage Pregnancy and AIDS. CME 9(11), 1389-1394.

64. -----. 1992. African Teenage Pregnancy: Whose Problem? In Questionable Issues –
Illegitimacy in South Africa. Cape Town: Oxford.

65. Preston-Whyte, E. 1994. Gender and the Lost Generation: The Dynamics of HIV
Transmission Among Black South African Teenagers in KwaZulu-Natal. Health Transition
Review (Supp.) 4, 241-255.

66. Richter, L. & J. Swart-Kruger, J. 1995. AIDS-Risk Among Street Children and Implications
for Intervention. South African Journal of Youth. Psychology, 25 (1), 31-38.

20
67. Richter, L. 1996. A Survey of Reproductive Health Issues Among Urban Black Youth in South
Africa. Pretoria: Society for Family Health.

68. Richter, L., Swart-Kruger, J. & J. Barnes. 1994. Street Children and Youth in South Africa:
AIDS-related Knowledge, Attitudes and Behaviour. In Grannon, B.(ed.) Children and Youth at
Risk: HIV/AIDS Issues: Residential Care and Community Perspectives. Paper presented at
First All-Africa Child Care Conference of the National Association of Child Care Workers,
Cape Town.

69. Roos, J., Pretorius, H. & M. Visser. 1995. A Proposed Strategy for Changing High-Risk
Sexual Behaviour Among Students at Tertiary Institutions. A Qualitative Investigation with a
view to Developing a Prevention Programme. Journal of Comprehensive Health, 6(2), 81-89.

70. Schwab Zabin, L. & K. Kiragu, K. 1998. The Health Consequences of Adolescent Sexual and
Fertility Behaviour in Sub-Saharan Africa. Studies in Family Planning, 29(2), 210-232.

21