<~ MODULE 1 ~>

ATOM: (10^-8 cm)

- Greek "Atomos"
- smallest particle consists of positively charged nucleus surrounded by negatively
charged electrons.
- electrically neutral.
- NATURAL STATE: equal number of electrons and protons.

~ NUCLEUS: (10^-12 cm)

- consists of subatomic particles, protons and neutrons.

~ PROTONS: (+) (10^-13 cm)

- positive charge equal to the electron charge.
- located in the nucleus.
- number of protons = atomic number

~ NEUTRON: (10^-13 cm)

- slightly heavier than proton and is elctrically neutral.

~ ELECTRON: (-) (10^-16 cm)

- negatively charged.
- revolves around the nucleus in concentric orbits, or shells.
- traveling at high speed.

~ QUARK: (10^-16 cm)

ELECTROSTATIC FORCE:
- Nucleus and electron attracts each other.
- holds the electron in orbit.
- CHARGED BODIES: bodies that attracts each other.

1st LAW OF ELECTROSTATICS:

- " law of electrical charges "
- ELECTROSTATIC CHARGES: negative charge of electron is equal, but opposite to,
the positive charge of the proton.
- like charges repel.
- electrical charge is the measure of electrons.

~ FREE ELECTRON:
- electron that can move around withing an object.
- transfer of electrons from one object to another.
ELECTROSTATIC FIELD:
- special force acting between the charged objects.
- (+): outward line of forces
- (-): inward line of forces

~ 2 FACTORS AFFECTING E.FIELD:

(1) Amount of charge: greater charge = greater E.Field
(2) Distance: greater distance = weaker E.Field

~ COULOMB'S LAW OF ELECTROSTATIC CHARGES:

- "Forces of electrostatic attraction, or repulsion, is directly proportional to the product of
the two charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance."

F = K * (q1 * q2) / d^2

F = Electrostatic force (Newtons)

K = proportionality const. (8.987 x10^9 N-m^2 / Colmb^2)
q1 = 1st particle charge (Colmb)
q2 = 2nd particle charge (Colmb)
d = distance bet. particles (Meters)

POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE:
- how large the electrostatic force is between 2 charged objects.
- POTENTIAL: electrical charges have the ability to do work.
- ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE (EMF): sum of the potential difference.

FREE ELECTRONS:
- valence electron that left its atom.
- electrons exist in different energy levels proportional to its distance from the nucleus.
- Higher energy level = farther away from the nucleus (center).
- K, L, M, N, O, P, Q.

~ 2 RULES ON ELECTRON SHELLS

(1) max number of electrons in outermost shell is 8.
(2) max number of electrons next-to-outermost shell is 18.

~ VALENCE ELECTRON:
- electron in outer most shell.
- when outer shell contains 8 electrons the atom is very stable, or very resistant to
changes.
- movement of free electrons creates electric currents.
~ IONIZED ATOM or ION CHANGE:
- POSITIVE ION: atom loses one or more electron.
- NEGATIVE ION: atom gains one or more electron.

CONDUCTORS:
- materials with electrons that are loosely bound to their atoms.
- permits free motion.
- copper, silver, gold, sea water, and steel.
- 1 - 3 valence e: 1 valence e = Good Conductor

INSULATORS:
- nonconductors, materials with electrons that are tightly bound to their atoms.
- large amounts of energy to free.
- rubber, plastics, glass, diamond, and dry wood.

RESISTORS:
- semiconductors, materials that conduct electricity, but offer opposition to current flow.
- 1e or 2e < semicon < 7e or 8e
- carbon, silicon, germanium, tin, and lead. (4 valence e).

~ RESISTOR OPERATIONS:
- electrons collide with the atoms inside, transferring their kinetic energy into atomic
vibrations.
- vibrations are converted to heat energy and dissipates into surrounding air.
- limits the current through the resistor.

~ TYPES OF RESISTOR:
> LINEAR RESISTOR :
(a) Fixed Resistor :
- value of fixed resistor can be varied as it's determined at the time of
manufacturing itself.
~ Carbon Composition :
- blend of carbon particles, graphite and ceramic dust mixed
- surge protection
- current limiting
- high voltage power supplies

~ Wire Wound :
- wounding a wire made up of resistive mat. around a core.
- core non-resistive mat.
- Nitron wire, manganese wire = high resistance
- very accurate, work extremely for low resistance values and high power ratings.
- oldest type.
 ~ Thick Film :
- resistive layer on a ceramic base.
~ Fusible Resistors : similar to wire wound resistor, acts as a fuse.
~ Cermet Film : made up of CERMET (composite alloy made by combining
ceramics and metal).
- high temperature resistance.
- wear resistance of ceramics.
- conductivity of metal.
~ Metal Oxide : oxidizing tin to produce tin oxide and combining it with antimony
oxide.
- low operating noise
- high temperature stability

~ Thin Film
~ Carbon Film : made by depositing a carbon film layer on a ceramic substrate.
- high stability
- wide operating range
- low noise (most preferred one over carbon composition resistors)
- low cost
- Metal Film : nickel chromium used to coat the resistor.
- low temperature coefficient (less affected by temp)

(b) Variable Resistor :

- values can be varied manually ccording to the requirement.
- a particular value of resistance is chosen from a range of resistance values,
with the help of a shaft connected.
~ POTENTIOMETER : POT
- this is a three terminal resistor having a shaft which slides or rotates.
- Voltage divider.
- Volume Controller.
~ RHEOSTAT :
- Wire-Wound resistor.
- control current mostly used in speed control of heavy motor.
- Single-Tube or Double-Tube.
- Tuning and callibration in circuits
~ TRIMMER :
- both a vairable resistor and potentiometer.
- Preset Resistors.
- single turn or multi turn.
- lifespan shorter than other variable resistor.
- Calibration purposes.
> NON-LINEAR RESISTOR :
(a) Thermistor :
- temperature dependent resistor.
- heat increases = resistance decreases
- measurement and control purposes.
- NTC : Negative temp coeffi : over voltage protector : temp increase = resistance
decreases
- PTC : Positive temp coeffi : over current protector : temp increase = resistance
increase

(b) Photo Resistor :

- light dependent resistor.
- resistance varies with light.
- light increases = resistance decreases

(c) Varistor :
- voltage dependent resistor.
- varies with the applied voltage.
- increase voltage = resistance decreases

(d) Surface Mount :

- highly used since the introduction of surface mounted technology.
- chip resistor: resistive layer intergrated on a ceramic chip used in PCB (Printed
Circuit Board)
- Compact in size
- very stable
- good tolerance
- effective in reducing heat dissipation

RESISTOR COLOR CODING: ( https://www.electronicshub.org/resistor-color-code/ )

PERSONS OF INTEREST:
- Alessandro Volta
- Andre-Marie Ampere
- James Watt
- Michael Faraday
- Joseph Henry
- George Ohm

VOLTAGE: [V]
- potential difference
- amount of force required to force 1 ampere of current through 1 ohm of resistance.
- 1 coulomb of current to do 1 joule of work.
 - 1 coulomb = 6.25 x10^18 e

CURRENT: [I]
- movement or flow of electrons due to potential difference.
- measured in "Amperes" [A]
- 1 amp = movement of 1 colmb in 1 sec

~ CONVENTIONAL CURRENT:
- flow of positive charges. (HOLES)
- direction of electron flow is from a point of negative potential to a point of positive
potential.
- HOLES: (+) vacant electron spaces.

~ Direct Current (DC):

- continuously in the same direction.

~ Alternating Current (AC):

- alternating current periodically reverse direction.

REAL and IDEAL SOURCES

- IDEAL SOURCE: no losses and is a perfect voltage or current supply.
- REAL SOURCE: some losses associated.

RESISTANCE: [R]
- oppposition to current flow.
- depends upon the amount of available free electrons it contains and the type of
obstacles the electrons encounter.
- measured in "Ohms" [Omega]
- 1 ohm = resistance to 1 amp when 1 volt is applied.
- lower res = higher current flow.

~ OHM's LAW
- George Simon Ohm (1827)

E = IR

E = voltage (V)
I = current (A)
R = resistance (Ohm)

CONDUCTANCE: [G]
- Ernst Werner von Siemens
- opposite, or reciprocal, of resistance.
 - ability to conduct current.
- measured in "Mho" "Siemens"

G = I/E

POWER: [P]
- rate at which work is done, rate at which heat is generated.
- measured in Watts [W].

P = IE
= I^2R

INDUCTANCE: [L]
- ability of a coil to store energy, induce a voltage in itself, oppose changes in current
flowing through it.
- measured in "Henries" [H]

Vl = -L * (delta I/delta t)

CAPACITANCE: [C]
- ability to store an electric charge
- measured in "Farads"
- equal to the amount of charge(Q) that can be stored in a device or capacitor divided by
the voltage(E).

C = Q/E

METHODS OF PRODUCING VOLTAGE (ELECTRICITY)

ELECTROCHEMISTRY:
- electrical energy produced by combining chemicals from certain metals to cause
chemical reaction that can transfer electrons.
- chemical reaction maintains opposite chrages on two dissimilar metals.
- terminals are in contact witn an "electrolyte solution".

STATIC ELECTRICITY:
- ZERO CHARGE: atoms with the proper number of electrons.
- a body will become electrically positive if electrons are removed from the atoms.

MAGNETIC INDUCTION:
- GENERATOR: converts mechanical energy into electrical energy.
- produce voltage by rotating coils of wire through a stationary magnetic field.
PIEZOELECTRIC EFFECT:
- applying pressure (quartz, Rochelle salts, barium titanate) so electrons can be driven
out in the direction of the force.
- bending pressure, twisting pressure.
- power capacity is extremely small, but is extremely sensitive.

THERMOELECTRIC:
- voltage potential across the junction of two metals.
- more heat energy = greater voltage potential.
- THERMOCOUPLE: measuring temperature as heat-sensing device in automatic
temperature controlled equip.
- dependent on the heat energy applied.

PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT:
- Light as a form of energy.
- PHOTONS: small light particles
- light beam strike the surface to release photon energy and transfer it to the atomic
electrons of the material.

~ PHOTOVOLTAIC:
- light energy of two plates causes one plate to release electrons to the other. Plates
build up opposite charges.

~ PHOTOEMISSION:
- photon energy from a beam of light.

~ PHOTOCONDUCTION:
- light energy causes free electrons to be produced in the material to make it a better
conductor.

THERMIONIC EMISSION:
- liberation of electrons from a hot surface.
~THERMIONIC ENERGY CONVERTER:
- two electrodes (cathode or emitter, anode or plate) placed near one another in a
vacuum.
- electrons form a cloud of negative charges (space charge) which gets attracted to the
plate(+).
- "Vacuum Tube Diode"

MAGNETISM:
- Electrons spinning on their own axis around the nucleus.
~ DOMAIN:
- electrons spinning in the same direction.
- MAGNETIC POLES: (north and south poles) alignment of domains.

~ LAW OF MAGNETISM:
- "Like magnetic poles repel, unlike magnetic poles attract."

MAGNETIC FLUX: [0]

- Group of magnetic field lines emitted outward from the north pole
- measured in "Weber" [Wb].
- 1 Wb = 1 x10^8 magnetic field lines.

MAGNETIC FLUX DENSITY: [B]

- amount of magnetic flux per unit area of a section, perpendicular to he direction of flux.
- measured in "Teslas" [T].
- 1 Tesla = 1 Wb/m^2

B = 0/A

B = magnetic flux density (T)

0 = magnetic flux (Wb)
A = area in square meter (m^2)

MAGNETIC MATERIALS:
- can be either attracted or repelled by a magnet and can be magnetized themselves.
- permanent magnet: cobalt steel.

~ PERMEABILITY: (u)
- ability of a material to concentrate magnetic lines of flux
- easily magnetized = high permeability
- RELATIVE PERMEABILITY: ratio of the permeability of a material to the permeability of
a vacuum(uo = 4pi x10^-7 H/m).

ur = u/uo

- classified as either magnetic or non-magnetic

~ FERROMAGNETIC MATERIALS:
- iron, steel, nickel, cobalt, alnico, and peralloy.
- FERRITES: non-magnetic but have ferromagnetic properties of iron
- 50-200 permeability

~ PARAMAGNETIC MATERIALS:
 - aluminum, platinum, manganese, and chromium.
- relative permeability of slightly more than one.

~ DIAMAGNETIC MATERIALS:
- bismuth, antimony, copper, zinc, mercury, gold, and silver.
- relative permeability of less than one.

ELECTROMAGNETISM:
- Oersted, Danish Scientist (1819).
- electric current flow through a conductor will produce a magnetic field.

POLARITY OF A SINGLE CONDUCTOR:

- LEFT HAND RULE: convenient way to determine current flow and direction of magnetic
lines relationship.

MAGNETIC FIELD AND POLARITY OF A COIL:

~ BENDING A STRAIGHT CONDUCTOR INTO A LOOP:
(1) magnetic field lines becomes more dense inside the loop.
(2) all lines inside the loop are aiding in the same direction.

- Adding an iron core = increase the flux density.

- Current flow is from negative side, through the coil, and back to the positive side.

MAGNETOMOTIVE FORCE: [mmf]

- strenght of a magnetic field in a coil of wire.
- dependent on how much current flows in the turns of coil: more current = stronger
magnetic field; more turns of wire = more concentrated the lines of force
- measured in "Ampere-turns" [At]

Fm = ampere-turns = NI

Fm = magnetomotive force (mmf)

N = number of turns
I = current

FIELD INTENSITY:
- conceentration of magnetic lines of force.
- depends on the length of the coil.

H = Fm/L = NI/L

H = field intensity, (At/m)

NI = ampere-turns (At)\
 L = length between poles of coil (m)
Fm = magnetomotive force (mmf)

RELUCTANCE: [R]
- Opposition to the production of flux
- measured in "Ampere-turn per weber" [At/Wb]

R = mmf/0

- inversely proportional to permeability.

- AIR GAP: air space between two poles of a magnet
- air = very high reluctance.
- shorter air gap = stronger field.
Potentiometer - “pot”
- Three terminal resistor with a shaft that rotates and slides
- The shaft’s motion allows a adjustable voltage divider
- Measures potential energy or voltage
- Used as volume controller in a remote

Rheostat
- Wire wound resistior
- Resistive material is wrapped tightky aroynd a ceramic material
- Wiper slides across winding
- One end is connected to wiper and the other is on the resistive material to agieve
desired resistance
- Speed control for heavy equipment
- Tubing and calibraion

Trimmer
Can be potentiometer or variable resistor
Pot trimmer
Preset resistor
Tuning and calbration

Fixed resistor
- Fixed value of resistance at manufacturub

Carbom composition
- Carbon particles, graphite and ceramic dust with clay as a binder
- High temp, high pressure
- Fused leads
- Thermal mass is higher to withstand higher energy pulses
- High noise, low stability
- Surge protection, current limitung and high voltage devices

Wire wound
- Resistive wire around a non conducting materal
- Wire - nichrome or manganin bc of high resistance
- Core- plastic ceramic glass
- Very accurate
- Low resistance values, high power ratings

Thick film
- Resistive layer on a ceramic
Magnetic…

Piezoelectric effect
- Bending or twisting of certain materials will cause electrons to drive ouyt of orbit in the
direction of the force. When the force is released, electrons return to their original orbit

thermoelectrICITY
- HEATING TWO JOINED DISSIMILAR materials will case a transfer of electrons
between the materials etting p a current flow
- Konti lang nagegenerate na electricity

Photoelectric effect
- Dislodging of electrons from their orbits by light beams create positively charged objects
- Operates in the UV region, no electrons excited in the IR region

Photovoltaic cell, photoc

- Light energy in one of the two plates are joint together, causes one plate to release
electrons to the other
- Consists of p-n tyoe materal

photoemission
- Why vacuum? High spee
Photoconduction
- Used as sensors

Thermionic emission

Potential diference
- Pressure that enables current flow
-