CULTURAL AND CREATIVE ARTS

CHAPTER 1

DEFINITION OF DRAMA

Drama is a piece of literature, one telling a story that is written to be performed by actors with
dialogue and actions. It is simply using dialogue and actions by actors to tell a story from a
literary piece.

A literary piece could be a play, prose writing, poems e.t.c written by a playwright, novelist or
poets. When these are put on a stage or an acting arena with the actions, movements and
dialogues it becomes drama.

DEFINITION OF THEATRE
It is important to note that theatre can be defined as a place and a performance. Theatre (as a
place) in its simplest term is defined as a place where dramatic plays are performed. Theatre (as
performance) is a form of performance art that uses live performers to present the experience of a
real or imagined event before a live audience in a specific place.
The performers communicate this experience to the audience through combinations of
movements, speech, and actions. Theatre performance could be in songs, music, drama and
dance.

THEATRE WORKERS

 Producer
 Director
 Playwright
 Scenic designer
 Lighting designer
 Costume designer
 Property master
  Production manager
 Choreographer
 Makeup designer
 Actors
 Audiences

DUTIES OF THE THEATRE WORKERS

PRODUCER:

- Coordinates and is responsible for all aspects of production, both technical and artistic

- Organizes and manages finances, workers, and production arrangement

- Ensures everyone has a clear understanding of their duties and able to do their jobs.

- Attends all production meetings, the first rehearsal, all of technical week, and opening night

- Works within a budget

DIRECTOR

- Reviews and provides feedback on the planned production schedule

- reviews and analyzes every aspect of the play: plot, character, mood, rhythm, style — both
literary and theatrical

- Brings together the many difficult pieces of a production – including script, actors, set,
costuming, lights, sound and music – into a complete piece.

- study the playwright’s work, the period, and the style

- Makes arrangements for the audition call

- Executes and interprets the artistic parts of the show

- Rehearses and prepares the actors

- Communicates the artistic vision to the designers and all other departments

- Attends all production meetings

- Works within a budget

Choreographer

The choreographer is responsible to the director for the creation of all dance movement for the
production.

- Works together with director

- Auditions the dancers and may make recommendations to the director for casting

- Schedules dance rehearsals with the director, the music director and the stage manager

- Teaches the cast members how to execute the choreography

- Leads choreography rehearsals

- Attends production meetings

- Attends rehearsals

Costume Designer

- Studies time period to ensure adequate period in costuming to the extent possible

- Works with director on establishing a costume design

- Takes measurements of all cast members

- Buys, rents or borrows costumes and accessories (shoes, hats, gloves, jewelry, purses, etc.),

- Adapts clothing to suit a character, and the actors’ activities (safety, comfort and movability)

- Sews costumes if necessary

- Attends production meetings

- Supplies rehearsal costumes

- Attends rehearsals as available

- Attends dress rehearsals

- Coordinates dressers for costume changes

- Arranges to repair and clean costumes during production runs

- Supervises returns of any borrowed costumes or accessories

- Works within a budget

Lighting Designer

- Works with director on establishing a lighting design

- Work with director, set and costume designers on a colour palette

- Creates a lighting plot, ground and elevation plan

- Creates cue sheets

- Attends production meetings

- Attends rehearsals as available

- Attends cue- to- cue rehearsal and makes and necessary changes

- Coordinates rental of additional lighting equipment

- Attends load- in, lighting hang, lighting focus, level set, dress rehearsals, etc.

- Works within a budget

MAKE-UP

- Studies scripts to discover the materials and the look required for each actors.

- Sketches design ideas for hairstyles and make-up;

- Maintains an up-to-date knowledge of available make-up and beauty products

-Sources, budgets and orders materials and equipment from specialist suppliers

- Applies make-up on actors, styles hair for actors

- Assists with keeping the make-up area and application tools clean and in good working order

- Assists with any make-up and or hair/wig changes during the show

PRODUCTION MANAGER

-Works closely with directors and other department heads to make important decisions regarding
casting, costuming, lighting, and other aspects of theater productions.

-Takes care of the actors. This involves setting up auditions and maintains actors welfare.
- Keeps accurate blocking notes regarding the position of the actors and props throughout every
scene during rehearsals.

- Creates rehearsal schedules for actors and crew

- Maintains all contact information, and set up any additional meetings for the cast and
production staff.

-Keeps the stage and backstage areas organized.

PROPERTY MANAGER

-Responsible for purchasing, acquiring and/or manufacturing any props needed for a production.

- Works with other members of the production managing the physical appearance of the stage or
set.

-Develops a props breakdown.

-Responsible for the set up and organization of the props.

- Organize a crew for the return of rented or borrowed equipment.

- Studies the script and generates a list of props for the production.

- Works with Stage Managers to assemble rehearsal props before &during rehearsals and
production.

-Assists in the planning and coordination of the production strike to remove the production
elements safely, storing them in an orderly fashion, or returning them to owners.

- Attends production meetings throughout the production process to keep the production team
advised of progress.
PLAYWRIGHT

The playwright is clearly an essential link in the production team. -The playwright creates and
develops the ideas that ultimately evolve into the written script.

-In the initial public performance of the play, he or she may be involved in the production
process.

-The playwright frequently helps the director by explaining his or her interpretation of various
plot and character developments. It is important to note that some playwrights may not be
available when their plays are to be staged. Also some directors may decide to do without the
playwright’s involvement, simply working with the script.

-During this developmental process, the playwright often needs to rewrite portions of some
scenes or even whole scenes and acts especially if the script has not been published.

AUDIENCE

The theatre depends more than most arts upon audience response. If the house is not full, not
only does the performance lose money but it also loses force. It is unusual—but not impossible—
for new ideas, even for new ways of expressing old ideas, to achieve wide commercial success.
With few exceptions, people apparently do not go to the theatre to receive new ideas; they want
the thrilling, amusing, or moving expression of old ones.

The role of the audience therefore includes;

-Engaging the audience in encouraging and motivating the actors on stage.

- Ensuring that theatre is profitable

-Helping the entire production team to assess the quality of the production

- Inspire actors, and create expectations.

ACTORS

- Attend auditions and casting calls in order to audition for roles.

-Attend all rehearsals called for by the director

-Collaborate with other actors as part of an ensemble.

- Learn about characters in scripts and their relationships to each other in order to develop role
interpretations.

-Perform humorous and serious interpretations of emotions, actions, and situations, using body
movements, facial expressions, and gestures.

- Portray and interpret roles, using speech, gestures, and body movements in order to entertain,
inform, or instruct radio, film, television, or live audiences.

CHAPTER ASSESSMENT

1. In your own understanding, define drama.

2. What is the difference between a literary piece and a dramatic piece?
3. Theatre can be defined in two forms, state the two forms and define them.
4. List 5 theatre workers and give their duties.
 CHAPTER 2

FUNCTIONS OF DRAMA

Drama is an art piece, and its purpose is to be interpreted. Drama exhibits a picture of human life
or depicts a series of important or entertaining action involving role play, illustration and action.
Drama is advance by speech. The importance of drama to the audience or the society at large is
numerous. In the Greek times of drama, drama was used to raise issues in the society. In modern
day society today drama as given us the opportunities of relating to different society problems, it
as also provided a platform to gather together in meaningful way, to discover the human
condition. In this chapter we shall also be observing the functions of theatre in the Nigerian
society.

Firstly, it is important to note that drama helps people to understand what they do, why they do
it, and to create in themselves the ability to accept personal and social responsibility for it. So let
us examine the functions of drama in Education, information, entertainment, Development, and
Therapeutic (restorative).

DRAMA IN EDUCATION: Education in a wider term is the process of helping people to find
essential meanings in life, it involves both teaching and learning. To this end, drama functions as
learning in the curriculum. Therefore, education and drama are similar in that they are closely
linked in the learning process and they deal with making audience find important meanings to
life. Moreover, drama is seen as the "play way" to education. Both imagination and play are
natural parts of effective education. Thus, drama is a vital part of education, people are educated
even in serious or funny dramatic performances.

Drama is the most significant model of learning and is a basic activity for learning. The
playwright has written his/her play to educate, but it comes more to live for the audiences and are
better educated. So, drama is one way of helping audience think about the individual or social
problems. People can learn to discover issues, events and connections, by means of drama.
Dramatic performance and artistic expressions are important life skills that extend far beyond the
limits of the theatre. As such, educators have long since recognized the crucial role of drama
even in the school curriculum.

FUNCTIONS OF DRAMA AS THERAPY

Drama is a way to participate in life scenarios by mimicking or imitating people’s behavior

through role play. Drama therapy has strong therapeutic potential by enabling audience to
recreate and transform their life experiences. Individuals can express and resolve their problems
as well as gain and maintain good mental health. Essential to this method is the ability to create,
play and heal. Because dramatic performance encourages creative resolution, drama therapy can
counterbalance with “sense and order” the “nonsense and disorder” of emotional distress and
illness felt by the spectators. Conflicts in life are "resolved" by acting out a different result to the
original conflict or situation.

Drama is an action mode is often used as therapy in which the actors use spontaneous
dramatization, role playing and dramatic self-presentation to investigate and gain insight into the
lives of the audience. By closely recreating real-life situations, and acting them out in the
present, audiences have the opportunity to evaluate their behavior and more deeply understand a
particular situation in their lives.

Forms of drama as therapy

1. Role-playing: Explores life experience through the creation of an imaginary environment

2. Using objects and materials: Handles and resolves problematic feelings, relationships or
experiences

3. Wearing masks and costumes: Depicts the self and self-image

4. Using play, storytelling and fable: Searches for problems within events or issues

5. Creating “ritual”: Acknowledges change or milestones in life

6. Acting in progressive stages: Develops new ways to connect to the self or others
Drama as a means of development
Theatrical performances can be used as development tool. Drama as a tool for development
serves as a way of empowering communities, listening to their concerns, and then encouraging
them to voice and solve their own problems. No doubt, this has been one of the important
objectives of drama, to spread messages, or to conscientize communities about their objective
social political situation. It aims to make the people not only aware of but also active participants
in the development process by expressing their viewpoints and acting to better their conditions.

Theatre for Development can be a kind of participatory theatre, that encourages improvisation
and audience members to take roles in the performance, or can be fully scripted and staged, with
the audience observing.

Hundreds, if not thousands, of organizations and initiatives have used theatre as a development
tool: for education or propaganda, as therapy, as a participatory tool, or as an exploratory tool in
development.

Chapter Assessment

1. List the functions of drama

2. Use an example of a drama you have read or seen to portray the functions you have
listed.
 Chapter 3

ELEMENTS OF DRAMA

Theatrical art demands the teamwork of the actors with one another, with a director, with the
various technical theatre workers upon whom they depend for costumes, setting, and lighting,
etc. Teamwork among so many types of personnel presupposes a system that divides duties.
Highlighted below are the main elements of drama, all that makes a final product of a dramatic
piece.

Script:

This is the starting point of the dramatic performance. The element most often considered as the
domain of the playwright in theatre. The playwright’s script is the text by which theatre is
created. The script, scenario, or plan is what the director uses as a blue print to build a
production from.

Improvisation:

Improvisation in drama is an element in drama where most or all of what is performed is created
at the moment it is performed. In its purest form, the dialogue, the action, the story and the
characters are created collaboratively by the players as the improvisation unfolds in present time,
without use of an already prepared, written script.

Plot:

The events of a play; the story as opposed to the theme; what happens rather than what it means.
The plot must have some sort of unity and clarity by setting up a pattern by which each action
initiating the next rather than standing alone without connection to what came before it or what
follows. In the plot of a play, characters are involved in conflict that has a pattern of movement.
The action and movement in the play begins from the initial entanglement, through rising action,
climax, and falling action to resolution.
Thought/Theme/Ideas

What the play means as opposed to what happens (the plot). Sometimes the theme is clearly
stated in the title. It may be stated through dialogue by a character acting as the playwright’s
voice. Or it may be the theme is less obvious and emerges only after some study or thought. The
abstract issues and feelings that grow out of the dramatic action.

Diction

The word choices made by the playwright and the accent of the actors of the language.
Language and dialog delivered by the characters moves the plot and action along, provides
clarification, and defines the distinct characters. Each playwright can create their own specific
style in relationship to language choices they use in establishing character and dialogue.

Characters

These are the people presented in the play that are involved in the revealing plot. Every
characters have their own distinct personality, age, appearance, beliefs, socio economic
background, and language.

Stage setting

The arrangement of scenery (surrounding) and properties to represent the place where a play or movie is
enacted. Stage setting include:

flat - scenery consisting of a wooden frame covered with painted canvas; part of a stage setting

prop, property - any movable articles or objects used on the set of a play; "before every scene he ran
down his checklist of props"

stage - a large platform on which people can stand and can be seen by an audience; "he clambered up
onto the stage and got the actors to help him into the box"

stage set, set - representation consisting of the scenery and other properties used to identify the location
of a dramatic production; "the sets were meticulously authentic"
Sound (Songs, Music, sound effects)

Music can encompass the rhythm of dialogue and speeches in a play or can also mean the aspects
of the melody and music compositions as with musical theatre. Each theatrical presentation
delivers music, rhythm and melody in its own unique manner. Music is not a part of every
play. But, music can be included to mean all sounds in a production. Music can expand to all
sound effects, the actor’s voices, songs, and instrumental music played as underscore in a play.
Music creates patterns and establishes pace in theatre. In the aspects of the musical the songs are
used to push the plot forward and move the story to a higher level of intensity. Composers and
lyricist work together with playwrights to strengthen the themes and ideas of the play.
Character’s wants and desires can be strengthened for the audience through lyrics and music.

Any artificial reproduction of sounds intended to accompany action and supply something real in
the theatre. Sound effects have traditionally been of great importance in the theatre. An offstage
battle, for instance, can be simulated by such sounds as trumpet blasts, shouts, shots, clashing
weapons, and horses’ hooves. Certain dangerous effects, such as explosions, crashes, and the
smashing of wood or glass, must also take place offstage. Sound effects must often be
coordinated with actions on stage; when the hero pretends to punch the villain on the jaw, a
sound technician backstage must provide a realistic “smack!”

Lights

Stage lighting is a unique drama element because so much can be done with lights to change the
mood of a set or even the look of people on a stage. In addition, combining different colors and
lighting effects can help bring more emotion from the audience. The elements involved in
creating those effects require learning and perceptive ability in line with the script.

Spectacle

The spectacle in the theatre can involve all of the aspects of scenery, costumes, and special
effects in a production. The visual elements of the play created for theatrical event. The
qualities determined by the playwright that create the world and atmosphere of the play for the
audience’s eye.

DRAMATIC ELEMENTS IN WOLE SOYINKA’S “The Trials of Brother Jero’

The Trials of Brother Jero is a play by Nigerian writer Wole Soyinka. It was first produced in the
dining hall at Mellanby Hall, University College, Ibadan, Nigeria, in April 1960. Notable
productions were staged at the Hampstead Theatre Club in London during June 1966, and at the
Mews Theatre, New York City, beginning at the end of October 1967. The play was first
published in Nigeria in 1963 and by Oxford University Press in 1964. It is available from the
same publisher as one of five plays in Soyinka's Collected Plays 2.

The Trials of Brother Jero is a light satiric comedy that takes aim at religious hypocrisy in the
form of a charlatan, or fraud, named Brother Jero, who preaches to his followers on Bar Beach in
Lagos, Nigeria. Jero is a master of manipulation and keeps his followers in a subservient position
because he understands what they long for—money, social status, and power—and convinces
them that they will soon be able to fulfill these materialistic desires. For their part, they are
gullible enough to believe him. The vitality of the rogue Jero makes him a popular figure with
audiences, and this rambunctious, humorous play is one of the best-known and most frequently
performed of Soyinka's early works.

Plot: The activities of the play take place in a day. The actions from scene to scene is sequential.

Stage setting: The play is set in two locations, the beach in Lagos and brother’s Jero’s house
exterior.

Sound: Obviously the use of the beach would have sound effects such as the sea tides, the
breeze. Music is also a very important element as the play is a religious thematic play which
informs the use of songs and music.

Characters: Characters in the play are well selected by the playwright to depict certain varying
qualities relevant to the theme of the play.
Lights : The use of light shows the scenic environment as they portray the sub-themes.

Diction/ Language: The diction of the play is that of an articulate brother jero with a crisp
diction. Also there are some religious ‘jargons’ used by actors that typifies the message of the
play.

Chapter Assessment

1. List three elements of drama and explain to the best of your understanding
2. From any play you have read r seen, list out the dramatic elements in one.
3. Create any two elements of drama.

CHAPTER 4

FORMS OF DRAMA

The two major forms of drama are comedy and tragedy, as represented by the Greek masks. One
mask is laughing and the other mask is crying. This is commonly said to be the symbol of drama.

TRAGEDY
Tragedy is a form of drama that treats in a serious and dignified style the sorrowful or terrible
events encountered or caused by a heroic individual. In this kind of drama or literary work, the
main character is brought to ruin or suffers extreme sorrow, especially as a consequence of a
tragic flaw, moral weakness, or inability to cope with unfavorable circumstances.

Tragedy can also can also be defined as a narrative work that portrays or depicts calamitous
events and has an unhappy but meaningful ending. A disastrous event, especially one involving
distressing loss or injury to life: an expedition that ended in tragedy, with all hands lost at sea.

COMEDY

Comedy is a form of drama that is light and often humorous or satirical in tone and that usually
contains a happy resolution of the thematic conflict. A popular entertainment composed of jokes,
satire, or humorous performance.

A comedy drama is intended to cause laughter or the emotions associated with laughter. Usually
a comedy is a stage-play with a happy ending. Most comedy contains variations on the elements
of surprise, strangeness, conflict, repetitiveness, and the effect of opposite expectations.

EXAMPLES OF COMEDY AND TRAGEDY

Our Husband Has Gone Mad Again by Ola Rotimi,

Our Husband Has Gone Mad Again is a hilarious comic play by Ola Rotimi. It tells the story of
Lejoka-Brown, a soldier and a man of many wives. One of the wives he married himself while
fighting in the Congo, the other (Mama Rashida) was the wife of his elder brother who was
married to him by default after the death of his brother. The third wife, Sikira, was married to
help Lejoka-Brown, who was contesting for a political position, obtain the votes of the market
women since her mother was the president of the National Union of Nigerian Market Women
and standing for a political position wanted the post.
The comedy starts when Lizzy, the one only wife who thought she alone owns Lejoka-Brown,
decides to come home to her husband after completing her medical studies in the United States.
Lejoka-Brown didn't want her in his fathers' house and so decided to pick her up from the
airport. However, the plane landed earlier than scheduled. And Lizzy, having known of Lejoka-
Brown's fathers' name, proceeded to find it and make herself at home.

What follows is a series of comic incidences that need to be read and appreciated. For instance,
Lizzy, having stayed in America, came to the traditional marriage with 'White' culture in terms of
dressing and her relationship with her husband. She was bold to say whatever she wanted,
whereas the others were not. She played with her husband whilst the others could not. It was one
of these love-plays, chasing one another, that the third wife (Sikira) ran away to her mother's
house shouting 'Our husband has gone mad again' - she left the marriage for good.

MACBETH By William Shakespeare,

Macbeth is a tragedy written by William Shakespeare, and is considered one of his darkest and
most powerful works. Set in Scotland, the play dramatizes the corrosive psychological and
political effects produced when evil is chosen as a way to fulfil the ambition for power.

The play is believed to have been written between 1599 and 1606, and is most commonly dated
Macbeth is Shakespeare's shortest tragedy, and tells the story of a brave Scottish general named
Macbeth who receives a prophecy from a trio of witches that one day he will become King of
Scotland. Consumed by ambition and spurred to action by his wife, Macbeth murders King
Duncan and takes the throne for himself. He is then wracked with guilt and paranoia, and he
soon becomes a tyrannical ruler as he is forced to commit more and more murders to protect
himself from enmity and suspicion. The bloodbath and consequent civil war swiftly take
Macbeth and Lady Macbeth into the realms of arrogance, madness, and death.

Shakespeare's source for the tragedy is the account of Macbeth, King of Scotland, Macduff, and
Duncan in Holinshed's Chronicles (1587), a history of England, Scotland, and Ireland familiar to
Shakespeare and his contemporaries, although the events in the play differ extensively from the
history of the real Macbeth. In recent scholarship, the events of the tragedy are usually associated
more closely with the execution of Henry Garnett for complicity in the Gunpowder Plot of 1605.
CHAPTER ASSESSMENT

1. List and explain the two major forms of drama

2. List two plays you have read that are examples of the two forms of drama.

CHAPTER 5

ORIGIN OF DRAMA

Theatre is the most human of the arts because its subject matter is life itself. Its medium is live
human actors, which keeps it human (though some directors have wanted actors to be more like
robots!). Theatre is also ephemeral, i.e. of the moment, lasting only a very short time, just like
much of our lives consist of temporary things.

Aristotle suggested that mimesis (imitation) is innate in humans, storytelling and rituals.

Storytelling: Pleasurable and natural, a narrator elaborates by impersonating. This form of

communication uses a narrative mode and sometimes uses a dramatic mode. The famous
philosopher Aristotle (4th Century BC) noted that humans naturally like to imitate others, both
through storytelling and through action. The term he used was mimesis, which indicates
impersonation and/or enactment.

Dance is another means of communication that many feel may have contributed to the origins of
theatre. Mimesis can apply here, too, especially as it is in human nature to imitate, but not
exactly. We like to change things so that our perspective of events can be understood more
clearly.
Ritual Theory: This is the most pervasive and accepted of theories, but much questioned.
Ritual and sympathetic magic is another means of communication that often involves
storytelling, dance or both. Aristotle suggested that formal theatre originated with mimesis and
these artistic things and combined with profound and mythical thought to form ritual. Ritual,
which is always performative, transforms much of its spiritual essence to artistic essence.
Though he presents only vague evidence in his philosophical treatises, Aristotle’s theories on the
origin of theatre have been pretty much believed since the discovery of his document The Poetics
in the late 14th Century.

DRAMATIC ELEMENTS OF FESTIVALS, STORYTELLING, DIALOGUE, ACTION

AND AUDIENCE

Traditional African Festivals: The Yoruba theatre origins are traced back to the masquerade of
the Egungun (the "cult of the ancestor"). The traditional ceremony ends in the essence of the
masquerade where it is deemed that ancestors return to the world of the living to visit their
descendants.

Storytelling: The stories we tell imitate who we are as humans and they make us aware of our
connection to humanity. They are the sign of our experiences. We use stories to teach each other
lessons about life, so when we tell stories, we attempt to make a point about something. As an
author it will be up to you to determine what you're trying to convey to your audience and from
what perspective you'll be telling your story.

Audience: The audience is considered in planning stories. It is important to tell your story to
them with the hope your audience will understand what you have to share.

CHAPTER ASSESSMENT

1. Give three sources where drama originated from

2. Write an essay about a festival you have seen highlighting the drama in the festival
3. Make a story on your own from a television drama you have watched.
 CHAPTER 6

PLAYWRIGHTING

Playwriting is simply the art, practice or technique of writing, plays; the work or profession of a
playwright.

CATEGORIES OF PLAYWRIGHTS

Classical Dramatists

Representing the birth of world drama, the Classical Dramatists series gathers the plays that
breathed life into the early Greek theatre and which remain as established classics of the
repertoire to this day. The translations offered have become classics in their own right and are
those recommended for students of classical drama as well as for the stage. Each collection
comes complete with an introductory essay exploring the life of the writer and the dramaturgical
and historical contexts, and offering a commentary upon the plays contained in the volume.

MODERN DRAMATISTS

Theatre has never been afraid to adapt, rewrite and contemporize Shakespeare's drama since
theatre by definition is a living medium involving a corporate creativity. Recent dramatists
following this age-old tradition have rewritten some of Shakespeare's plays for the contemporary
stage or modelled their drama on formulations used by him. Bernard Shaw is one of the notable
modern dramatists.

Contemporary Dramatists

The Contemporary Dramatists celebrate the work of individual writers, bringing together into
single volumes a number of plays from their composition. Each volume includes a chronology of
the writer's work and an introduction to the plays featured. The series is truly international with
collections from leading French, German, Italian and American writers, as well as the best of
British playwrights. Taken as a whole, it represents an index of great contemporary playwriting.

The Duties of Playwright:

Playwrights create scripts. Playwrights tell stories through the words and actions of characters.
While the work of the playwright can stand on its own as literature, its potential is fully realized
only when the skills of all the other theatre artists combine to transform the script into a
production of a play. This means that the playwright is very important to every theatrical
production. Apart from plays produced from improvisation, every play has a script.

The clear-cut duties of a playwright include the following;

• Conceives the idea of his/her play through a vivid imagination. By doing this he must
make sure he has a gripping story to tell

• In building characters through dialogue, a playwright must have good ears for capturing
the way people think, speak and act. This is with a working knowledge of the elements of
dramatic structure. Also an understanding of theatre’s non-verbal means of expression—sound,
movement, setting, costume, lighting, music, pacing and stage picture.

• One of the first elements a playwright encounters in a script is the cast of characters. It is
important to remember that the characters are acting out the playwright's themes, and in some
cases the characters themselves are representing certain themes. Therefore, they are always a
good place to focus when beginning an analysis. Sometimes there's simply a list of character
names with a brief description of each. This can help you determine the relationships among
characters as you begin reading.

• Each character will further be developed through the use of dialogue, or what the
characters say, throughout the play. Not only will the playwright give you their speaking lines,
she will often give you stage directions, the information in the script that is only meant for the
director, actors, or stage crew, that indicate tone of voice and mannerisms. What the character
says and how he says it will give you insight to the character's importance to the plot.

CHAPTERASSESSMENT

1. What is playwriting?

2. Who is a playwright?

3. List the three categories of playwrights

4. Mention three modern playwrights

5. What are the things a playwright considers while writing.

CHAPTER 7

THE DIRECTOR

A theatre/drama director or stage director is a director/instructor in the theatre field who oversees
the mounting of a theatre production by unifying various activities and aspects of production.
The director's function is to ensure the quality and completeness of theatre production and to lead
the members of the creative team into realising their artistic vision for it.

The Duties of A Director

1. The director therefore collaborates with a team of creative individuals and other staff,
coordinating research, stagecraft, costume design, props, lighting design, acting, set design, stage
combat, and sound design for the production.

2. A theatre director has responsibility for the overall practical and creative interpretation of
a dramatic script or musical score, taking into account the budgetary and physical constraints of
production. They are involved at all stages of the process, from the design and pre-production
stages and rehearsal right through to the final performance.

3. Directors work closely with their creative and production teams, the performers and the
producer to create a performance which connects with the audience. They therefore need to be
able to coordinate effectively across a wide range of disciplines and with artistic vision.

4. Staging the play: The director is responsible for the production seen on stage.

Where should actors / characters go so that the focus in the right place?

Focus – arrangement of stage picture so as to direct audience’s attention to the appropriate

character, object, or event. (H, P, &L: 244).

Blocking – where actors go on stage.

Remember stage positions and body positions.

Called "blocking" because early directors conveyed staging instructions by drawing a grid on
stage floor and labeling each stage position, or "block.

" Stage business: -- detailed handling of props, specific actions such as answering telephones or
turning on a lamp.

Visual composition and picturization.

Physical movement of characters onstage.

Movement, pace, rhythm.

• By body position – the actor who is most "full front" will have the focus.

• By stage area – central areas have most focus.

• By level – actor on highest level.

• By plane – farthest downstage.

• By triangulation – actor at apex of a triangle.

• By contrast – actor who is apart from group (sitting, while rest of cast is standing).

• By movement – moving actor will have more focus.

5. Scheduling

Casting – casting is half the work.

Rehearsals

1. Read-through

Read through play, actors and director discuss character and vision of the play, discuss play,
show designs.

2. General rehearsals

rehearse in parts

scenes with particular characters

"French scene" -- entrance or exit of a character Scenes -- between "curtains" or blackouts

(Remember: many contemporary stages do not have or do not use curtains).

3. Run-throughs -- of acts or the whole play -- sections.

4. Technical rehearsals.- rehearsing with all technical crew available and all the technical
requirements involved in the play

5. Dress rehearsals -- like an actual performance, sometimes for an "audience" (of selected
invited people).
6. Previews (also called tryouts)-- usually primarily for the professional theatre -- so the director
and actors can work out some of the rough spots before opening it officially

7. Production Opening- in most professional theatre, the director's job is then over. Usually goes
on to another job, and the Stage Manager takes over any directing responsibilities, such as "brush
up rehearsals."

Some theatre companies employ a full-time director as an associate. The director then works
closely with the artistic director, assisting with the programming for the season and directing
some productions.

Typical tasks include:

• Programming and budgeting;

• Working with writers through workshops or script development schemes;

• adapting a script and, if the play is newly written, working with the writer or
collaborating with playwrights;

• Breaking down a script, analysing and exploring the content and conducting relevant
research;

• Translating and interpreting a script or musical score;

• Holding auditions for productions, selecting and hiring designers, musicians, etc.;

• Managing time and organizing people and space;

• Attending production meetings with set designers;

• Organizing rehearsals;

• Communicating and liaising with all parties involved, including actors, the creative team,
the production team and producers;
• Attending preview performances and preparing detailed notes for the cast and creative
and production teams;

• Helping to publicize the production by giving interviews and leading discussions.

CHAPTER 7

1. Who is a director?

2. List 5fuctions of the director

3. List four duties of the director

CHAPTER 8

COSTUMES AND MAKE-UP IN DRAMA

DEFINITION OF COSTUMES

Costumes refer to various attires and dresses especially made for the use of actors in the
theatrical productions. Costumes are clothes worn by actors and actresses, which assist them to
assume different forms of characters aside their true self. One may view costume as clothes,
which we wear, but they are very essential in drama. It is possible for the theatre to do without a
stage but acting must mean assuming a character which means dressing up and assuming a role
by what the actor wears as costumes. This proves the indispensability of costume in any theatre
presentation. It is meant to serve as a blending factor to the actor’s role in interpretation of the
character he is portraying both on stage and in film.

In the theatre, clothes send us signals similar to those in everyday life. However, as with other
elements in theatre, there are significant differences between costumes of everyday life and those
in theatre. Stage costumes communicate the same information as ordinary clothes with regard to
sex, positions and occupations. This information, on the other hand, is magnified because every
element in theater is in the spotlight. Also, on the stage, costumes must meet other requirements
not normally expected in everyday life.

Stage costumes should meet the following requirements:

1. Help establish the tone and style of a production.

2. Indicate the historical period of a play and the locale in which it occurs.

3. Indicate the nature of individual characters or groups in a play, their stations in life, their
occupations and their personalities.

4. Show the relationships among characters; separating major characters from minor ones,
contrasting one group with another.

5. Where appropriate, symbolically convey the significance of individual characters of the

theme of the play.

6. Meet the needs of individual performers, making it possible for an actor or actress to move
freely in a costume, to change quickly from one costume to another.

7. Be consistent with the production as a whole, especially other visual elements.

Make-up on its own is applied on the actor’s body as an enhancement or aid to characterization.
Traditionally, it is very essential in theatre and possesses the ability of transforming a character.
Among the theatrical elements, costume and make-up have always assumed a major stand in
every successful production.

The relevance of costume and make-up in productions cannot be over emphasized because
costume and make-up aid understanding and interpretation of art works. This is achieved by
embarking on a thorough research of the script from the view of costume and make-up. Whereas
the actor seeks to embody his understanding of character through movements and voice, the
costumer uses the elements of costume design such as texture, color, line and so on to create a
visual counterpart of the action.

Types of Make-up

Straight Make-Up: This is usually a basic make-up for actors for roles that barely need any
form of make-up. There are character roles that are straightforward, for instance an actor playing
a role of his age, sex, or status may not need any special make-up.

Character Make-up: This is a more detailed form of make-up that requires the actor looking
like the role he/she is playing especially when the actor does not look like the character role
he/she is playing. This kind of make-up tells what and who the actor is or playing just from mere
glance at him/her. Use of makeup is often essential because the age of a character differs from
that of the performer. Suppose that 20 years old performer is playing the part of a 60-year-old
character.

USES OF MAKE-UP

Alter appearance: A key function of makeup is to help the performer personify and represent
the character he or she is playing.

Enhance appearance: Through the use of makeup, the appropriate age can be suggested. The
features of the face may be heightened or exaggerated, or symbolic aspects of the human face
may be emphasized. In either case, makeup serves as an additional tool for the performer in
creating an image of the character. make-up conveys the relevance of individual characters
where necessary.

Tells the period of a play: Make-up must also indicates the historical period of the production
and the locale in which it occurs and so on.

Make-Up Items

The following are some of the items you would find in a make-up kit.

- Powder
- Lipstick
- Wig
- Eye pencil
- Face wipes
- Native Chalk
- Camwood

CHAPTER ASSESSMENT

1. Define costumes and state the importance of costumes in drama

2. Define Make-up and state the importance of make-up
3. Mention the two types of make-up and give examples where and when they can be used.
4. List 5 make-up items
CHAPTER 9

DEFINITION OF DANCE

Dance is a type of art that generally involves movement of the body, often rhythmic and to
music. It is performed in many cultures as a form of emotional expression, social interaction, or
exercise, in a spiritual or performance setting, and is sometimes used to express ideas or tell a
story or pass across a message. Dance may also be regarded as a form of nonverbal
communication between humans or other animals.

Dance can be participatory, social, or performed for an audience. It can also be ceremonial or
competitive. Dance movements may be without significance in themselves, as in ballet or
European folk dance, or have a gestural vocabulary or symbolic meaning as in some Asian
dances.

USES OF DANCE

Dance as a source of entertainment: It is not possible to say when dance became part of human
culture, but archeological evidence indicates dance has been an important part of ceremony,
rituals, celebrations and entertainment since the earliest human civilizations. Examples of such
evidence include 9,000 year old paintings in India at the Rock Shelters of Bhimbetka, and
Egyptian tomb paintings depicting dancing figures, dated c. 3300 BC.

Dance as a source of passing information: One of the earliest structured uses of dances may
have been the telling of myths. Before the invention of written languages, dance was one of the
methods of passing stories down from generation to generation. Dance was also used to show
feelings for one of the opposite gender. Another early use of dance may have been as a precursor
to ecstatic trance states in healing rituals.
HOW TO DANCE

Dancing is one of those certain facts of life. It comes up over and over again in social situations.
While dancing is inborn for many, it doesn't come easily to everyone. You might was well learn
to do it. It's not as hard to pick up the basics as you may think. Taking dancing to a perfected
form requires instruction, repeated practice and devotion to your dance art. You can learn to
dance alone with the aid of videos, books and instructions or you can learn to dance with live
instructors and classes. Whatever your choice for learning, there are things you can do to make
learning to dance well a lot easier for yourself, and some of them are set out here. Below are
some basics you just may need to start the learning process of dancing especially if it is not
inborn for you.

 Listen to music. When you listen to music, you'll often find catchy beats and rhythms,
not to mention the urge to hum or sing along. That can help you dance, so listen to music
as much as you can, even if it's just a little every day. Pick a song you really like and
listen to it once and again.
 Learn to understand music beats: Start by understanding the beat in your head to get
how the music is. If it helps, count 1, 2, 3, 4 in your head.
 Move your body to the rhythm of the beat: Don't be afraid if you don't know what to
do, just dance! Move your arms, legs, jump, anything, just start moving around, starting
to find a dance routine.
 Move your arms: You may want to start out by moving just your arms, then making leg
movements (or vice versa), then combining them. It's easier to focus on one part. Really
listen to the beat to be on time with the moves.
 Move your feet. Once you're shifting your weight to the rhythm, begin moving your feet.
Right before you shift your weight to a foot, move it slightly, even just an inch or two
from where it was before. When you move your foot, keep it fairly close to the ground.

 Add some hip action. When you put your weight on a foot, move your hips (and your
body) slightly in the direction of that foot. If you shift your weight onto your right foot,
 for example, move your hips to the right. You can twist your body slightly to add a little
more movement. For example, when you move to the right, put your right shoulder
forward a little and left shoulder back vice versa for when you move to the left.
 Find a style of dance you like. There are many styles out there, so there has to be at least
one that you're bound to like. A few styles to try out are tap dancing, ballet, and hip hop.
Focusing on two or three styles you're really into will help a lot. You'll commit better to
fewer styles rather than trying to learn to dance 15 different routines or styles, so choose
what you like most. It may take months to find a style you are really into, so do not hurry.
 Watch dancing performances. If you watch someone dance, you'll get a better feel for
dancing, and you'll see some great moves and ideas from the pros. Watch a play or movie
that has dancing, musicals are great. You may get some great inspiration, and watching
performances could help you a lot. Really pay attention to the other dancers to see what
they are doing. Are they focused? How is their technique? Do their emotions compliment
the music? Ask yourself questions about it, then dance more for yourself, taking what
you've learned from the performance. But, try seeing different styles of dance to have a
wider variety of options.
 Purchase an instructional dance DVD. If you are one of those people that is a do-er and
need to see in order to do the moves, try buying a how-to dance DVD. You could buy
some at the store, on the phone, or online. See the level, if any (Beginner, Advanced) to
get an idea of what you will learn. Then pop in the DVD and learn! It's as simple as that.

 Keep in mind what you know about your own abilities and limitations. If you have
good posture, can stretch your legs and point your toes, try classical ballet, not hip hop.
When you research the dance, make sure you know the body placements and see which
ones you think you can do well (but always bear in mind that you are learning and may
need to challenge yourself).
 Dance at your own pace. When you see professional dancers, or cool moves online, you
will most likely want to be able to dance like them, but such perfection can't be achieved
right away. If you try to dance at a level that is too fast for you, you won't be able to have
fun learning and performing the moves and it'll likely put you off continuing. That said, if
you feel that you know how to dance in a way that's more advanced than what you're
 already dancing, find some harder moves, or try moving to a higher dance class, if you go
to one. Challenging yourself within your abilities is a good way to learn and improve.
 Be confident. Smile when you dance and be ready to show your talent. Don't be jealous
of other's dancing abilities, just be proud of what you can do, as well as being open to
learning from others. When you dance, express your creativity and dance with pride.
Don't care what others think about your dancing. If you think you dance great, then you
do.

 Be persistent and patient. Dancing comes more easily to some than it does to others, but
talent doesn't simply appear overnight. You will need to keep practicing, continue
learning and going over your errors in order to remedy them. With the attitude that you're
just going to keep on improving and lots of practice, you will get better. Some day, you'll
probably be inspiring others to do as well as you are.

 The best way to learn is to just practice: If you get into the habit of dancing around at
home in the spare moments you're listening to music it won't be long before you start to
get the hang of things. After that the more time you put in, the more you'll refine your
style. Get in front of a mirror, put some good music on, and start dancing to it in the basic
way I mentioned above. Remember, if your instinct is to jump around a lot or be a bit
acrobatic, consciously tone yourself down. Try to get comfortable with the typical, boring
way of dancing first. A lot of the time on actual dance floors you won't even have that
much room anyways, so if you only practice moves that requires a lot of space you'll be
put in an awkward spot when you end up somewhere more crowded.

CHAPTER ASSESSMENT:

1. Define dance in simple terms in your own understanding

2. State for uses of dance

3. Create and practice a dance movement to your favorite song and display before your
mates

CHAPTER 10

INTRODUCTION TO CHOREOGRAPHY

Choreography is the art of designing sequences of movements in which motion, form, or both
are specified.

Dance choreography is also known as dance composition. It is important to note that

choreography is used in a variety of fields other than dance, including cheerleading,
cinematography, gymnastics, fashion shows, ice skating, marching band, show choir, theatre,
synchronized swimming and video game production.

PRINCIPLES OF CHOREOGRAPHY

The Five principles of choreography

All choreography (regardless of genre) is based on the following five principles.
 Dynamics
  Space
 Relationships
 Actions
 Body Parts

Each part of choreography is like a jigsaw piece which join together to create an effective dance. Use this
puzzle to help you analyze professional choreography as well as to create choreography of your own.
Actions

Which actions are used?

Jump Fall
Balance Travel
Turn Gesture
Stillness Contact
Arabesque Attitude
Plié Pirouette
Space Port de bras Lift Dynamics
Where in space? Promenade Catch
Counterbalance Adage How it moves?
3 levels Pathways Counter tension Jeté
Person General Time - Fast/Slow
Upstage Downstage Weight - Strong/Gentle
Stage right Stage left Space - Direct/Indirect
Centre stage Flow - Bound/free
Tempo – rhythm

Words which describe the

qualities of the actions.

Relationship

What are the relationships?

Near or far from other dancers

Near of far from audience
Solo Duet Body Part/Body Shape
Which body part is used?
Trio Group
Narrative Thematic
Abstract Head Neck Face
Canon/Unison Eyes Back Chest
With/without/on/in beside a set Stomach Arms
With/without music Hands Feet Legs
Type of music Fingers Toes Hips
In time or dancing through the Curved Free Straight
music Angled Wide Tall
Costume, lighting, props Twisted
Reversed
Repeated
Reduced
Reordered
Binary Ternary Rondo
MAKING CHOREOGRAPHY MORE INTERESTING

1. Strong Beginning/Ending
 Picture formation
 Musically, end your dance at the end of verse
 Always hold the final pose for a few counts before exiting the stage.

2. Formations
 Visually appealing
 Symmetrical/unsymmetrical
 Heights
 Spacing (windows/lines)
 Variety and change often.

3. Line placement
 More skilled dancers to the front
 Best showmanship qualities near the center

4. Choreography
 Stylistically correct for the music
 Clean (technique – toes, arms, legs, extensions)
 Uniformity (together)
 Ripples, peels (canons – follow the leader)
 Levels
 Creative/unique
 Layering – not everyone doing the same thing at the same time
 NO DERRIERES TO THE AUDIENCE!
 5. Showmanship
 Appropriate for the style of the dance
 Expressions (change frequently)
 Don’t call attention to a mistake
 Confidence is the key!

A Choreographer

The craft of choreography itself involves devising sequences of movement and structuring this
movement to create a dance work. Some choreographers will work closely with their dancers in
devising movement material, drawing on the dancers individual styles and creativity, whilst
others may invent movements that are then taught to the dancers. Choreographers will often be
involved in the selection of dancers, choosing those that will fit in with the choreographic ideas
in terms of movement ability and performance style. A choreographer will usually have a clear
idea of the type of work they wish to create and can select dancers to suit this.

Some choreographers are resident within a particular company and work very closely with the
artistic director in creating work to fit in with a particular programme for a theatrical production.
Most choreographers will have been dancer previously. Choreographers often become known for
their individual style, which they develop over time and may begin developing as they are
training. Their style may be reflected in the movement vocabulary, the music, the relationship
between the movement and the music and other factors such as lighting, costume and stage
design.

It is notable that choreography is not limited to dance companies and that many choreographers
will work in other fields such as popular music videos and concerts, films, musical theatre
productions and fashion shows. In small dance companies, which may not have an artistic
director the choreographer will work to develop the overall style of the company through their
own vision.
Once a choreographer has their idea for a new dance work there is often a certain amount of
research involved before beginning to work with the dancers. This may involve historical
research, musical research and movement research. The background research carried out will
inform their idea giving them direction and a clear approach when they do get into the studio
with their dancers. They may have the chance to carry out their movement research with their
dancers who, as a result, will gain a deeper understanding of the thoughts behind the work from
the beginning of the overall process.

The competition for originality is ever increasing in the dance world and choreographers strive to
come up with an original idea and create it in a new and exciting way to attract audiences.
Creativity is essential in choreography and it is a choreographer’s inspiration that will feed their
creativity to produce new work and contribute to the continuing evolution of dance.

CHAPTER ASSESSMENT

1. What is choreography?
2. What do you understand by the principles of choreography
3. Who is a choreographer
CHAPTER 11

CONTEMPORARY DANCE

Contemporary dance is a popular form of dance which developed during the middle portion of
the twentieth century and has since grown to become one of the dominating performance genres
for formally trained dancers throughout the world. Contemporary dance is a form of dance that is
a clear departure from the traditional dances like the ballet dance but still draws some inspiration
from them. Although originally informed by and borrowing from classical, modern, and jazz
styles, it has since come to incorporate elements from many styles of dance, but due to its
popularity amongst trained dancers and some overlap in movement type, it is often perceived as
being closely related to modern dance, ballet and other classical concert dance styles.

In terms of the focus of its technique, contemporary dance tends to utilize both the strong and
controlled legwork of ballet and modern dance's stress on the upper body, and also employs
contact-release, floor work, fall and recovery, and improvisation characteristic of modern dance.
Unpredictable changes in rhythm, speed, and direction are often used, as well.

FEATURES OF CONTEMPORARY DANCE

INDIVIDUAL STYLE: In contemporary dance, the dancers are usually allowed to bring in
their individual style, some call it ‘flair.’ This however will be blended to suit the ideas and plan
of movement of the choreographer.

CREATIVITY& DYNAMICS: Choreography that appears disordered, but nevertheless relies on

technique. In contemporary dance there is creative freedom in the movements. Multiple and
simultaneous actions

FLEXIBILITY IN MOVEMENT:

 Contemporary dance does refuse the classical ballet's leg technique in favor of modern
dance's stress on the torso
 Contemporary dance is not necessarily narrative form of art
 Unpredictable changes in rhythm, speed, and direction