Fabricación convencional y aditiva con compuestos de

matriz de metal: una perspectiva

Resumen
Los compuestos de matriz de metal son una clase de materiales en los que se agregan uno o más materiales a un metal dirigido a
mejoras de propiedades específicas. Teniendo en cuenta las posibilidades de adaptar los materiales y los atributos de los resultados a
las necesidades específicas del producto, han obtenido una importante atención de investigación en el pasado. Se emplean diferentes
métodos de fabricación tradicionales, pero la metalurgia de polvos es el enfoque más destacado para lograr piezas compuestas de
matriz metálica, aunque con restricciones en las formas de producto logradas, además de las limitaciones del proceso. Por otro lado,
las técnicas de fabricación aditiva evolucionaron rápidamente desde las simples opciones de creación de prototipos hasta los
prometedores métodos de fabricación aditiva. Teniendo en cuenta la consolidación del material punto-punto y la fusión y
solidificación total de las partículas de polvo, las tecnologías de aditivos ofrecen nuevos desafíos y beneficios prometedores con los
polvos de matriz metálica. El estado actual de la aplicación de la fabricación aditiva a los compuestos de matriz metálica se determina
en este documento y la fusión selectiva por láser se identifica como la ruta más prometedora para procesar compuestos de matriz
metálica, con el objetivo de obtener beneficios específicos.
 2 Malaya Prasad Behera et al. / Procedia Manufacturing 30 (2019) 159–166

1. Introduccion

Los compuestos de matriz metálica (MMC) se hacen dispersando continuamente un material de refuerzo en una matriz de
material metálico monolítico [1]. En aplicaciones estructurales, la matriz suele ser un metal más ligero, como aluminio,
magnesio o titanio, y proporciona un soporte compatible para el refuerzo. En aplicaciones de alta temperatura, las matrices
de cobalto y aleación de cobalto-níquel son comunes [2]. Los MMC suelen encontrar aplicaciones en transporte terrestre,
gestión térmica, aeroespacial, industrial, recreativa e infraestructura [3]. Las matrices basadas en Ag, Al, Be, Co, Cu, Fe,
Mg, Ni y Ti se producen y utilizan comercialmente. Los compuestos de matriz metálica basados en Cu representan el 25%
del mercado en masa, mientras que también se producen volúmenes significativos de compuestos de Fe y Ti. Los refuerzos
más comunes utilizados en aplicaciones comerciales son Al2O3, B4C, BeO, C, grafito, Mo, NbC, SiC, TaC, TiB, TiBl2,
TiC, W y WC. El mayor volumen del refuerzo utilizado comercialmente es SiC por un margen significativo, seguido por
Al2O3 y TiC. Casi todos los compuestos de matriz metálica en uso comercial se basan en refuerzos discontinuos, aunque
existen aplicaciones para compuestos de matriz metálica con fibras continuas de grafito, SiC y Al2O3 [4].

Se demostró que la fundición por agitación fundida era adecuada para producir piezas compuestas de matriz metálica
antes. Sin embargo, este método solo puede usarse para producir palanquillas de matriz metálica, que deben procesarse
adicionalmente por medios sustractivos para producir componentes en las formas requeridas. El mayor refuerzo conduce
a una menor maquinabilidad debido a la menor ductilidad y a los mayores atributos de resistencia al desgaste. Como
resultado, la aplicación de métodos de procesamiento sustractivo se vuelve antieconómica [5, 6]. Los métodos de
fabricación de forma casi neta obtienen mejores resultados por estos motivos y la opción más común ha sido el método
de metalurgia de polvos. Una de las ventajas de la tecnología de pulvimetalurgia es la producción directa de la geometría
final de la pieza requerida, ahorrando considerables cantidades de tiempo y costo. Sin embargo, hay varias aplicaciones
que requieren piezas que necesitan un mecanizado adicional, por ejemplo, en productos que contienen roscas, agujeros
cruzados o ranuras. En estos casos, el mecanizado del material duro y poroso puede provocar dificultades de fabricación
importantes [5].

El procesamiento aditivo es una técnica de fabricación relativamente nueva que surgió a través de la evolución
desde la creación rápida de prototipos hasta la fabricación rápida, y posteriormente progresó como el método de
fabricación en capas [8, 9]. Con desarrollos más recientes asociados con técnicas específicas de impresión 3D, la
tecnología ha tomado la forma de fabricación aditiva, lo que permite fabricar componentes industriales directamente
a partir de archivos CAD [10]. En particular, los procesos basados en polvo son susceptibles de controlar las
propiedades del resultado, tanto por cambios en el polvo como por las condiciones del proceso. Si bien los métodos
normales de procesamiento de aditivos dictan requisitos serios sobre la consistencia del polvo, las variaciones
calculadas podrían ayudar a lograr propiedades personalizadas. En particular, los metales en polvo hechos de
compuestos de matriz metálica podrían conducir a una realización más eficiente de los atributos específicos de la
matriz metálica en comparación con los métodos de metalurgia de polvos. La fusión láser selectiva es el proceso de
interés en el contexto del desarrollo de materiales compuestos de matriz metálica más avanzados. Si bien permite
aplicar selectivamente la energía láser para procesar compuestos de polvo de matriz metálica, el proceso conlleva
ventajas inherentes, como la fabricación de formas complejas que involucran características de forma libre y
estructuras reentrantes [11]. El objetivo de este artículo es revisar el progreso con los compuestos de matriz metálica
y determinar el estado actual de la técnica con la aplicación de las tecnologías de fabricación aditiva para procesar
compuestos de matriz metálica.

2. Producción y procesamiento de compuestos de matriz metálica.

Los compuestos de matriz metálica se producen principalmente mediante métodos de fundición y pulvimetalurgia.
Mediante métodos de fundición, materiales compuestos reforzados por partículas de dispersión [12, 13], plaquetas
[14], fibras no continuas (cortas) y fibras continuas (largas) [15-18], así como materiales compuestos con refuerzos
híbridos compuestos de partículas Se producen fibras [19]. Los materiales compuestos de matriz metálica se
desarrollan combinando dos o más materiales de alguna manera, apuntando a propiedades específicas a medida. El
material resultante combinará las buenas propiedades tanto de la matriz metálica como de los materiales de refuerzo
permitiendo un mayor grado de libertad de diseño [20]. Tradicionalmente, los métodos de fundición de metales
dominaban los medios para producir compuestos de matriz metálica, aunque los problemas de segregación eran
generales. Desarrollos posteriores, como las técnicas de fundición por agitación fundida, permitieron superar los
problemas en diversos grados (proceso Duralcan, D Lloyd, Comalco, etc.) [6, 7, 21, 22]. Sin embargo, en los últimos
 Malaya Prasad Behera et al. / Procedia Manufacturing 30 (2019) 159–166 3
enfoques, el método más común para desarrollar y procesar dichos materiales es a través de la ruta de la metalurgia
de polvos. El requisito previo para la aplicación de la pulvimetalurgia es el desarrollo de los polvos metálicos
compuestos y los métodos más comunes empleados para producir los polvos MMC se compilan en el diagrama de
flujo presentado en la Figura 1 junto con los métodos de fabricación a granel [23-26] .

Fig. 1. Metal matrix composites powder and bulk manufacturing methods

Fig. 2. Discontinuous and continuous fibre, whiskers and particulate-reinforced composites process routes

Los elementos de refuerzo se mezclan en las aleaciones fundidas para producir compuestos de matriz metálica con
dispersión de partículas y fibras cortas [28, 29]. Generalmente, el proceso de mezcla se logra bajo presión atmosférica y
los elementos de refuerzo deben poseer una buena humectabilidad por la aleación de metal fundido. Si la humectabilidad
es pobre, se deben emplear medidas correctivas; Por ejemplo, en el caso de las partículas de grafito utilizadas para
fortalecer la aleación de aluminio A356, se logra una mejor humectabilidad cubriendo las partículas con níquel [28]. Alcoa
International produce materiales compuestos basados en una aleación de aluminio A356 reforzada con partículas de SiC
que contienen grafito y se venden con el nombre comercial Duralcan F3S20. Actualmente, el método de producción más
común de materiales compuestos es la infiltración de preformas porosas hechas de fibras cerámicas bajo presión con
aleaciones ligeras fundidas. Hay fundición por compresión directa e indirecta de preformas calentados preliminares, y
estos procesos se muestran esquemáticamente en la Fig. 2. La fundición por compresión directa se aplica para la
producción de elementos compuestos caracterizados por formas relativamente simples, y las matrices de fundición para
la fundición por compresión directa son relativamente simples. y de precio razonable. La aplicación de fundición por
compresión indirecta hace posible la producción de piezas compuestas más complejas, pero resulta en matrices de
fundición más caras.
 4 Malaya Prasad Behera et al. / Procedia Manufacturing 30 (2019) 159–166

Los métodos de pulvimetalurgia se basan en la combinación clásica de polvos de matriz, elementos de refuerzo (polvos
de dispersión, plaquetas y fibras cerámicas) y en prensado en frío y sinterización seguidos de trabajo con plástico
(forjado, extrusión). La idea del proceso de formación por pulverización se basa en la atomización de polvos de matriz
metálica con inyección simultánea de polvos de dispersión en el sustrato y hoy en día se aplica cada vez más
ampliamente para la producción de elementos de gran tamaño a partir de materiales compuestos. Este método en
particular permite la introducción de diferentes partículas de refuerzo, lo que lleva a diferentes reacciones químicas entre
la matriz y los materiales de refuerzo y la posible producción de materiales compuestos in situ [30].

3. Typical applications and critical attributes

Metal matrix composites are characterised by very good mechanical and development properties over a wide range
of temperatures. Cu-based composite materials reinforced with carbon fibres for applications in the electronic industry
are characterised by very high heat conductivity and other very useful properties such as good wear resistance [31,
32]. Two main production routes of metal-alloy based composite materials are commonly use; casting and the powder-
metallurgy methods. The choice of the method depends on the property requirements, cost constraints and the future
applications. The use of composite materials is well established in the aircraft industry and they are now applied in
the fuselage as well as the jet engine design and manufacturing. Applications in the automotive industry are growing
rapidly, although still not as common as in the aircraft industry. Copper reinforced with tungsten particles or
aluminium oxide particles is used in heat sinks and electronic packaging. Titanium reinforced with silicon carbide
fibres for aerospace applications and different steels and Inconel with titanium carbide particle inclusions for high
temperature and corrosion resistance needs are other developments [33]. Mishra et al. evaluated the super plasticity in
powder metallurgy aluminium alloys and composites. [34]. A wide latitude has evolved around the scope and
application of the metal matrix composites [35]. The metal-metal composite examples include tungsten heavy alloys
with Cupper, Cupper-Nickel, and Nikel-Iron, Cupper-infiltrated sintered steel powder compacts, and composite
superconducting wire materials. Carbide or diamond tool materials, including WC-Co and other cermet’s used in the
cutting tool industry, as well as impregnated diamond tool materials and other diamond tool materials are the metal-
ceramic composites. While being low cost alternatives, aluminium MMCs also offer excellent thermal conductivity,
high shear strength, excellent abrasion resistance, high-temperature operation, non- flammability, minimal attack by
fuels and solvents, and the ability to be formed and treated on conventional equipment [36].

4. Critical issues

The processing method used, the composition of the matrix and the type of reinforcement are independent of one
another. However, in molten metal processing, they are intimately linked in terms of the different interactions that
occur between reinforcement and the matrix in the molten state. The factors controlling the distribution of the
reinforcement are also dependent on the initial processing method. Secondary fabrication methods, such as extrusion
and rolling, are essential in processing the composites produced by powder metallurgy, since they are required to
consolidate the composites fully [37]. Other methods, such as spray casting, molten metal infiltration, and molten
metal mixing give essentially fully consolidated products directly, but extrusion, etc., can improve the properties by
modifying the reinforcement distribution. The mechanical properties obtained in metal matrix composites are
dependent on a wide range of factors, but there are areas requiring further attention. The successful commercial
production of metal matrix composites will finally depend on their cost effectiveness for different applications. This
requires optimum methods of processing, machining, and recycling.

Common metal matrix composite processing methods and the critical issues associated with each of them are
depicted in the chart presented in Figure 3. The powder metallurgy route, though promising in terms of achieving the
dispersion control, is restrictive in the shape complexities possible. The mechanical properties achieved are also
limited. The liquid-state methods mainly suffer from the loss of the control over the dispersion of the filler particles,
apart from the wettability constraints. The spray methods depend on shapes developed by other means, while also
lacking process control. The diffusion bonding methods are limited by high production times and size and shape
 Malaya Prasad Behera et al. / Procedia Manufacturing 30 (2019) 159–166 5

restrictions. The additive manufacturing methods are relatively recent developments and if successful with specific
metal matrix composites, could eliminate some are all of these constraints.

Fig. 3. Critical issues with traditional MMC processing routes

5. Additive manufacturing

Additive manufacturing refers to the technologies that evolved recently from 3D printing, and are allowing for the
direct production of end use parts from CAD data. The layer-by-layer additive material consolidation eliminates the
need for complex intermediate tooling. This will result in considerable shortening of the manufacturing lead times,
apart from significant freedom to design and produce more complex shapes. The benefits of the tool-less, digital
technologies amenable to true just in time production have captured the attention of the world and additive
manufacturing is being referred to as the industrial revolution of the digital age. AM allows environmentally friendly
product designs as well. The unique processing attributes of additive manufacturing will also offer other opportunities
such as optimum designs for lean production, reduction of waste and environmental conservation [38]. For most part
additively produced parts were mainly used as models assisting in the product development process. However, more
recent improvements in materials, processes and properties of parts produced led to the wider uptake of the
technologies in different fields of use, including industrial, aerospace, and medical applications [39].

In all these processes, the starting point is the CAD file of the object to be printed. The CAD model is then sliced
into a number of flat layers, each of which is further rasterised to construct line by line. All additive manufacturing
systems have the software capabilities to take a CAD file in, mostly in the .stl format and then process for the build
orientation, slicing and rasterization. Further, the hardware allows for the implementation of the line-by-line and layer-
by-layer build process. The main difference is in the energy sources used. In fused deposition modelling, polymer
filaments are heated and extruded in the semi-solid form to construct the layers as per the raster schemes [42]. Selective
laser sintering uses a laser to heat polymer powders spread on the substrate selectively following the raster paths, to
build each layer by local heating and subsequent controlled solid state sintering [40]. Selective laser melting utilises
the same method as SLS, but the laser used is often more powerful and metal powders are consolidated by full melting
and subsequent solidification into layers [41]. The binder jet technologies are mainly used for ceramic powders and
the techniques involves jetting binder glue solutions selectively on the powder substrate to achieve inter particle
bonding and subsequent green strength. The consolidated mass held together by the green strength are subsequently
heated to achieve better bonding and dry strength [43].

Considering the numerous benefits of the additive technologies, it becomes interesting and important to consider
to evaluate metal matrix composites by these new and emerging techniques. Attempts towards production of complete
metal matrix composite parts made from in-situ mixing of the matrix and filler materials have not gained much
attention as yet. Considering the point-by-point consolidation and the free-form fabrication abilities, selective laser
melting scores much better than the conventional powder metallurgy methods in terms of processing metals in
6 Malaya Prasad Behera et al. / Procedia Manufacturing 30 (2019) 159–166

the powder form. However, there is a serious lack of information on the application of selective laser melting towards
fabrication of three-dimensional metal matrix composite parts. Research gaps are clearly evident along these lines and
the next section attempts to consolidate the progress made so far, while a critical review and consolidation of the future
courses will be presented later.

6. Additive processing of metal matrix composites

Vrancken et al. examined the solidification, microstructure, mechanical properties, and responses to heat treatment
of SLM parts produced using powder mixtures of extra low interstitial Ti6Al4V and 10 wt.% Mo [44]. The research
results highlighted the additive processing route to be more effective in terms of achieving engineered parts based on
powder mixtures. Inconsistent dispersion of the Mo phase was noted due to poor mixing and possible melt-pool
diffusion of Mo particles. More importantly, the solidification mechanism was found to change from planar to cellular
mode. Krakhmalev et al. applied selective laser melting to develop coatings of Ti (20, 30, 40 wt.
%) and SiC powder mixtures based on a continuous-wave Ytterbium fiber laser YLR-4x200-SM (IPG Photonics
Corporation) of 1.075 µm wavelength at 200W maximum laser power [45]. The fabricated ultrafine composites
formed in situ, were investigated to evaluate the composition-microstructure relationships. Hardness, indentation
fracture toughness and abrasive wear resistance were studied to assess the mechanical properties. The selective laser
melting and the re-melting of the Ti and SiC powder mixtures resulted in the in-situ formation of the multiphase
intermetallic composites consisting of titanium carbides, carbosilicides and silicides.

Zhang et al. produced Ti substrate samples through selective laser melting and subsequently built porous Nb
coatings through laser cladding. They performed in vitro studies to assess the cell attachment, morphology, and
proliferation [46]. Through metallographic evaluation, they established that the Ti-Nb metal-matrix composite layers
were successfully formed through the laser cladding or melting process and the interface characteristics are sound.
The outcomes were envisioned to lead to wider research and application in the orthopaedic and dental implant
applications. Manfredi et al. used mixtures of AlSiMg with SiC and nano particles of MgAl 2O4 at 10% and 1% by
weight respectively and processed by the direct metal laser sintering method [47]. The smaller SiC particles being
more in quantity were clearly seen sticking all around the spherical matrix metal particles, together with the nano
MgAl2O4 particles. The AlSiMg/SiC composite showed dispersion of the SiC particles within the metal matrix. It was
noted that the presence of the ceramic reinforcement led to an almost 70% rise in the hardness values compared to that
of the matrix metal. However, the other case, involving nano particulate fillers led to a loss of mechanical properties
due to poor dispersion characteristics and possible adverse effects on the solidification and the formation of porous
structures.

Davydova et al. developed the cobalt-cladded boron carbide powder for processing by selective laser melting,
potentially targeting the manufacturing of cutting tools. This was the first-time metal-ceramic powders had been
processed based on laser melting [48]. Batches of composite metal-coated B4C powders were produced using the
chemical vapour deposition (CVD) facilities at LIFCO Industrie, France. Hardness measurements based on the cuboid
samples developed indicate a variation from about 600 to ∼ 3000 HV depending on the measurement zone. Significant
porosity levels were identified and reported (∼ 37%) mainly at the interlayer regions. The compressive strength values
measured based on the laser melted samples were noted to be below 110 MPa. Sing et al. evaluated mixtures of
commercial titanium and tantalum powders with equal weight percentages for selective laser melting [49]. The ability
to produce Ti-Ta alloy components based on selective laser melting of mixed powders was demonstrated through this
research. Tantalum was selected as a potential alloying element based on its ability to stabilize the β phase in the Ti-
Ta system, apart from lowering the Young's modulus which is essential in biomedical applications. It was reported
that the selective laser melting method allowed to stabilise only the β phase, due to the presence of the tantalum as
well as the rapid cooling rates. The size variation in the tantalum particles was noted to cause insufficient melting of
the relatively larger particles. Overall, the laser melted Ti-Ta part showed a combination of high strength and lower
Young's modulus as compared to the commercially pure titanium and Ti6Al4V parts.
 Malaya Prasad Behera et al. / Procedia Manufacturing 30 (2019) 159–166 7

7. Conclusions

The metal matrix composite material aspects are reviewed in this paper. Typical base matrix and filler material
options and their combinations have been identified and reported. Both raw materials development and further
processing of them into finished products and the methods employed at different stages are highlighted. Considering
the critical aspects of metal matrix material processing, it was noted that the conventional manufacturing methods fall
short of achieving the controlled dispersion and the full benefits of the metal matrix composites. The additive
manufacturing methods are identified to be better alternatives for processing the metal matrix composites. In particular
the selective laser melting route is ascertained to be the most promising option, and several aspects of interest yet to
be researched are highlighted.

Acknowledgements

The authors wish to acknowledge the support from the Ministry of Business Innovation and Employment (MBIE)
New Zealand grant received by the New Zealand Product Accelerator. The project is currently funded through the
AUT subcontract of this grant. The metal matrix composites were developed though the expertise and facilities at
Nuenz.

References

[1] Clyne, T. W., & Withers, P. J. (1995). An introduction to metal matrix composites. Cambridge university press.
[2] Ibrahim, I. A., Mohamed, F. A., & Lavernia, E. J. (1991). Particulate reinforced metal matrix composites—a review. Journal of
materials science, 26(5), 1137-1156.
[3] Rittner, M. (2000). Metal matrix composites in the 21st century: markets and opportunities. CT: BCC Inc., Norwalk.
[4] Miracle, D. B. (2005). Metal matrix composites–from science to technological significance. Composites science and
technology, 65(15-16), 2526-2540.
[5] Szalay, T., Czampa, M., Markos, S., & Farkas, B. (2012, September). Investigation of machinability of iron based metal matrix
composite (MMCS) powder metallurgy parts. In AIP Conference Proceedings (Vol. 1476, No. 1, pp. 300-303). AIP.
[6] Hashim, J., Looney, L., & Hashmi, M. S. J. (1999). Metal matrix composites: production by the stir casting method. Journal of
Materials Processing Technology, 92, 1-7.
[7] Hashim, J. (2001). The production of cast metal matrix composite by a modified stir casting method. Jurnal teknologi, 35(A), 9-
20.
[8] Koch, J., & Mazumder, J. (2000). U.S. Patent No. 6,122,564. Washington, DC: U.S. Patent and Trademark Office.
[9] Beaman, J. J., & Deckard, C. R. (1990). U.S. Patent No. 4,938,816. Washington, DC: U.S. Patent and Trademark Office.
[10] Dawes, J., Bowerman, R., & Trepleton, R. (2015). Introduction to the additive manufacturing powder metallurgy supply chain.
Johnson Matthey Technology Review, 59(3), 243-256.
[11] European Powder Metallurgy Association. (2014). Additive Manufacturing Technology. Shrewsbury, United Kingdom (epma.
com/additive-manufacturing-technology).
[12] Corbin, S. F., & Wilkinson, D. S. (1996). The Tensile Properties of a Particulate Reinforced Al Alloy in the Temperature
Range− 196–300° C. Canadian metallurgical quarterly, 35(2), 189-198.
[13] Gupta, M., Lai, M. O., & Soo, C. Y. (1996). Effect of type of processing on the microstructural features and mechanical
properties of Al-Cu/SiC metal matrix composites. Materials Science and Engineering: A, 210(1-2), 114-122.
[14] K.U. Kainer, Cast magnesium alloys reinforced by short fibres, in: Proceedings of the International Conference on Magnesium
Alloys and their Applications, Garmisch-Partenkirchen, DGM Informationsgessellschaft, Oberursel, 1992, pp. 415–422.
[15] W. Henning, G. Neite, E. Schmidt, Einfluß der Wärmebehandlung auf die Faserstabilität in verstärkten Al–Si-Leichtmetall-
Kolbenlegierungen, Metall, 48 (1994), pp. 451-454.
[16] K.U. Kainer, B.L. Mordike, Herstellung und Eigenschaften von kurzfaserverstärkten Magnesiumlegierungen, Metall, 44 (1990),
pp. 438-443.
[17] F. Richter, L. Binkele, E. Hanitsch, Die physikalische Eigenschaften des Langfaserverbundgusses AlSi/30 vol.% Al 2O3 sowie
Kurzfaserverbundgusses AlSi/16 vol.% Al2O3, Metall, 48 (1994), pp. 106-11.
[18] R.R. Bowman, A.K. Misra, S.M. Arnold, Processing and mechanical properties of Al2O3 fiber-reinforced NiAl composites,
Metall. Mater. Trans. A, 26 (1995), pp. 615-628.
[19] J. Schröder, K.U. Kainer, Magnesium base hybrid composites prepared by liquid infiltration, Mater. Sci. Eng. A, 135 (1991), pp.
243-246.
[20] El-Eskandarany, M. S. (1998). Mechanical solid state mixing for synthesizing of SiC p/Al nanocomposites. Journal of alloys
and Compounds, 279(2), 263-271.
8 Malaya Prasad Behera et al. / Procedia Manufacturing 30 (2019) 159–166

[21] Lemieux, S., Elomari, S., Nemes, J. A., & Skibo, M. D. (1998). Thermal expansion of isotropic Duralcan metal–matrix
composites. Journal of materials science, 33(17), 4381-4387.
[22] Hollitt, M., Kisler, J., & Raahauge, B. (2002). The Comalco bauxite activation process. In Proceedings of 6th International
Alumina Quality Workshop (pp. 115-122).
[23] Grant N.J. (1970). Progress in Powder Metallurgy, Vol. 10, Metal Powder Industries Federation, Princeton, pp. 99-119.
[24] Nadkarni A.V., Shafer W.M. (1976, August). Metals Engineering Quarterly, pp. 10-15.
[25] Graham R.L., Edge D.A. (1970). Copper and Its Alloys, The Institute of Metals, London.
[26] Morral F.P. (1977). Dispersion Strengthening of Metals, Metals and Ceramics Information Center, Columbus, p. 52.
[27] Kaczmar, J. W., Pietrzak, K., & Włosiński, W. (2000). The production and application of metal matrix composite
materials. Journal of materials processing technology, 106(1-3), 58-67.
[28] W. Ames, A.T. Alpas, Wear mechanisms in hybrid composites of graphite-20% SiC in A356 aluminium alloy (Al-7% Si-0.3%
Mg), Metall. Mater. Trans. A, 26 (1995), pp. 85-98.
[29] S. Skolianos, Mechanical behaviour of cast SiCp reinforced Al–4.5%Cu–1.5%Mg alloy, Mater. Sci. Eng. A, 210 (1996), pp. 76-
82.
[30] K. Hummert, Sprühkompaktieren von Aluminiumwerkstoffen im industriellen Maßstab-Stand der Entwicklung, in: K.
Bauckhage, V. Uhlenwinkel (Eds.), Sprühkompaktieren-Sprayforming, Sonderforschungsbereich, Vol. 372, Universität
Bremen, 1995, pp. 199–214.
[31] Anonym: Pulvertechnologisch in die Zukunft, Metall 49 (1995) 741–746.
[32] B.L. Mordike, J. Kaczmr, M. Kielbinski, K.U. Kainer, Effect of tungsten content on the properties and structure of cold extruded
Cu–W composite materials, Powder Metall. Int., 23 (1991), pp. 91-96.
[33] Chawla, K. K. (2006). Metal matrix composites. Wiley‐ VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA.
[34] Mishra, R. S., Bieler, T. R., & Mukherjee, A. K. (1995). Superplasticity in powder metallurgy aluminum alloys and composites.
Acta metallurgica et materialia, 43(3), 877-891.
[35] Evans, A., San Marchi, C., & Mortensen, A. (2003). Metal Matrix Composites. In Metal Matrix Composites in Industry (pp. 9-
38). Springer US.
[36] Wong, K. V., & Hernandez, A. (2012). A review of additive manufacturing. ISRN Mechanical Engineering, 2012.
[37] Diehl, W., & Stöver, D. (1990). Injection moulding of superalloys and intermetallic phases. Metal Powder Report, 45(5), 333-
338.
[38] Gero, J. S., Maher, M. L., & Sudweeks, F. (Eds.). (1995). Computational models of creative design: third International Round-
Table Conference on Computational Models of Creative Design, Heron Island, Queensland, Australia, 3-7 December 1995. Key
Centre of Design Computing at the University of Sydney.
[39] Wong, K. V., & Hernandez, A. (2012). A review of additive manufacturing. ISRN Mechanical Engineering, 2012.
[40] Williams, J. M., Adewunmi, A., Schek, R. M., Flanagan, C. L., Krebsbach, P. H., Feinberg, S. E., ... & Das, S. (2005). Bone
tissue engineering using polycaprolactone scaffolds fabricated via selective laser sintering. Biomaterials, 26(23), 4817-4827.
[41] Kruth, J. P., Froyen, L., Van Vaerenbergh, J., Mercelis, P., Rombouts, M., & Lauwers, B. (2004). Selective laser melting of
iron-based powder. Journal of materials processing technology, 149(1-3), 616-622.
[42] Kietzmann, J., Pitt, L., & Berthon, P. (2015). Disruptions, decisions, and destinations: Enter the age of 3-D printing and
additive manufacturing. Business Horizons, 58(2), 209-215.
[43] Berman, B. (2012). 3-D printing: The new industrial revolution. Business horizons, 55(2), 155-162.
[44] Vrancken, B., Thijs, L., Kruth, J. P., & Van Humbeeck, J. (2014). Microstructure and mechanical properties of a novel β
titanium metallic composite by selective laser melting. Acta Materialia, 68, 150-158.
[45] Krakhmalev, P., & Yadroitsev, I. (2014). Microstructure and properties of intermetallic composite coatings fabricated by
selective laser melting of Ti–SiC powder mixtures. Intermetallics, 46, 147-155.
[46] Manfredi, D., Calignano, F., Krishnan, M., Canali, R., Ambrosio, E. P., Biamino, S., & Fino, P. (2014). Additive manufacturing
of Al alloys and aluminium matrix composites (AMCs). In Light metal alloys applications. InTech.
[47] Zhang, S., Cheng, X., Yao, Y., Wei, Y., Han, C., Shi, Y., & Zhang, Z. (2015). Porous niobium coatings fabricated with selective
laser melting on titanium substrates: Preparation, characterization, and cell behavior. Materials Science and Engineering: C, 53,
50-59.
[48] Davydova, A., Domashenkov, A., Sova, A., Movtchan, I., Bertrand, P., Desplanques, B., & Iacob, C. (2016). Selective laser
melting of boron carbide particles coated by a cobalt-based metal layer. Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 229,
361-366.
[49] Sing, S. L., Yeong, W. Y., & Wiria, F. E. (2016). Selective laser melting of titanium alloy with 50 wt% tantalum: Microstructure
and mechanical properties. Journal of Alloys and Compounds, 660, 461-470.