Ernesto D.

Gonzales V
STEM 11 - Riemann
Earth Science

Endogenic Processes
1) The scientist Alfred Wegener proposed the Continental Drift Hypothesis, in which he insisted
that there once was a conjoined land mass in the earlier times as opposed to what is evident
now.
He insisted on different postulates to prove his hypothesis. For one, he had found out that
fossils of similar structure ​were found in the shores of different continents (such as ​the
discovery of the fossil of the reptile ​Lystrosaurus​ in rocks of the same age in ​Africa, India, a
​ nd
Antarctica​.
He had also pointed out the ​appearance of the facing sides of the continents​ (i.e.
South America a ​ nd ​Africa​) to be as if they were a “jigsaw puzzle”.
Perhaps one of the most prominent evidence that he pointed out was the ​emergence of
glacial sediments​ in areas that have not exhibited favorable factors for them to have glacial
sediments (i.e. South America, Africa, Madagascar, Arabia, India, Antarctica and Australia), that
may prove that these lands were once conjoined.
(Ref.: Wegener, A. (1966) [1929], ​The Origin of Continents and Oceans​, Courier Dover
Publications, ​ISBN​ 0-486-61708-4)

2) The Plate Tectonic Theory suggests that there are “plates” that lie in the lithosphere that, due
to seismic movements, cause changes in the surface.
It is based on four key assumptions:
The theory of plate tectonics, which predicts the interactions and consequences of plates, is
based on four assumptions:
a. ​New plate material is generated by seafloor spreading; new oceanic lithosphere is generated
along active mid-oceanic ridges.
b. ​The new oceanic lithosphere forms part of a moving plate; this plate may or may not include
continental material.
c. ​The Earth's surface area remains constant; therefore, the growth of the lithosphere must be
balanced by the consumption of plates elsewhere.
d. ​Because the plates transmit stresses over great horizontal distances without buckling, the
relative motion between plates occurs almost entirely along their boundaries.
(Ref: ​http://allshookup.org/quakes/tectonic.htm​)

3) There are three main types of plate boundaries:

a.​ ​Divergent boundary​ - occurs when two tectonic plates move away from
each other. Along these boundaries, lava spews from long fissures and geysers spurt
superheated water.
b. Convergent boundary ​- occurs when two tectonic plates come together.
The impact of the two colliding plates buckles the edge of one or both plates up into
a rugged mountain range, and sometimes bends the other down into a deep seafloor
trench.
c. Transform Plate boundary​ - occurs when two tectonic plates slide by
each other. As a result, infrastructures that are found above the transform plate
boundary are split into opposite directions. They are also known to create linear fault
valleys.
(Ref: ​http://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/facts/plate-boundaries.html​)

4) ​Seafloor spreading​ is the occurrence in mid-ocean ridges (ridges found

underwater), wherein due to volcanic activity, the ridge spews out matter that
creates the new seafloor. And as a result, pushes the old seafloor farther away from
the mid-ocean ridge. However, evidences point out that seafloor spreading is only
minimally affected by magma flow, and is heavily affected by diverging plate
boundaries.
(Ref: ​Tan, Yen Joe; Tolstoy, Maya; Waldhauser, Felix; Wilcock, William S. D. ​"Dynamics of a
seafloor-spreading episode at the East Pacific Rise"​. ​Nature.​ ​540​ (7632): 261–265.
doi​:​10.1038/nature20116​)

5) ​Ocean basins​ are landforms below sea level that can either be collecting sediments with little
activity or be as active as where tectonic plates are found. They make up 70% of the Earth’s
surface and they mostly hold water. As such, they are products of plate tectonics.
(Ref: ​http://study.com/academy/lesson/ocean-basins-definition-formation-features-types.html​)
6)

7) ​Stress​ is the term used to describe the external force that acts upon a rock, that leads to its
deformation called the ​Strain​. The different forces that are described that can act upon a rock
formation are called ​Differential Stress​, and they have three types:
a. Compressional stress​ - it is the force that makes the rock compact or squeeze its mass.
It is responsible for convergent plates.
 b. Tensional stress ​- it is the force that stretches or pulls apart rock masses, responsible
for divergent plates.
c. Shear stress​ - a force that involves the movement of a rock mass past another rock
body, responsible for transform plates.
(Ref: ​https://quizlet.com/79409775/three-types-if-differential-stress-flash-cards/​)

8)

9) ​Dip-slip faults​ are fractures where they shift mostly vertically, whereas ​Strike-slip faults​ are
fractures that are mostly vertical and shift horizontally.
(Ref: ​https://www.quora.com/What-is-the-difference-between-Dip-Fault-and-Dip-Slip-Fault​)

10)

11) Since tectonic plates move and interact with the surface of the Earth, it is bound to have
many effects. One of these are the formation of volcanoes. In favorable conditions, volcanoes can
be formed from either the converging or diverging of plates. Once tectonic plates move apart,
magma fills up the gap between them, and sometimes tectonic activity pushes the magma
outward until it projects outside of the volcano to become lava.
(Ref:
https://www.pbslearningmedia.org/resource/ess05.sci.ess.earthsys.tectonic/tectonic-plates-earthq
uakes-and-volcanoes/​)

12) ​Magma​ is formed when rocks, minerals, and gases from the lithosphere and the
asthenosphere reach high temperatures that are enough to make them melt. Magma is the term
used for when it is still inside the earth, otherwise the hot molten rock is called lava.
(Ref: ​https://www.edhelper.com/ReadingComprehension_54_74.html​)

13) When magma forms, there can be possibilities wherein it can be pushed out of the Earth
(lava), or it can cool down and solidify as a part of the crust or a component of the mantle.
14) Magma is the molten rock found inside the Earth, while lava is the molten rock that is
excreted from inside the Earth, able to flow in the Earth’s surface through a volcano vent. Magma
has a higher temperature compared to lava once lava is excreted.

15) When there is a volcanic eruption, several ​pyroclastic materials ​are excreted. These are
lava, volcanic blocks, and cinders. Once they mix with volcanic ashes, they are considered as a
pyroclastic deposit.
(Ref:
http://www.invivo.fiocruz.br/cgi/cgilua.exe/sys/start.htm?UserActiveTemplate=english&infoid=127
2&sid=43​)

16)

17) The possibility of the continents forming a large landmass as believed they had before is
considerable, though by present tectonic movements, it may be a vague assumption. Since most
tectonic activity pull away from each other, such as seafloor spreading, it would be a larger
expectancy for the continents to pull farther away from each other.

18) Plate motion will not cease since the heat source from inside the earth is infinite. However,
once it finds way to cease, various elements of the Earth would be affected. For example, there
would be no way for Earth to release its remaining residual excessive heat. It would also mean
that without plate tectonics, there would be no way to restore mountains once they erode.
(Ref:
http://www.caltech.edu/news/caltech-question-week-what-would-be-effect-if-all-plate-tectonics-mo
vement-stopped-forever-188​)

19)
 20) Volcanic activities are related to plate tectonics, such that when there is a disturbance in the
tectonic plates, they would be linked to volcanic movement, such as volcanic tremors and
volcanic eruptions.

Ernesto D. Gonzales V
STEM 11 - Riemann
Earth Science
Minerals

1) ​Minerals​ are considered to be naturally-occurring, inorganic matter that exhibit unique physical
and chemical properties. ​Rocks​, on the other hand, are solid, stony masses composed of
different materials, some including minerals. Simply put, minerals are considered to be building
blocks of rocks.
(Ref: ​https://www.usgs.gov/media/audio/whats-difference-between-rock-and-mineral​)

2)

(Ref:
http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-8WFSRDxYOL4/VdYjHgZ1BzI/AAAAAAAAF8U/z5c3Pm4knjM/s1600/C
rystal%2BStructure%2Band%2BCrystal%2BSystem.jpg​)
The six basic crystal structures can be classified as:
a. Isometric/Cubic​ - This system comprises crystals with three axes, all perpendicular to one
another and all equal in length.
b. Tetragonal​ - This system comprises crystals with three axes, all perpendicular to one another;
two are of equal length.
c. Hexagonal​ - This system comprises crystals with four axes. Three of these axes are in a
single plane, symmetrically spaced, and of equal length. The fourth axis is perpendicular to the
other three.
d. Orthorhombic​ - This system comprises crystals with three mutually perpendicular axes, all of
different lengths.
e. Monoclinic ​- This system comprises crystals with three axes of unequal lengths, two of which
are oblique (that is, not perpendicular) to one another, but both of which are perpendicular to the
third.
f. Triclinic​ - This system comprises crystals with three axes, all unequal in length and oblique to
one another.
(Ref: ​http://skywalker.cochise.edu/wellerr/students/crystals/project.htm​)

3) In order to identify minerals, one can refer to its different properties:

a. Luster ​- a mineral’s quality and intensity over reflected light.
b. Hardness​ - a mineral’s resistance to abrasion.
c. Color ​- a mineral’s appearance based on its identifying properties.
d. Streak​ - a mineral’s appearance in powdered form.
e. Habit ​- external shape observed in the mineral as crystals grow in its open spaces.
f. Cleavage/Fracture​ - a mineral’s property to break along parallel repetitive planes that form
smooth, flat surfaces (Cleavage), or its property to exhibit irregularities and form broken surfaces
(Fracture).
g. Specific Gravity​ - a mineral’s weight considering its equal weight in volumes of water.
4) a) ​Transparency ​is the amount of light that can pass through a mineral, while ​luster ​is the
behavior of which how minerals appear to reflect light.
(Ref: http://www.minerals.net/resource/property/Transpar.aspx,
http://www.minerals.net/resource/property/Luster.aspx​)
 b) Both ​isometric ​and ​tetragonal ​crystal structures exhibit crystals with three axes, all
perpendicular to one another, however the axes of ​isometric​ crystals all have the same lengths,
and ​tetragonal ​crystals only have two axes of the same lengths.

6) Metamorphic rocks, as per the name itself, undergo processes that would make the rock
“transform” or change most of its properties. They are not limited to one process alone.

7) “One rock is the raw material for another”. This statement is proven to be true, as in most
cases, because most rocks undergo the ​rock cycle​, a process in which rocks may undergo
various process in order to become a new type of rock.

8)

9) Philippines is blessed with large mineral deposits because of its location. Thus, a large mineral
abundance can be evident in the country; therefore, the Philippines is considered one of the most
mineralized countries in the world, and one of the countries with the richest gold deposits in all of
Southeast Asia.
(Ref:
https://mineraldepositsinph.wordpress.com/2012/02/14/philippines-a-highly-mineralized-country-3
/​)

10) I am not in favor of creating my place a gold deposit. Firstly, this is a habitat. It is not that easy
to let go of it. Since having a mineral deposit means the exhaustion of local resources, it also
poses a grave threat to the local surroundings. Philippines is already a rich gold deposit. I’m sure
they can find something similar somewhere else.

1)
2) Temperature change can affect mechanical weathering in a way that when there are
temperamental increments in the rock, it causes it to expand. Then, when there is a detriment in
temperature, the rocks contract; as this process repeats itself, it is a possible reason for its
weakening.
(Ref: ​http://www.kidsgeo.com/geology-for-kids/0066-mechanical-weathering.php​)

3) A very common example of chemical weathering evident in homes and in campus is rusting of
metals. A process called oxidation, wherein oxygen and iron react to form iron oxide, takes place. It
not only changes the color of the metal, but it also makes it susceptible to damage.
(Ref: ​https://www.thoughtco.com/examples-of-chemical-weathering-607608​)

4) Human activities greatly increase the possibility of weathering in the environment. For instance,
smoke emission of factories heavily pollute the air, causing it to increase the chances of acid rain.
Another instance would be that ground activities, such as mining, affect the ability of its affected land
to absorb water, increasing erosion and run-off.
(Ref: ​https://www.enotes.com/.../what-human-activities-can-increase-rate-weathering-47249​)

5) The two rocks will not react in a similar way to water and oxygen because it all comes down to the
rocks’ composition. There is a very high possibility of weathering affecting the composition and
creation of the two rocks.

6) The three types of mass wasting are as follows:

Rock Fall​ - it may involve one or more rocks that detach from a source and become displaced from
a higher source. It forms talus, the breakage of rocks that form or pile at the bottom of the slope.
Rock Avalanche​ - rock avalanches are massive rock falls that explode in contact with a slope. It
has a very big displacement compared to a rock fall.
Rock Slides​ - rock slide is a mass or a coherent block of sediments and/or rocks that stick together
as they travel down a slope or a surface of weakness.
(Ref:
https://web.csulb.edu/depts/geology/facultypages/bperry/Mass%20Wasting/Types_of_Mass_Wastin
g.htm​)

7) The controlling force in mass wastings is ​gravity​.

(Ref: ​http://wps.prenhall.com/ca_ph_tarbuck_IPG_1/25/6463/1654587.cw/content/index.html​)

8) Other factors that may interfere in mass wastings are: saturation of the material with water,
oversteepening of slopes beyond the ​angle of repose​, removal of vegetation, and ground shaking by
earthquakes.
(Ref: ​http://wps.prenhall.com/ca_ph_tarbuck_IPG_1/25/6463/1654587.cw/content/index.html​)

9) Mass wastings can affect the topographical features of the Earth’s surface, specifically the
morphology of mountain and valley systems both above and below sea level; it may also affect the
quality of bodies of water and groundwater flow; It may affect the forests; It may affect the
inhabitants of the altered Earth masses.
(Ref:
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/250084107_Overview_of_the_Effects_of_Mass_Wasting_
on_the_Natural_Environment​)

10) ​Deforestation ​may induce mass wasting because without trees to hold the soil intact, it is bound
to undergo mass wasting.
Another human-induced activity may be ​construction in or near slopes​. With its construction, the
surrounding landmass may weaken itself, heightening the chance of a mass wasting to happen.
(Ref:
https://www.slideshare.net/tudorgeog/342-human-causes-and-consequences-of-mass-movement-v2
)

11) ​Weathering​ is the breaking down of rocks, soil and other materials from the Earth in contact to
its atmosphere, whereas ​Erosion​ is the displacement of materials due to different factors such as
wind or water. There is no movement involved in the process of weathering.
(Ref: ​https://prezi.com/icu5otb61tun/differences-between-weathering-erosion-and-deposition/​)

12) There are four main agents of erosion:

Moving Water​ - soil and other materials can be carried by water flow.
Wind​ - wind may displace geological materials.
Gravity​ - the placement of geological materials due to different factors are even more weighted by
the presence of gravity, making it either more or less susceptible to erosion.
Ice Breaks​ - ice melts or break away geological materials and carries them to foreign locations.
(Ref: ​https://www.edhelper.com/ReadingComprehension_54_4081.html​)

13) The moving of water has a so-called ​lifting effect​, that enables its flow to carry and/or break
apart rocks.
(Ref: ​peter-mulroy.squarespace.com/running-water-causes-erosion/)

14) A glacier can displace land formations because as the glacier weighs and melts, it carried
the land far away from its original position.
(Ref: ​https://nsidc.org/cryosphere/glaciers/questions/land.html​)

15) Weathered materials are transported by means of it being carried by the solution of eroded
material, such as water, ice or wind.
(Ref: ​https://www.geolsoc.org.uk/ks3/gsl/education/resources/rockcycle/page3462.html​)