Introduction To Philosophy With Logic and Critical Thinking

Introduction to Philosophy with Logic and Critical Thinking
PHL 104
Course Description
This course attempts to acquaint the students with the fundamental principles
and methods of correct thinking and reasoning so as to equip the students
with the logical tool required to their battle against falsehood and
inconsistencies.
The course serves as an introduction to the subject Logic; therefore; it is
neither comprehensive nor exhaustive.
Course Objective
Understand the rules of logic that serves as guide in the process of
distinguishing correct from incorrect arguments and drawing valid conclusion.
Recognize some fallacy-hidden arguments
Learn the importance of the study of logic as philosophical discipline and as
basic knowledge necessary in communications
Make the students to communicate effectively using correct language use and
reason out correctly.
Allow the students to communicate effectively through debates and arguments
with several topics on current events.
PHILOSOPHY?
Familiar with the real connotation of the term or word “Philosophy”?
What is your philosophy in life?

How to philosophize?
The Greek Philosophy

How did philosophy come about?
According to tradition of the western philosophy
Birthplace – seaport town of Miletus located across the Aegean Sea from
Athens on the western shores of Ionia in Asia Minor
The first philosophers called MILESIANS or IONIANS
Miletus was the center for commerce
People gave them the luxury of time for thinking and reflection
Later on the merchants and the rich people did not only trade their
merchants but also their ideas and their beliefs brought about by
their own reflections
The caused of arts and philosophy to flourish
Milesians
They gathered and talk about their curiosity
Started to ask question
Where does everything come from?
What is the source of the existence of everything
It answer by the different Greek philosophers
Background of Philosophy
LOGIC
One of the subject of Philosophy that emulates/imitates not material
things or physical phenomena but
IDEAS or CONCEPT
PROPOSITION or PREMISES
And their inferential relations to attain the truth value of the
conclusions.
Definition of Philosophy
A definition is a statement that gives the meaning of a term.
It comes from the Latin word ‘definire’ – to enclose within limits.
2 common kinds of definition;
- etymological
- real
Etymological Definition of Philosophy - PHILOSOPHIA

Philia (Greek word) – meaning LOVE
Sophia (Greek word) – meaning WISDOM
THE LOVE OF WISDOM
The Philosopher – lover of wisdom
PHILOSOPHIA
PHILIA
LOVE
Agape – highest form of love (GOD’s love to humanity – unconditional)
Philia – Brotherly love (appreciation)
Eros – Erotic/Romantic love
John 21:15-17
Jesus and Peter
Do you love me?
Family/Brotherly love
SOPHIA
WISDOM
THE LOVER OF WISDOM –
FRIENDSHIP OF WISDOM
Philosophers are lovers of wisdom according to Pythagoras (Fremantle 1954,
13)
Ancient Greek Mathematical formula (Pythagorean Theorem)
Pythagoras preferred to be called philosophers rather than sophist (wise
man or one who knows)
SOPHIST - one who is wise

sophisticated - fancy
Group of intellectuals who taught oratory (art of public speaking) for a fee to
individuals aspiring to have a successful career in politics. ELOQUENT
SPEAKERS
The belief then was that a successful career in politics would require skills in
public speaking and influence.
Believe that all truths are relative in that all truths are determined by or based
on human interests – human interest vary from one person to another or from
group of person to another, there is no truth that holds for all humans. (The
goal is to win or to be truthful – use of fallacious arguments) TO DECIEVE THE
PEOPLE - Plato
PRACTICAL TEACHERS
The sophists
PHYTAGORAS 6th century BC
PRODICUS 465 – 395 BC
theory on the origin of religion (we used to worship useful things –
paganism)
We worship the inventors (Greek goddess)
HIPPIAS (late 5th century)
Law is contrary to our nature
Law is our tyrant (dictator)
GORDIAS (485-380 BC)
Nothing exists because nothing is eternal and nothing can come into
being – YOU ARE NOTHING!
LOVE OF WISDOM
The Greek Philosophers Socrates and Plato also noted for their early usage of
the term philosophers – lover of wisdom
Socrates (Gadfly / annoying person of Athens) go to Agora listening and keep

asking questions to the people.
LOVE OF WISDOM
The kind of love directed to wisdom
Philosophy is not purely intellectual activity for it is a kind of attitude or
emotion.
But isn’t just a simple desire to know to be wise.
Being characterized as love, the pursues of wisdom with great passion and
seriousness.
What is Wisdom?
Socrates – “men can acquire wisdom but never accomplished complete
wisdom”.
Distinction between knowledge and wisdom
We can know many things but we cannot always be wise
We can know how to develop certain technology but do we know how to use it
(wisdom) ex. weapon
The Nature of Philosophy
Philosophy as WISDOM
-The desire to know is innate in man because of his intellect (capacity to know
truth – the meaning of life – act in an upright way) and his happiness is closely
linked to wisdom.
-The term “wise man” is usually applied to a person who has certain and well
founded knowledge of the deepest truths, for wisdom, in general terms, is
defined as a certain knowledge of the deepest cause of everything.
-It helps man the truth in the deepest causes and reason of reality.
-Differences of love of knowledge and love of wisdom
LEVELS OF WISDOM
Natural Wisdom – It is a level of wisdom which acquired by reason alone.
Natural wisdom is classified as internal and external senses.
Supernatural Wisdom – It is a level of wisdom which is acquired by reason

illumined by faith. This is the wisdom that transcends natural wisdom and fully
understands the spiritual truths of God.
WISDOM
Essentially includes knowledge of the truth
The elements of wisdom can be gathered from the traits that someone would
have if he or she were a wise person.
Summary: TRAITS OF A
WISE PERSON
Knows one’s ignorance
Have justified true beliefs
Knows what is valuable in life
Puts knowledge into practice/actions
Knows what should be done and acting accordingly
Real meaning of Philosophy refers to:
Ideas, views, principles, perspective s or beliefs
The activity of reasoning
An academic course or degree
PHILOSOPHY
The search for knowledge
The source of knowledge
The source of belief
Using of reason and logic
Stages of knowledge / beliefs
Philosophy as Ideas, views, principles, perspective s or beliefs
Held either by individuals or groups of individuals, regardless of the specific

nature of these ideas, views, principles, perspectives, or beliefs.
By their specific nature, we mean whether they are religious, cultural, scientific,
historical or psychological among others
These beliefs and principles are conveniently referred to as constituting a
person’s philosophy of something, regardless of the specific nature of these
beliefs and principles.
eg. The formula of success
“Philosophy of Life”
“Philosophy of management”
“Philosophy of coaching”
Philosophy as The activity of Reasoning
Relates to the way, we Filipinos, originally use or understand the meaning of

the word “pilosopo” or “philosophers” is the one who likes to reason out or to
engage in the activity of reasoning.
Philosophers is the one who likes to reason.
Reasoning or pamimilosopo is part of a defensive strategy.
Pilosopo is one engages in reasoning for the purposes of covering up an
obvious truth, annoying someone and engaging someone in an unwelcome
argumentation.
Real Definition of Philosophy
Searching for meaning and truth
Is the knowledge of all things through their ultimate causes acquired through
the use of reason.
The science of things naturally knowable to man’s unaided power insofar as
those things are known or studied in their ultimate cause and reason.
Is a discipline in which questions are more important than the answer and
when every answer leads further questions
– KARL JASPHERS
Philosophy as an Academic Course or Degree
Refers to an academic subject or course that is taught usually in colleges,

universities and seminarians.
The course studies reasoning skills and different theories about the nature of
reality, morally, society and justice, religious beliefs and knowledge among
others.
The academic degree in philosophy can be pursued either on the bachelor’s
master’s or doctoral level – intention of becoming a lawyer, a priest or a
teacher in philosophy.
The Term Philosophy
It dealt with neither as a personal belief nor a simple reason for something,
But as a particular field of
DISCIPLINE or as a
QUEEN OF SCIENCES (natural and social)

Philosophy as SCIENCE
-It is a science in an eminent (well known) way
-Which inquires into ultimate causes, reasons and principles of all things in the
light of human reason alone.
-Science may be defined principally in 2 ways;

a. As a certain knowledge through causes
b. As a knowledge attained by way of demonstration, starting from some
principle
PHILOSOPHY - SCIENCE
ALL SCIENCES ARE BUILT IN PHILOSOPHY
Math
Grammar/rhetoric
PHILOSOPHY - DISCIPLINE
IT TEACHES WHAT IS RIGHT FROM WRONG
Ethics
PHILOSOPHY
The fundamental nature of human existence
Certain questions that philosophers searching for:
who are we as human being/person?
Why human beings are different from other creation?
Where did we come from?
Who and What is God?
How do we know what we know?
What is right from wrong?
Is lying is wrong? Killer looking for your classmate…. Asking
where is she…. And you said I don’t know even though you
know where is she… is it a sin?
PHILOSOPHY
REASON VS FAITH
Genesis 17:4-4
Story of ABRAHAN to sacrifice his son
Philosophy – Reason it is non sense
But faith make sense
John 6:35, 41, 48, 60-66

Jesus said I am the bread of life… those who will eat my flesh will live
forever..
Philosophy make no sense – cannibalism
But faith make sense
PHILOSOPHY IS BASED ON SKEPTICISM (always in doubt)

Like a persistent child that always ask the question WHY? WHY? and WHY?
Digging and digging to know the real answer and to believe on it.
Types of Philosophy
Speculative/Theoretical Philosophy
Practical Philosophy
DIVISION OF PHILOSOPHY
Speculative Philosophy
Cosmology (Greek word Cosmos and Logos) means philosophical study of
being in the nonliving world.
Metaphysics (Greek word Meta-ta-fusia) means something that goes beyond
or philosophical study of being in its most general form.
Theodicy Greek word God) philosophical study of being in its highest form
Anthropology (Greek word Antropos means man) philosophical study of being
with its body and soul
Rational Psychology (Greek word Psyche means soul) Philosophical study being
with its soul.
Speculative Philosophy
in relation to man
Logic (Greek word Logos means thought) science and art of correct thinking
Epistemology (Greek word Episteme means human knowledge) philosophical
study of human knowledge with regard to value of thought
Ethics (Greek word Ethos mans man’s will) Philosophical study of the morality
of the human act that distinguishes good from evil and right and wrong
Applied Philosophy
Specific topics and discussion in the different aspects of individuals life such
as society, history, education, religion, etc.
Philosophy of Man – the metaphysical dimension of man as a person
Social Philosophy – the study of interpersonal relationship between man
and society
Philosophy of Religion – the meta-personal study of man with God
Axiology – philosophical study of man’s value
Aesthetics – philosophical study of man’s beauty and perfection
Oriental Philosophy – philosophical study of Oriental ways of life
Philosophy of Education – Philosophical and methodological approach of
teaching and procedural learning process
Branches of Philosophy
Branches of Philosophy and Disciplinal Philosophies
Branches of Philosophy classified according to the major topics of
philosophical investigation.
Areas of Philosophy
The list of branches of Philosophy vary from one scholar to another.
Disciplinal Philosophies – classified according to the discipline or areas of
learning whose foundations are being examined.
OTHER DISCIPLINE OF PHILOSOPHY

PHILOSOPHY OF LITERATURE
PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION
PHILOSOPHY OF MATHEMATICS
PHILOSOPHY OF LAW
PHILOSOPHY OF ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE
PHILOSPHY OF HISTORY
PHILOSOPHY OF THE SOCIAL SCIENCE
PHILOSOPHY OF PSYCHOLOGY
PHILOSOPHY OF BIOLOGY
PHILOSOPHY OF MUSIC
PHILOSOPHY OF SPORTS
PHILOSOPHY OF ECONOMICS
THE REGIONAL TYPES

The most general level – REGIONAL or GEOGRAPHICAL types of philosophy
The 2 major kinds
THE REGIONAL TYPES
WESTERN PHILOSOPHY
EASTERN PHILOSOPHY
THE REGIONAL TYPES
Under each of these 2 major kinds are the NATIONAL PHILOSOPHIES
Referring to philosophical activities happening in a particular countries or
nations
The 2 major kinds

THE REGIONAL TYPES - NATIONAL PHILOSOPHIES
WESTERN PHILOSOPHY
German Philosophy
French Philosophy
Greek Philosophy
British Philosophy
American Philosophy
EASTERN PHILOSOPHY
Indian Philosophy
Chinese Philosophy
Japanese Philosophy
Filipino Philosophy
THE REGIONAL TYPES
It refers to philosophical activities that occurs or flourish in a particular regions
Some attach to regional types of philosophies or some other that
characteristic or belief in unique to each of these philosophies
They are brought about by;
Culture
Religions
Nationalistic
Ideological considerations or sentiments.
Some distinguishes
features that considered unique to each type
EASTERN PHILOSOPHY
It emphasized
Commonalities
Harmonies
WESTERN PHILOSOPHY
It emphasized
Distinction
Oppositions
NATIONAL PHILOSOPHIES
Believe that a particular national philosophy has certain unique features that
differentiate it from other national philosophies.
This has made it possible to regard rightly or not, certain types of philosophies
that happen in a certain region as alien or as not really belonging to that
region as when one say,
Sample
East is non eastern
West in non western
Philippines is non Filipino
THE HISTORICAL TYPE
The history of Philosophy in the WEST
Divided into 4 period
4 PERIOD OF WESTERN PHILOSOPHY
 ANCIENT PERIOD
Ancient Philosophy that flourish during the Ancient Period
 THE MEDIEVAL PERIOD
Medieval Philosophy flourish during the Medieval Period
 THE MODERN PERIOD
Modern Philosophy flourish during the Modern Period
 CONTEMPORARY PERIOD
Contemporary Philosophy flourish during the Contemporary Period
BRIEF HISTORY OF PHILOSOPHY
WESTERN PHILOSOPHY
ANCIENT PHILOSOPHY - Cosmo centric
MEDIEVAL PHILOSOPHY - Theo centric
MODERN PHILOSOPHY - Antropho centric
CONTEMPORARY PHILOSOPHY – Post modern
ANCIENT PERIOD
ANCIENT GREEK Philosophers
Pre Socratics
Socrates
Plato
Aristotle
ANCIENT ROMAN Philosophers
Seneca
Marcus Aurelius
THE MEDIEVAL PERIOD
529 A.D. – 1450 A.D.
St. Augustine
Boethius
John Duns Scotus
St. Thomas Aquinas
MODERN PHILOSOPHY
1450 – 1799
Grouped into 4 systems;
1. the renaissance
2. Subjectivism which includes rational and empirical (gaining knowledge
– direct or indirect observation or experience) subjectivism
3. The Enlightenment and the German Idealism.
RENAISSANCE
Literally translated as re-birth
Period that opens its horizon to free intellectual enterprise.
This period focused on the quest for the origin of knowledge – an
epistemological quest.
Philosophers; Nicholas Copernicus, Galileo Galilee, Nicolo Machiavelli
2 OPPOSING SCHOOLS OF THOUGHT DURING THE MODERN PHILOSOPHY

PERIOD
RATIONALISM (the philosophical view that emphasizes the ability of human
reason to grasp fundamental truths about the world without the aid of sense
impression)
-Rene Descartes
-Nicholas Malebranche
-Benedict Spinoza
-Gottfried Leibniz
EMPIRICM (the theory that experience is the source of all knowledge, which
there by denies that human beings possess inborn knowledge or that they can
derive knowledge through the exercise of reason alone)
-Francis Bacon
-Thomas Hobbes
-John Locke
-George Berkeley
-David Hume
KINDS OF TRUTH
EMPIRICAL TRUTH
Established by means of sense experience
Technically describe as A POSTERIORI
It can only be known after some relevant experience
Sample
It’s raining – use of sense of sight
KINDS OF TRUTH
RATIONAL TRUTH
Established by means of reason
Technically describe as A PRIORI
It can be known before some relevant experience
Sample
Triangle has tree sides (mathematical truth)
Five and five are ten
Period of Enlightenment during the Modern Philosophy era

THE AGE OF REASON
Francis Voltaire
Jean Jacques Rousseau
Christian Wolff
German Idealism the view that mind is the ultimate reality in the world . It
opposed materialism , which views material things are the basic reality from
which mind emerges and to which mind is reducible.
Immanuel Kant
Metaphysical Idealism
Johann Fitchte
Friedrich Schelling
Goerge Hegel
CONTEMPORARY PHILOSOPHY
19th – 20th century – PRESENT TIME
Philosophical system emerge
- The Dialectical Materialism;
 Ludwig Feuerbach
 Karl Marx
 Friedrich Engels
Marxism - communism
The Positivism
The positivist have no knowledge of anything but phenomena, and our
knowledge of phenomena is relative, not absolute/complete
They know that not the essence, not the real mode of production, of any fact,
but only its relations to other facts in the way of succession or of similitude.
These relations are constant, that is, always the same in the same
circumstance.
AUGUST COMTE
THE NATURALISM
refers to the viewpoint that laws of nature (as opposed to supernatural ones)
operate in the universe, and that nothing exists beyond the natural universe
or, if it does, it does not affect the natural universe.
Charles Darwin
THE UTILITARIANISM
In this view, an action is considered good or right if its consequence is the
greatest happiness (pleasure) of the greatest number.
In that case, the action is useful in producing as much or more good than any
alternative behavior.
JEREMY BENTHAM &

JOHN STUART MILL
NIHILISM
The death of God will unavoidably be followed by the rejection of absolute
values and the rejection of idea of an objective and universal moral law.
The rejection of all religious and moral principles, often in the belief that life is
meaningless.
ARTHUR SCHOPENHAUER &

Friedrdrich Nietszche
Phenomenology
-Edward Husserl
-Max Scheller
-Paul Ricoer
-Carl Rogers
PHENOMENOLOGY
Phenomenology, in Husserl's conception, is primarily concerned with the
systematic reflection on and study of the structures of consciousness and
the phenomena that appear in acts of consciousness.
Phenomenology is a broad discipline and method of inquiry in philosophy,
developed largely by the German philosophers Edmund Husserl and Martin
Heidegger, which is based on the premise that reality consists of objects and
events ("phenomena") as they are perceived or understood in the human
consciousness.
Existentialism
-Soren Kierkegard
-Jean Paul Sartre
-Martin Heidegger
-Karl Jasphers
-Maurice Merleau Ponty
-Gabriel Marcel
-Martin Buber
EXISTENTIALISM
Existentialism is a philosophy that emphasizes individual existence, freedom
and choice. It is the view that humans define their own meaning in life, and try
to make rational decisions despite existing in an irrational universe.
Analytic Philosophy / Logical Positivism
-Bertrand Russell
-Ludwig Wittgenstein
-Alfred Ayer
-Karl Popper
Analytic philosophy/
Logical Positivism
A broad philosophical tradition characterized by an emphasis on clarity and
argument (often achieved via modern formal logic and analysis of language)
and a respect for the natural sciences.
THE PRAGMATISM
Is a method of solving various types of problems such as; does God exist? or is
man’s will is free? By looking at the practical consequences by accepting this
or that answer.
The pragmatic method tries to interpret each notion or theory by tracing its
respective practical consequences.
WILLIAM JAMES &

JOHN DEWET
The structuralism
is a theoretical paradigm that emphasizes that elements of culture must be
understood in terms of their relationship to a larger, structure.
Structuralism is "the belief that phenomena of human life are not intelligible
except through their interrelations. These relations constitute a structure, and
behind local variations in the surface phenomena there are constant laws of
abstract culture
Claude Levi-Strauss
evolution
is any change across successive generations in the heritable characteristics of
biological populations.
Henri Bergson &
Pierre Teilhard de Chardin
psychoanalysis
free association, dream interpretation, and analysis of resistance and
transference are used to explore repressed or unconscious impulses, anxieties,
and internal conflicts, in order to free psychic energy for mature love and
work. The theory of personality developed on repression and unconscious
forces and includes the concepts of infantile sexuality, resistance,
transference, and division of the psyche into the id, ego, and superego.
Sigmun Freud &

Carl Jung
Neo thomism
is the philosophical school that arose as a legacy of the work and thought of
Saint Thomas Aquinas
Etienne Gilson &
Jacques Maritain
Hermeneutics
-Jurgen Habermas
-Hans George Gadamer
-Paul Ricouer
-Jacques Derrida
HERMENUETICS
the study of the interpretation of written texts, especially texts in the areas of
literature, religion and law. A type of traditional hermeneutic is Biblical
hermeneutics which concerns the study of the interpretation of The Bible.
Modern hermeneutics encompasses everything in the interpretative process
including verbal and nonverbal forms of communication as well as prior
aspects that affect communication, such as presuppositions, pre
understandings, the meaning and philosophy of language, and semiotics
THE EASTERN PHILOSOPHY
Have their own ways of delineating their own historical period.
INDIAN PHILOSOPHY
CHINESE PHILOSOPHY
ISLAMIC PHILOSOPHY
OTHERS
Neo thomism
is the philosophical school that arose as a legacy of the work and thought of
Saint Thomas Aquinas
Etienne Gilson &
Jacques Maritain
Hermeneutics
-Jurgen Habermas
-Hans George Gadamer
-Paul Ricouer
-Jacques Derrida
HERMENUETICS
the study of the interpretation of written texts, especially texts in the areas of
literature, religion and law. A type of traditional hermeneutic is Biblical
hermeneutics which concerns the study of the interpretation of The Bible.
Modern hermeneutics encompasses everything in the interpretative process
including verbal and nonverbal forms of communication as well as prior
aspects that affect communication, such as presuppositions, pre
understandings, the meaning and philosophy of language, and semiotics
THE EASTERN PHILOSOPHY
Have their own ways of delineating their own historical period.
INDIAN PHILOSOPHY
CHINESE PHILOSOPHY
ISLAMIC PHILOSOPHY
OTHERS
Philosophers
Eastern Philosophy
Buddhism
India – based on the teaching of Siddhartha Gautama (Buddha-
Enlightened One)
Hinduism
India - No founder (famous philosophers Mahatma, Mahatma Gandhi,
Romakrishna, Sarasvati and Vivekananda
Taoism
Sometimes also written Daoism,Taoism is a philosophy which later also
developed into a religion. Tao literally means "path" or "way", although it
more often used as a meta-physical term that describes the flow of the
universe, or the force behind the natural order.
Islam
Established by Mohammed. He did not claim to be the savior nor
messiah, but a prophet of Allah ,Koran / Qur’an – Islam Bible and other
religious writings
Confucianism
China, Japan and Korea – This school was developed from the teachings
of the sage Confucius (551 - 478 B.C.)
Chinese Philosophers
FILIPINO PHILOSOPHER
FR. Roque J. Ferriols, S.J.
Promoting the study of philosophy in Filipino, translate, edit, and write various
books. Among those published are Mga Sinaunang Griyego, a translation of
selected texts from the Pre-Socratics to Aristotle; Magpakatao, a collection he
edited, containing translations of texts exploring the theme of being human;
and his original writings Pambungad sa Metapisika and Pilosopiya ng
Relihiyon. These four books earned him National Book Awards from the Manila
Critics' Circle. In 1989, the Ateneo de Manila University conferred him with the
Gawad Tanglaw ng Lahi.
"In six years, one comes to know that, for human thinking, North Sampalokese
is better than Plato's Greek." And this seems to be the spirit that has animated
Ferriols all these years--the desire to propagate real thinking and to do away
with the misconception that thinking is the ivory tower of the elite--a spirit
that his students hope to keep alive.
FR. Roque J. Ferriols, S.J.

A Quest for an explanation
What, why and how of philosophy
Searching can be taken into 2 types
Searching or looking into taken slightly by merely asking. To obtain answer to
an inquiry.
Intense search that the philosopher gets too engaged in his quest for finding
what he wants to know and does not stop at merely knowing but has to go
deeper into his search.
Elements of Philosophical search
Search refers to the person who conducts an inquiry and looks into the matter
deeper and wider at every angle.
The manner of search pertains to the traits, the searcher has, the intense
desire and his unquenchable thirst for his never ending pursuit for meaning.
The object in quest is one of the real worth to the searcher.
THE VALUE OF PHILOSOPHY
THE CHANGE OF FUTILITY
PHILOSOPHY
Why we should philosophize or study philosophy?
What good will philosophizing do considering that we are living in a world
where life is hard and largely dictated by scientific and technological advances.
What is the point of doing philosophy?
Importance of philosophy in 2 ways

 To show that the arguments supporting view that philosophy is a
useless or futile activity are mistaken
 To identify some of the major achievements of philosophy.
The value of philosophy
Bertrand Russell – essay 1980
Russell’s ideas;
2 main reasons behind the change that philosophy is a futile activity.
1. indefiniteness of philosophy which regards to answer that it
provides to philosophical questions
Philosophy does not provide final answer s to the questions
that it deals with, for the answers it differs from one
philosopher to another.
Philosophizing would just lead to nowhere, and would be a
waste of time and energy.
The value of philosophy
Bertrand Russell – essay 1980
Russell’s ideas;
2 main reasons behind the change that philosophy is a futile activity.
2. Impracticality of philosophy
* The activity of philosophizing has no practical benefits
* It does not help us in our efforts to satisfy our
material needs – the nourishment of our
body.
* Why waste our time then on something that will
not help us survive in this world?
2 CHARACTERISTICS ATTRIBUTED TO PHILOSOPHY – CONTRATS WITH SCIENCE

Science – provides definite answers to the questions that it deals with or an
objective/purpose means of resolving issues that it handles.
Through its inventions and technologies provides with more efficient
ways of satisfying our material and survival needs.
It is the ideal model of a valuable understanding which philosophy fails to
achieve or even approximate.
2 CHARACTERISTICS
ATTRIBUTED TO PHILOSOPHY – CONTRATS WITH SCIENCE
Philosophy – is indefinite in its answer to philosophical questions
It is not the goal of philosophy to deal with the kind of questions that
science deals with.
QUESTIONS IN SCIENCE
The scientific questions
Those questions that already known with some degree of certainty to be
capable of being answered in a precise and definite way.
Those questions that already been established that there is a precise and
objective means of answering these questions
QUESTIONS IN PHILOSOPHY
The philosophical questions
Questions in which it has not been established yet whether there is a
precise and objective means of answering these questions .
WHY PHILOSOPHY DO THIS?
WHERE IS THE VALUE IN THIS?
Scientific questions starts with philosophical questions, questions that were
thought to be indefinitely answerable.
Reason for this unavailability of technology that could test hypothesis.
Prior to the invention of telescope – hypotheses about the stars and
the universe could not be tested.
The imprecise formulation of the questions
It was only when mathematics was used as the language of science
that certain questions have become clearly scientific.
WHY PHILOSOPHY DO THIS?
WHERE IS THE VALUE IN THIS?
When philosophy deals with unscientific questions (indefinitely answerable
questions) – primary goal is to determine whether such questions can
eventually become scientific
Whether they could eventually be answered in some definite way.
HOW DOES PHILOSOPHY DO THIS?

Philosophy examines all possible angles to these questions;
Possible formulations of these questions
Possible answers to these questions
It engages;
debates
advancing
criticizing arguments
answering objections
In order to ascertain which perspective is the most
promising or offers the best possible explanation (in
terms of coherence, comprehension and predicate
power).
HOW DOES PHILOSOPHY DO THIS?
The moment the philosophical question is proven to be answerable in some
definite way , the question becomes scientific questions and finishes to be a
philosophical one.
The questions is thus relegated to science to conduct more detailed and
methodical researches to find the definite answer.
Bertrand Russell
Part of philosophy – science of psychology
Recent times;
Discipline of artificial intelligence – a branch of computer science dealing
with construction of intelligent machines)
A question of whether there could be machine that could think like
humans was originally a purely philosophical question
Scientist started conducting researches on how to actually construct
those machines.
At preset, the said question is still partly philosophical and partly
scientific.
Philosophers and scientist are predicating that it will just be a matter of
time that it will be a purely scientific question.
BERTRAND RUSSELL
PHILOSOPHY
waste of time
The preliminary work for science – finding the definite answer to certain
questions
If we value science for the definiteness of its answer to the questions that it
deals with the more we should value philosophy for making it possible for
science to deal it with such questions.
Simply wrong to think that just because there are no definite answers to the
philosophical questions or that philosophers do not seem to agree on how to
answer philosophical questions, then philosophy is just a waste of time and
energy.
Russell’s Philosophy
impractical activity
It does not directly satisfy our material needs
This is only because philosophy is focused on satisfying another kind of
valuable human needs, the needs of mind – kind of needs that we value.
Material needs is shown by the fact that once most or all of our material
needs have already been satisfied we still have questions about how to
further improve the quality of our lives.
RUSSELL’S EXAMPLE
REASON AND FAITH
Supposed our society has already provided our economic needs such as
nobody among us is living in poverty, still we will be confronted with questions
about how to improve quality of our lives.
Such questions must surely then be about our non-physical needs, the needs
of our mind, which we value.
non-physical needs concerns;
better human relationship
better spiritual life
better and deeper understanding of our place or purpose in the
world we live in.
These are the kinds of questions that religion and philosophy address with
their own particular means
Faith and divine inspiration for religion and human reason for philosophy
PHYLOSOPHICAL QUESTIONS
Are human choices free or determined by natural laws?
Are human embryos and fetuses moral persons?
Is there really a God?
Lot of important consequences will follow from how these questions will be
answered, which will greatly affect the value that we give to human life.
If human choices are not really free but are only determined by the past
events and natural laws, then we are not really responsible for our actions
and there really no good or bad actions.
If human embryos and fetuses are not moral person then there would not
nothing morally wrong in killing then as in cases of abortion and
scientific experimentation.
PHILOSOPHY
Addressees the needs of the mind – which are valuable
Some tools of philosophy
Logic – skills of critical thinking – used to address questions directly
related to the satisfaction of our material needs.
A more efficient use of scientific inventions and technologies to
address our material needs would require good decision making
that turn to good reasoning skills
PHILOSOPHY CHARGES
EXERCISE IN FUTILITY
IMPRACTICALITY – mistaken in 2 following ways
1. Simply wrong to limit what is valuable in life to the satisfaction of our
material or practical concerns.
Non-physical needs is the needs of our mind are valuable
Material needs concerns physical existence and survival
Non-material needs concerns the quality of our life and human
relations.
2. Wrong to think that philosophy, though focused on addressing our mental
needs, cannot contribute to how we can best satisfy our material needs.
Satisfying our material needs would also require adequate reasoning
skills which can be provided by philosophy.
RUSSELL’S CONCLUSION
The idea that philosophy is a futile activity is a consequence of a lack of
understanding of the goals of philosophy and a limited view of what is valuable
in life.
GOALS OF PHILOSOPHY
Provide a holistic view of life
Supplements what is lacking in scientific explanations
Come up with holistic explanations of things or events in the world.
THE NECESSITY/IMPORTANCE OF THE STUDY OF PHILOSOPHY
Philosophy leads us to a broader understanding of man and experience.
Philosophy gives man pleasure or satisfaction.
Philosophy serves man a better understanding of himself and hi fellow human
beings.
Philosophy acquaints a person to the various philosophical thinkers of the past
and of his time.
Philosophy will guide him in making day to day decision of life and
experiences.
Philosophy gives other sciences a sense of meaning.
THE WHAT, WHY AND HOW OF LOGIC

HISTORY OF LOGIC
The birth of LOGIC is attributed to ARISTOTLE of Stagira in Thrace (384-322
BC)
ARISTOTELIAN LOGIC – syllogistic logic (arguments are evaluated as good or
bad on the basis of the arrangement of terms in argument)
Successors
Zeno of Citium (founder of Stoic School who gave name as LOGIC)
Chrysippus (develop rules on the basis of truth and falsity of the
proposition)
Middle aged PETER ABELARD (first major logician of the period-
reconstruct and refined the logic)
Definition of Logic
IS A SCIENCE AND AN ART OF CORRECT THINKING.
Man is a thinking being.
Endowed with the faculties of intellect
- capacity to know the truth and to do good)
These faculties are the qualities that make man distinct from other living
beings.
Theory of ARISTOTLE
IDEOGENESES
Nothing into the mind without passing through the senses.
Sensitive cognition and appetition
- TABULA RASA – NOTHING IN THE MIND
HEIRARCHY OF BEING
Body+Life+Senses+
Reason
Body+Life+Senses
Body+Life
Body
MAN – NATURAL LOGIC

Ability to think (intellect) – distinguish truths from errors even without special
training, it is innate or native to him.
Child – early age always ask the question WHY? – innate tendency to know the
explanations and reasons of things around him.
NATURAL LOGIC –
COMMON SENSE
Natural Logic – incomplete knowledge but raw material
Scientific Logic – to be studied and developed
There is a need to train and to develop this natural ability to expertness
through the study of the principles and laws of the various operations of the
mind.
When our thinking ability is well grounded on these laws and principles will
this natural logic be tuned to scientific logic.
SCIENTIFIC LOGIC
Very important to man as it helps him to attain the truth.
The truth is not something easy to know or attain.
Although it is simply the conformity of the mind with reality of the mind.
ETYMOLOGICAL DEFINITION
LOGIC - LOGICO (Greek word) – A treatise (argument) pertaining to thought or
thinking.
REAL DEFINITION
LOGIC- IS A SCIENCE AND ART OF
CORRECT THINKING.
A SCIENCE
AN ART
LOGIC A SCIENCE
A SCIENCE: Logic is a demonstrated knowledge , an organized body of
knowledge based on facts and principles.
It is not a mere opinion or hypothesis.

It is certain, demonstrated and organized knowledge.
It investigate, discovers, expresses, systematizes and demonstrates or
explains the law of correct thinking.
LOGIC AN ART
-Art gives facility in reasoning and judging correctly about things to be
made. (statues, paintings, chairs and syllogism)
-Logic is an art because it guides man’s reasoning so he can proceed
with order and ease and without error in the constructive activity or simply in
attaining the truth.
THINKING AND
CORRECT THINKING
The word thinking does not include absolutely all mental operations but only
those mental operations.
A. that are directed toward the attainment of truth
B. by which we elaborate upon knowledge previously possessed.
DAY DREAMING
Is not thinking because it is not directed towards the attainable truth.
The operations which we merely make things present in our mind are not
thinking, but a prerequisite of thinking, since they involve no elaboration upon
knowledge previously possessed.
The operation by which we merely accept a statement as true like 2+2 = 4, are
not thinking but a possible starting point of thought.
THINKING
Includes:
Analysis
Comparison
Classification
Definition
Logical division
Inferential operations of the mind
These are the instruments of knowledge and means of attaining truth.
CORRECT THINKING
When our mind conforms to the laws and rules investigated by logic.
A definition is correct if it conforms to the rules of definition.
OBJECTS OF LOGIC
MATERIAL OBJECT
All things without exception
All things that the human mind can know
All that we can grasp by simple apprehension, judgment and reasoning
FORMAL OBJECT
Not all things as they are in themselves and independently of our knowledge,
but things as reproduced in the mind, together with all attributes and
relationships they get as a result of mental reproduction.
LOGIC AND INFERENCE

Logic is principally concerned with inference.
Inference is any process by which our mind proceed from one or more
propositions to another proposition, so related to original propositions, that if
they are true, it must also be true.
An inference (process – conclusion) or syllogism (verbal presentation) is
composed of two parts
1. antecedent
2. consequent
PARTS OF INFERENCE
Every STUDENT’S is a thinking being
Michelle Cidney is a STUDENT
Therefore, Michelle Cidney is a
thinking being
The two above example consist of 3 propositions so related that if the first two
The antecedent, are true
The third proposition, the consequent must also be true.
THE TASK OF LOGIC
The main task of logic is to establish general norm for making this passage
from premises or antecedent to conclusion or consequent legitimately valid.
Importance of Logic
It develops the habit of clear thinking. It teaches us how to think, either we
read or hear correctly and logically. It is only when we think that we commit
mistakes and very seldom to think if it is correct.
It is a guide in the process of drawing out conclusions. We have a lot of
experienced things to be considered and often wrong decisions as well. The
process of thinking will instruct us to understand deeply.
It emphasizes the importance of definition. It tells us the real and nominal
definition that confronts to reality. It denotes clarify and precision in the use of
terms which is one of the most required principles of the process of thinking.
It helps us interpret the facts adequately. Genuine and accurate facts’
interpretation is very important when it comes to the conformity of truth. It
trains us analyzing, classifying and defining facts.
It cultivates the habit of looking for the assumptions presupposed in
reasoning. Some people are often confused by delicate and unnoticeable
arguments because of incorrect reasoning that puts us on guard against
mistake
It trains us in the technique of determining implications. It provides training in

order to develop the ability to comprehend implications and protect us with
the technique in determining assumptions.
It helps us detect fallacies and avoid self deceptions. It gives us an auxiliary to
illogical reasoning. Every person has a gift of common sense, but common
sense must be developed in order to make a progress as an instrument of
philosophical reason.
It helps us persuade or convince others. No man is an island. Loving oneself is
to acknowledge and share life with others. If therefore trains us in various
methods having a good and right decision in thinking of others.
It stimulates scientific thinking and love truth. An order person requires a clear
reasoning. Logic is important equipment in order to comprehend sciences. The
primary goal of logic is truth in order to simplify the truth statement, it seeks
an argument of a perfect quality which asserts itself.
It familiarizes us with terminology and problems in Philosophy. This is the
question of why, how and what is in reality. The assertive curiosity gives us
interpersonal relationship between things and themselves. All of us think
because it is the right way to Philosophy.
Types of Logic
Formal Logic
The structure, correctness, sequence that follows the rules.
An argument must be good and not only in form but in content as well.
Material Logic
The subject matter, the content and the truth .
It is the conformity of the reality.
Based on validity of reasoning
Materially valid that conforms to the reality of the object
Stone is a hard object
Elephants are huge mammals
Materially invalid does not conforms to the reality of the object
Stones are soft object
Elephant is a small animals
All statements and arguments are formally valid because they follow the
subject-predicate pattern or structure of a DECLARATIVE SENTENCE
Types of Logic Sample
Formal Logic
John Carlo is a Student
Structure or built to create a sound reasoning
Subject
Verb (3rd person singular of the infinitive form of the verb to be)
Predicate
Material Logic
John Carlo is a man
Is John Carlo really a man
If that so the argument is true
Correct reasoning is formally valid unless one of the rules are
violated
A good sound reasoning then is formally valid and licit and
materially valid and licit
Based on validity of reasoning
Actual reasoning both matter and form are involved.
They are intimately intertwined and at times are seemingly inseparable
Here are the following statement/arguments
Cats are animals
Orchids are plants
Humans are mortal beings
Water is liquid substance.
All statements are genuinely valid because in matter and form or in thought
content and structure.
Types of Logic
Based on the validity of reasoning and approach used in arriving at truth
Based on the approach to attaining knowledge
Logic is either deductive or inductive
Deductive Logic
Is a system of reasoning whereby a person argues from universal or
general truth to particular (specific) by way of middle term
Inductive
Reasoning starts from sufficiently enumerated individuals or
specific cases or observations and moves to the universal or
general truth
TYPES OF REASONING
DEDUCTION/DEDUCTIVE LOGIC
is the type of reasoning wherein the mind proceeds from more universal
or general truth to a less universal truth or particular truth.
Sample:
All material beings are corruptible.
But all dogs are material beings.
Therefore , all dogs are corruptible.
TYPES OF REASONING
INDUCTION/INDUCTIVE LOGIC
is the type of reasoning wherein the mind proceeds from sufficiently
enumerated individual instances to a universal or general truth.
Sample:
This mother (Maricris) is a female human beings;
Claire who is a mother is a fem human being;
Karen who is a mother, is a female human being;
This one (Mary), this (Stella), and this (Portia);
Therefore, all mothers are female human beings.
LOGIC AND THE OPERATIONS

OF THE INTELLECT
Man, as a rational being is composed of;
INTELLECT – the capacity to know the truth
WILL – the capacity to do good
In the thinking process, the intellect performs three operations which come in
sequence.
3 MENTAL OPERATIONS
THE FIRST
ACT OF THE MIND
SIMPLE APPREHENSION
IDEA/TERM
THE SECOND ACT OF THE MIND

JUDGEMENT
REASON ING
THE THIRD ACT OF THE MIND
Language
Is the ability to acquire and use complex systems of communication,
particularly the human ability to do so
Music may be a language of the soul
Our verbal response to others (lovers, hates, indifferences, frustrations, joys
delights)
Efficacy of dialogue
Conference table in solving problems of modern man
The Uses of Language
3 Fundamental Uses of Language
 Informative
 Expressive
 Directive
INFORMATIVE
The most common function (attested to by textbooks and all other books on
history, literature, philosophy, science)
In logic we see this function at work in propositions and arguments, where
something is either affirmed or denied and this in turn is either true or false,
correct or incorrect.
EXPRESSIVE
This function is best illustrated in poetry where emotions and attitudes are
expressed beautifully.
This function also seen in common exclamations that express of different
moods and they are far from poetic. It is hardly ask if it is true or false like;
Oh no! Right!
DIRECTIVE
This function of language is mostly easily seen in commands and requests
It is that which prods or prevents an action to be done.
One cannot speak of each of these as either true or false
Sample:
Write me a letter when you reach California
Emy, please sing Nasaan ka Irog?
SIMPLE APPREHENSION, IDEA/CONCEPT AND TERM
Simple Apprehension
An act of conceiving an object
A process through which the capacity of thinking comprehends/understands
the objective of reality as it is outside the mind.
Nature of Simple Apprehension
Simple Apprehension is the operation by which we grasp the meaning of a
term.
(e.g.)
TRIANGLE – three-sided figure and it attend to its meaning
MAN – MORTAL; Alden Richard
The operation, which your mind performs is none but simple apprehension.
SIMPLE APPREHENSION WITH REFERENCE TO TERM

Is a mental operation by which we mentally grasp a thing, making it present in
and to our mind, but without affirming or denying anything about it.
OBJECTS OF SIMPLE APPREHENSION
MATERIAL OBJECT
The whole thing that is known by simple apprehension.
Includes not only what we know about the thing grasped.
(ie) its formal object), but also all else that is knowable in the thing.
FORMAL OBJECT
The essence or quiddity (whatness) of things
Simple apprehension is an intellectual grasphing of “what a thing is”
Concept
Etymological meaning
Latin – concepire
Means to conceive
Real meaning
Mental image which is created by the process of thinking on the process
of conceiving/visualizing an object.
A representation of an object by the intellect through which a student
comprehend a thing
It is attained through the process of abstraction
The Meaning of Concept or Idea
A concept or idea is the mental expression of an essence (quiddity) of a thing.
It is the product that simple apprehension produces within the mind as a
means of knowing the essence of a thing.
Ideas are the building stones of knowledge.
Man makes judgments, and judgments either expresses a truth or an error.
Ideas are the elements that constitute the judgment we form in our mind,
therefore they (ideas) are the foundation of knowledge.
The Formation of Ideas
“NOTHING COMES INTO THE MIND WITHOUT PASSING THROUGH THE SENSES”
ARISTOTLE
FORMATION OF IDEAS
Man’s first contact with the reality around him is through the senses (the
windows of his being)
The Proper object of Senses

SENSE IMAGE - PHANTASM
The image or representation of a thing formed in our mind.
It is the first step in the formation of ideas
Our phantasm always provides us all the sensible differences we can find in
things around us, thus it is particular, concrete and bears with accidental
elements.
A falling red, smooth,
and sweet apple
Ideas are formed in his mind as such, for our senses perfectly and faithfully
mirror every object we come in constant with.
The 10 Categories of Predicaments
according to ARISTOTLE
 Quantity
 Quality
 Relation
 Action
 Passion
 Time
 Posture/ Space
 Where/Place
 Habit
 Substance
Sample of accidents
QUANTITY (He is 5 kilos)
QUALITY (Pedro has dark skin)
RELATION (He is a student of Logic)
ACTION (Gina is cooking pork adobo)
PASSION (He is being humiliated in class)
TIME (He is now in Las Vegas)
WHERE/PLACE (He is coming in the Philippines)
POSTURE / SPACE (He is standing)
HABIT (He dressed well)
SUBSTANCE (This table is brown)
INTELLECT (MIND)
Is the seat of idea, something immaterial and phantasm or sense image is
something material.
A phantasm is not proportionate to the immaterial intellect.
To become actually intelligible, the phantasm has to be dematerialized,
stripped of its material conditions (accidents)
Abstraction
Abstrahere (Latin word)
To separate or to move away
A mental act by which the process of thinking studies the physical
characteristics with regard to its color, size, material, etc. in order to think of
the purpose of an object.
Attention
Mental act by which the process of thinking fixes its consideration upon on
particular object after having sense it.
Example:
Driving a car – need full attention
Student – pay attention to your professor because a good professor
must be a good student, first.
Mental Reflex Activity
Reflection
A mental act of having aware of an act itself so that it looks things objectively,
having differences between the 2 given arguments
Example:
The face of the man and
The face of cat
Comparison
Mental act by which the process of thinking notices his similarities and
differences in the object having the same essence with the same geneses or
classes
Sample
Angela and Monkey
They are both essence but
Angela is a rational animal
Monkey is a brute
COMPREHENSION
is the sum total of the intelligible elements of the quiddity (whatness)
signified by the term or concept.
These intelligible elements are referred to as notes, which include basic
elements that a thing has and what ever is deductible from the basic elements
SAMPLE
Man has the following comprehension:
Rational
Sentient / Attentive
Animate / Alive or Living
Corporeal / Physical
Substance / Matter - Body
The following are those deducible from man:
capable of speech
social being risible (funny)
tool-using
etc.
MEMORY
After Phantasm and the idea have been formed, they are then passed into a
mental storage called the memory.
Once in the memory, the idea stays permanently.
That is why we can have recollections of things we know previously, for every
idea that we have leaves an imprint in our mind.
FORMATION OF IDEAS
THING---
product of Qualities/ Dematerialized Made up Store

ideas
sensation accidents phantasm of a
sight of a essence
smell thing of a thing
taste
touch
hearing
FROM THING TO IDEA

THING - PERCEPT
Man’s first contact with reality around him is through the SENSES – the window
of his being.
The outer senses distinguish the THING and all these sensations are
synthesized in the common sense producing in the process the PERCEPT,
which is the impressed species of a sensible order.
This percept activates the imagination, memory and cognitive senses-internal
senses.
The percept does this directly because it is material and therefore
proportionate to the same material nature of the internal senses.
PHANTASM
The action of the internal senses produces PHANTASM, which expressed
species of a sensible order.
Our phantasm always provide us all the sensible differences we can find in
things perceived, thus it is particular, concrete and bears with accidental
elements.
The intellect however is something immaterial. Phantasm therefore is not
proportionate to the immaterial intellect.
ABSTRACTED NATURE
To become actually intelligible, the intellect, leaving behind only the
ABSTRACTED NATURE, which is dematerialized.
This is the impressed species of an intelligible order.
This now actuates the possible intellect and the act produces the IDEA, which
is the expressed species of an intelligible order.
IDEOGENESIS
The mental operation by which ideas are abstracted from an image, which in
turn, acquired by sensation of the things in reality.
Types of Concept
4 Types of Concept
with different Classification
Concept based on Intention
Concept based on Subject and Form
Concept based on Substance and Accident
Concept based on Existence and Possession
Concept based on Intention
First Intention
It is a concept by which you know things in the process of thinking
independently
Second Intention
It is a concept by which we conceive a thing in reality in so far as the
process of thinking understands
It is not regardless of what reality but how it is in the process of thinking
Sample
1st Intention
The dog in reality has four legs and an animal
Therefore understood that the dog is according to what it is in reality
regardless of what we think about it
2nd intention
Los Angeles California is a city of angels
It is understood to be the place of the city of angels in so far as the mind says
it.
Concept based on
Subject and Form
These subject and form are so called essence and quiddity metaphysically.
Subject is one of the spoken of and looked upon having a perfection or

attributes embodied in it.
Form which an object exists as it is
Sample
Subject
Glass has quiddity of glass’ness
Book has quiddity of book’ness
Form
Dog has an animality that makes dog animal or a real animal
Concept based on
Substance and Accident
Substantia (Latin word)
The existence in itself without requiring another being as a subject of its
inherence
It is the existence of the form and not mere modifications/adjustments of the
subject which they inhere to
These are classified into 2
Absolute concept
Connotative concept
Absolute Concept
Denotes the meaning of a complete substance endowed with its independent
reality.
When it signifies something to the mind, absolute concept becomes abstract
concept
Sample
Concept of moon in its brightness
Concept of dog as animality
Connotative Concpet
Represents form without the subject
In English grammar, it tells something about the adjectives that being modified
to the subject
Sample
The wise man found Jesus in the manger
Wise – modifier
Man - subject
Wise used as modifier that modifies to the subject man
Concept based on
Existence and Possession
It tells something about assertive or denial; positive or negative
Positive concept
It signifies the possession on the existence or the existence of something
Sample: beautiful, happy love etc.
Negative concept
It denotes the non-existence or non-possession of something
Sample : non-beautiful, non-happy, non-love
Term
Term
External sign of a concept and last element of a proposition
A term is oral if it is expressed and written if it is drafted
PROPERTIES OF IDEA OR
TERM
KINDS OF EXTENTION
includes the subjects
signified by the term
ABSOLUTE EXTENTION
the sum total of the subjects of the actual subjects as well as the
possible subjects – whose quiddity is signified by the term or concept.
Sample:
Man is a social being
Every lilies is a flower
EXTENTION
FUNCTIONAL EXTENTION
includes only those subjects that are actually set before the mind when
is used in discourse.
UNIVERSAL
If it sets before the mind each of the subject whose nature it signifies.
e.g. every man

PARTICULAR
If it sets before the mind an indeterminate designed portion of its total
possible extension.
e.g. some men
SINGULAR
If it sets before the mind one that is definitely designed to the individual
or group.
e.g. best man
INVERSE PROPORTION BETWEEN COMPREHENSION AND EXTENSION
GENERAL RULE
The greater the comprehension of a term or concept, the lesser the extension.
The greater the extension of a term or concept, the lesser the comprehension.
e.g.
COMPREHENSION Man is rational being
(making definition)
EXTENSION Pedro, Teacher, etc.
These are the
individual comprising the term or
classifying (making division)
ILLUSTRATION
5 PREDICAMENTS
of ARISTOTLE & AQUINAS
The different modes or ways in which a universal can be predicated of its
subject.
 SPECIES (complete essence)
 GENUS (part of the essence which is common to others)
 SPECIFIC DIFFERENCE (part of the essence which makes it unique)
 PROPERTY (not essence but flows from the very essence)
 ACCIDENT
2 KINDS OF SUBSTANCE
VISIBLE material things which contains body
INVISIBLE immaterial – no bodies

TREE OF PORPHYRY
SUBSTANCE
CORPOREAL INCORPOREAL
(BODY) (SPIRIT)
ORGANISM MINERAL
(ORGANIC) (INORGANIC)
SENTIENT NON SENTIENT

(ANIMAL) (PLANT)
RATIONAL NON RATIONAL

(MAN) (BRUTE)
KINDS OF TERM
TERM
FIRST ACT:
SIM PLE APPREHENSION
IDEA or CONCEPT
Properties: Kinds:
CONCRETE (+)
COMPREHENSION
ABSTRACT (-)
TERM
SINGULAR (S)
EXTENSION PARTICULAR (P)
UNIVERSAL (U)
ACCORDING TO COMPREHENSION
1. CONCRETE
Is a term which pertains to the expressions of a form and a subject
It can be perceived by the senses
ACCORDING TO COMPREHENSION
2. ABSTRACT
Is a term which pertains to the abstract quality in form only, thus it cannot be
perceived by the senses.
ACCORDING TO EXTENSION
1. SINGULAR
if it stands for one individual or group and designates that individual or
group definitely.
SINGULAR TERM – PROPER NAMES
are singular in their extension
e.g. Ma. Katrina Mendoza
Peter John Lising
San Sebastian College – Recoletos
SINGULAR TERM – SUPERLATIVES
in their strict sense are singular by their very nature.
e.g. Tallest
Most Handsome
MVP (most valuable player)

SINGULAR TERM – DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS
“this” and “that” are singular inasmuch as they definitely designed a
single individual or group.
e.g. This student
That classroom
SINGULAR TERM – PERSONAL PRONOUN
“I” is always singular.
e.g. I am a sebastinian
SINGULAR TERM – COLLECTIVE NOUNS
(teams or group) are singular if they stand for a definite group that they
designate definitely.
Nouns that are grammatically plural are singular from the point of view
of logic if they definitely designate one group.
e.g. The Lady Stags is a volleyball team to

beat.
Those five men make up a basketball

team.
SINGULAR TERM – DEFINITE ARTICLE
“the” takes both singular and universal extension depending upon its
use.
e.g. The man is studying (singular)
The man is rational being (universal)

2. PARTICULAR
if it stands for an indeterminately designated portion of its absolute
extension.
* if it stands for one individual or group without designating it.
* if it stands for more than one, but not all, of the individuals or group
to which it can be applied.
A TERM IS PARTICULAR IF…
 It uses the positive quantifier like;
e.g. a number of
few
many
most
several
2. It uses the negative quantifier not all (normally placed before the subject
term)
e.g. Not all students are diligent.

3. It uses the indefinite articles “a” and “an” as modifiers
- use of “a” followed by the consonant (b,c,d,f,…)
- use of “an” followed by the vowel (a,e,I,o,u)
e.g. A man is walking (particular)

A man is a risible being (universal)
An animal is wild (particular)

An animal is a mortal creature
(universal)
3. UNIVERSAL
It stands for each of the subjects to which it can be applied
e.g. Every Sebastinian,

students without exception.
Universal Terms may be:
IMPLICIT
when a term is not being modified by without the use of any qualities.
e.g. Men are mortal beings.
Angels are supernatural creatures.
Whales are mammals.

Universal Terms may be:
EXPLICIT
When a term is being modified by a quantifier.
e.g. All men are mortal beings.
Every angel is a supernatural creature.
Whales without exception are mammals.

A Term is Universal if….
 It uses the positive quantifiers like;
ALL
EVERY
WITHOUT EXCEPTION
2. It uses the negative quantifier “NO”
(normally placed before the subject term)
e.g. No sebastinian student is lazy in his

studies.
3. If it uses the definite article “the”
e.g. The dog is barking (Singular)

The dog is an animal (Universal)
4. If it uses the indefinite article “a”
e.g. A dog is barking (Particular)
A dog is an animal (Universal)

KINDS OF TERMS ACCORDING TO THE
MANNER OF MEANING
UNIVOCAL TERM
Unus (Latin word) – infinite verb of Latin word
Vocare – to call (to call one)
A term with exactly the same or one meaning.
e.g. Jay, Jesus and Judas are men.
ACCORDING TO THE
MANNER OF MEANING
EQUIVOCAL TERMS
The term has entirely different meanings as applied to a number of
things.
ACCORDING TO THE
MANNER OF MEANING
ANALOGOUS TERMS
are terms/words that express partly the same and partly different
meaning.
An Analogy maybe by reason of:

 PROPORTIONALITY
when the application is based on a similarity of two relationships.
An Analogy maybe by reason of:

B. ATTRIBUTION
when the application is based on a relationship of a secondary analogue
to a primary analogue.
ACCORDING TO
MANNER OF RELATION
 CONTRADICTORY
are concepts so related that the one is the simple negation of the
other.
e.g. Man and non-man
Being and non being
Contradictory term are easily formed by simply prefixing to the word

the negative particle “non”
ACCORDING TO
MANNER OF RELATION
2. CONTRARY
are concepts that belong to the same genus but differ from one another
as much as possible within that genus.
e.g. hot and cold
expensive and cheap
Contrary term may be:

IMMEDIATE OPPOSED
if there is no middle ground between them and if collectively they
embrace the entire extension of the genus to which they belong.
e.g. rational and irrational

creatures are either with reason or without
male and female
man’s gender is either masculine or
feminine
Contrary term may be:
MEDIATELY OPPOSED
if there is a middle ground between them
e.g. hot and cold

in between them there is such a thing
as lukewarm.
small and large
in between them, there is a medium size.
ACCORDING TO
MANNER OF RELATION
3. PRIVATIVE
are concepts that include like
DEATH
BLINDNESS
DEAFNESS
DEFECT
Walk – Lame
Intelligence - Stupidity
A Concept is privative if…
 If presents a thing to the mind according to what the thing was, or
had, or would be expected to have and without the thing is defective.
e.g. Blindness
is the lack of sight in subject that
ought to have it.
A Concept is privative if…
2. It expresses such a defect in the abstract.
e.g. Blind
a defect expressing the abstract blindness.
* It means lack of something in the subject that ought to have or posses it.
ACCORDING TO
MANNER OF RELATION
4. RELATIVE
are concepts mutually exclusive and so related that neither of them can
be thought of without reference to the other.
e.g. husband and wife
master and servant
are concept that are impossible to be realized in the same subject at
least in the same respect.
e.g. parent and offspring
Supposition
Latin word
Sub – under
Ponere – to put
It is to put under
Property of term that acquires from its use in the proposition
2 kinds of supposition
Formal Supposition
Material Supposition
Formal Supposition
Word for its real meaning
Sample
Manila is the capital city of the Philippines
Material Supposition
Supposition that uses a word for itself alone
Sample
GC stands for Gordon College
Definition
Latin word of DEFINIRE (enclose within a limit)
Signifies an act of defining a term
2 kinds of definition
Real
Nominal
Real
Definitio rei (Latin word)
Definition of things
The nature of things that manifest structure of the thing explicitly by the term
to be defined
Essential definition
Distinctive definition
Genetic definition
Causal definition
Accidental definition
Essential Definition
Definition that is complete
It is equivalent of species, wherein it is constructed by genus and specific
difference
It explain the essence of a thing
Sample
Man is a rational being
A triangle is a three sided polygon
Distinctive Definition
Definition that explains what a thing is
It is noted for the attributes or properties of a thing
Sample
Man can drive automobile
Oxygen is a tasteless, odorless gas
Genetic Definition
Definition that pertains to the process of origin or the production of a thing
Sample
Dengue is a tropical transmitted by the mosquito, causing fever
and pain in the joins
Causal Definition
Definition that pertains to;
Efficient and
Final cause
ARISTOTLE’S
DIVISION OF CAUSES INTO FOUR KINDS
 MATERIAL
 FORMAL
 FINAL
 EFFICIENT
sample
KINDS OF CAUSES
Sample
Wooden table in front of us and want to explain why?
1st qualities of table – wood = material cause of the table
Material cause refers to composition of something
what a thing is made of.
KINDS OF CAUSES
Sample
Wooden table in front of us and want to explain why?
2nd table is there because of wood that has been form or shape of a table. For
had this wood been shaped as a chair, there would not be a table there.
This table form or shape is a formal cause of the table
A formal cause refers to the design of form of something that makes it what
it is.
KINDS OF CAUSES
Sample
3rd the table is there because someone needs it there, to put his/her
things on
To have something to put things on is the final cause of the table.
Final cause refers to the purpose of something.
Accident Definition
Refers to a thing that may be contingently connected with its properties
Sample
The table is made by wood
A good marriage is a product of Faithfulness and Love for each
other
KINDS OF TRUTH
CONTINGENT/CONDITIONAL TRUTH
Is not true in all possible situations
Empirical truth are contingent truth
Sample
THE TABLE IS BROWN
Only true in a situation where there is a table that happens to
be brown in color - TRUE
Another situation where there is table that is black in color -
FALSE
Nominal Definition
Nominis (Latin word)
Definition of names
It denotes ownership
Nominal definition by Etymology
From the origin of the word in infinitive verb
Sample
Philosophy
Philia
Sophia
Nominal definition by Example
Denotes a definition by giving a term to be defined;
It denotes its example
Sample what is a laptop?
By telling an example
Nominal definition by Synonym

Defines a word with similar meaning
Sample:
Big – Huge -Large
Nominal Definition by Description
Denotes by describing the thing signified by a term in order to indicate what a
thing is that is being spoken of
Sample:
Pen – used for writing
Rules of Good Definition
Term to be defined is really appropriate for defining term or not
Clarity
Adequacy
Positive
Clarity
A definition should avoid vagueness or ambiguity
A highly theoretical definition and figuratie language must be avoided
It must be presented in a terminology that can average person is likely to
understand
It must be misleading as well
Sample
Figurative definition
A clock is a time that heals and erases the memories of a
painful yesterday
Obscure definition
Net is the reticulated fabric decussated at regular intervals
with interstices and intersections
Adequacy
A definition must be specific
It must not be to narrow or too broad
Narrow if it prevents us from applying a term to all the things to which it
cannot be applied
Broad if it allows us to apply a term things to which cannot be applied
It must also be interchangeable
Sample
A wolf is a sheep killing animal
Wolf is a narrow (does not include wolves that not all wolves
eat sheep)
Sheep killing is too broad (sheep killing is applicable to
animals other than wolves)
Positive
A definition must not be needlessly negative
As a rule, opposition is not an adequate way of defining terms
A definition most state what a thing is, not what a thing is not
Sample
A male is not a female
Brief
A definition must be not be circular
It should be specific and precise
Sample
A preacher is the one who preaches
PART 2
THE SECOND ACT OF THE MIND
JUDGMENT
Judgment
Refers to that act wherein the mind affirms or denies anything about the
subject.
* MENTAL PRODUCT: Mental Proposition or Judgment – simply refers to

an articulation of the mind’s affirmation or denial of the thing grasped.
* EXTERNAL SIGN: Proposition – a kind of statement/discourse which
expresses truth or falsity.
The Nature and
Meaning of Judgment
Ideas, as we have previously discussed, are formed and produced in the mind
through its first act called simple apprehension.
Truthfully, ideas are the building block of knowledge, that it is, they are the
first step towards attaining knowledge.
However, ideas in themselves do not express truth or falsehood.
Ideas are neither true or false.
Ideas may appear every now and then in our minds, but unless we start to
compare an idea with another idea or ideas, truth will remain to be lacking.
How to attain the truth?
Our mind must take at least two ideas, compare them with each other, then
express their agreement or disagreement; only then can arrive at either a truth
or falsehood.
Sample
I have the idea ‘PEN’
And the idea “BLACK”
There is nothing true or false (yet) in pen or black.
But when I start to compare the two and eventually articulate or pronounce
their agreement, and say for instance The pen is black or The pen is not black,
can we only then talk about truth and or falsehood.
MENTAL ACT
The mind pronounces the agreement or disagreement of two ideas is called
judgment.
Sample;
The mind compare ‘this pen and black’ and then makes a pronouncement that
‘this pen is black’ or ‘this pen is not black’
THIS PEN is called the subject idea
BLACK is the predicate idea
3 THINGS NECESSARY IN JUDGMENT

Understanding of the 2 ideas at question
The mind must first have an understanding of the 2 ideas about which it
intends to make a judgment.
Comparison of the 2 ideas
The mind must compare the 2 ideas in questioning; study the
comprehension of each which would be needed in the pronouncement of the
agreement or disagreement of the said ideas.
Mental pronouncement of the agreement or disagreement of the 2 ideas at
question
After having compared the said ideas, the mind is now ready to
articulate or pronounce the agreement or disagreement between them.
MANNER AND FORM OF JUDGMENT
MATTER OF JUDGMENT
Refers to materials or objects which enter into composition in the judgment.
The pen is black

THE PEN - subject idea
BLACK - predicate idea
FORM OF JUDGMENT
Refers to the pronouncement of the agreement or disagreement between 2
compared ideas
THE PEN IS BLACK

Pronounced agreement between The pen and black
Pronounced disagreement
The pen is not black, is a disagreement between The pen and black
POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE JUDGMENT
POSITIVE JUDGEMENT -Shows agreement between compared ideas .
NEGATIVE JUDGMENT -Shows disagreement between compared ideas.

PROPOSITION
Second Act:
Judgment
Mental Proposition
Parts: Elements: Properties: Kinds:
SINGULAR (S)
SUBJECT (S)
MATTER - QUANTITY
PARTICULAR (P)
PROPOSITION PREDICATE (P)

UNIVERSAL (U)
AFFIRMATIVE (+)
COPULA (C) - FORM - QUALITY ( am,
are is)
NEGATIVE (-)
Regular –am, are , is not

Irregular : "Not all" before
the S (P)
“No" before the S (U)
THE MEANING OF PROPOSITION

Is the external expression of judgment.
Is a sentence that expresses a judgment.
It may defined also as;
 A statement in which anything is either affirmed or denied
 A judgment expressed in a sentence
 A sentence which is expressive of the argument or disagreement
between two or more terms.
Are sentences, but not all sentences are necessary propositions.
Propositions are limited only to DECLARATIVE SENTENCES
English Grammar
4 kinds of sentences
Declarative or proposition
It is one that states a fact. It asserts or denies something.
Logic is the science and act of correct thinking.
Imperative
It is one that gives a command or one which makes a request
Please closed the door
Interrogative
It is one that asks a question
When is your birthday
Exclamatory
It is one that express a strong feeling
What an awesome God he has
BASIC ELEMENTS OF A PROPOSITION
ELEMENT S OF JUDGMENT
 Subject idea
 Predicate idea
 Mental pronouncement of the agreement or disagreement
ELEMENTS OF PROPOSITION
 Subject term
 Predicate term
 Copula
The matter of judgment
The subject idea and predicate idea are expressed in a proposition by the
subject term and predicate term respectively.
While the mental pronouncement of the agreement, is expressed in a
proposition by what we call a copula.
COPULA
Is expressed by the present tense of the indicative mood (is used for factual
statements and positive beliefs) of the verb “to be” [am, are is if showing
agreement; am not, are not if showing disagreement]
It expressed in the present tense because it expresses a present act of the
mind.
Judgment is a present act of the mind. The mind may judge about a past or
even a future event, but the judgment about said things is done at the present
moment.
Sample of proposition
agreement
Athletes are healthy
Athletes – subject term

Healthy – predicate term
Are – copula
disagreement
Saints are not sinners
Saints – subject term

Sinners – predicate term
Are not – copula
THE LOGICAL FORM OF THE PROPOSITION

Presentation of the proposition
Every proposition may be transformed into its logical form.
The Logical form of the proposition is
S - subject
C - copula
P - predicate
THE LOGICAL FORM OF THE PROPOSITION

Not all propositions are presented in its logical form, sometimes the copula is
hidden, meaning, not expressed.
However if it is a proposition, then it can be transformed in the logical form .
PROPOSITION in the PAST TENSE

A proposition which is expressed in the past tense;
Original Proposition
Miguel ate ice cream
PROPOSITION in the
FUTURE TENSE
Original Proposition
Logic student will past the course.
CLASSIFICATION OR
KIND OF PROPOSITION
Proposition can be classified from the different points of view.
From the point of view of its quality, a proposition is either affirmative or
negative,
While from the point of view of its quantity or extension, it may be singular,
universal or particular.
QUALITY
AFFIRMATIVE
When the subject is affirmed of its predicate or when what is expressed is an
agreement between the subject and predicate terms.
The copula used is either am, are or is.
Sample;
Some students are prayerful.
QUALITY
NEGATIVE
When the subject is denied of its predicate or when what is expressed is a
disagreement between the subject and predicate terms.
The copula used is either am not, is not or are not.
Sample;
Some students are not prayerful.
QUANTITY or EXTENSION
SINGULAR
When the subject term of the proposition is a singular term
Sample;
Dr. Ediric D. Gadia is the Dean of CEAS.
singular term
UNIVERSAL
When the subject term of the proposition is a universal term.
Sample;
All logic students will be given a passing mark.

universal term
PARTICULAR
When the subject term of the proposition is a particular term.
Sample;
Some priests are holy.
particular term
SINGULAR PROPOSITION
For purposes of simplicity, however singular proposition shall also be
considered under the category of the universal proposition,
This is because the very definition of a universal concept or term would already
encompass that of the singular concept term.
Dr. Ediric Gadia is the Dean of CEAS

is classified as a universal proposition
THE A,E,I AND O PROPOSITION
All proposition possess their quality and quantity extension.
Therefore the proposition ;
All lawyers are professionals
– both universal and affirmative
*Universal in terms of quantity – All lawyers
*Affirmative proposition in terms of quality – agreement between the subject
and the predicate or the copula used “is”
4 TYPES OF PROPOSITION
 Universal affirmative proposition
 Universal negative proposition
 Particular affirmative proposition
 Particular negative proposition
Samples of 4 types of proposition
1. Universal affirmative proposition
All fruits are sweet.
2. Universal negative proposition

No fruit is sweet
All fruit are not sweet
3. Particular affirmative proposition

Some fruits are sweet
4. Particular negative proposition

Some fruits are not sweet
IMMEDIATE IDENTIFICATION
A Universal Affirmative
E Universal Negative
I Particular Affirmative
O Particular Negative
The Letters A,E,I and O
Affirmo and Nego– Latin word
Affirmo - I affirm and
Nego - I deny or negate
Basis: A ff I rmo
nEgO
A and E universal A – Affirmo

E – nEgo
I and O particular I – affIrmo

O - negoO
A,E,I and O
THE QUANTITY OR EXTENSION OF THE PREDICATE TERM
Apart from the knowledge of the quality and quantity or extension of the
proposition, another necessary matter to consider for the complete
understanding of the proposition is the determination of the quantity or
extension of the predicate term.
Such will be needed in leading us o the correct analysis of a proposition.
As mentioned is the previous discussion, the quantity or extension of both the
subject and the proposition itself, where the subject contained, is analyzed in
the same way, so that, if the subject term of the proposition is singular, the
proposition will also be considered as singular, In the same manner with
universal and particular.
THE QUANTITY OR EXTENSION OF THE PREDICATE TERM
The predicate term though also one of the elements of the proposition like the
subject term, is different from the latter, and is analyzed separately and
differently.
Venn Diagram – analyze and determine the particular term of the proposition
A Every Filipino is honest
S P
The entire set of the subject (Sebastianian) is shaded, while from the
perspective of the predicate term (honest), the shaded area is only seen as a
part of the said term (honest).
Thus from the diagram we can conclude that the subject (Sebastinian) is used
as universal, while the predicate is used as particular.
E No Filipino is honest
S P
The whole of the subject (Sebastinian) is separated from the whole of the
predicate (honest).
It means that no member of the group of the subject (Sebastinian) belongs to
the other group (honest).
As such both the subject and the predicate terms are used as universal.
I Some Filipinos are honest.
S P
Only a part of the subject (Sebastinian) is shaded which illustrate that such is
used as particular, while from the perspective of the predicate term (honest),
what is shaded is only a part thereof which demonstrated that the predicate
term (honest) is used as particular.
O Some Filipinos are not honest

S P
Only a part of the subject (Sebastinian) is shaded thus used as particular. Also
seen in the diagrams is the seperstion of the said part of the subject
(Sebastinian) from the whole of the predicate (honest), thus we can see that the
predicate (honest) is used as universal.
RULES IN QUALITY AND QUANTITY OF PREDICATE
We have seen that A and I propositions give a particular predicate term.
While E and O propositions give a universal predicate term.
A and I Affirmative - PARTICULAR

E and O Negative - UNIVERSAL
Thus we can infer that the predicate of an affirmative proposition is particular
while the predicate of a negative proposition is universal.
PRINCIPLES
 Generally, the extension of the predicate term of an affirmative
proposition is particular, unless otherwise indicated as singular.
 Generally, the extension of the predicate term of a negative
proposition is universal, unless otherwise indicated as singular
PREDICATE
Affirmative = Particular
PREDICATE
Negative = Universal
LOGICAL OPPOSITION AND EQUIVALENT
The Laws of Thought
All truths are based on the three (3) Basic Laws of Thought.
These are;
 The Principle of Identity.
 The Principle of Contradiction
 The Principle of Excluded Middle
THE PRINCIPLE OF IDENTITY
This principle can be stated variedly as:
 “A thing is according to what it actually is.”
 “Everything is identical to what it is.”
 “A thing is whatever it is.”
 Whatever is, is,”
• If a thing is, then it is; if a thing is not, then it is not.
• This simply implies that one and the same thing cannot be different
from its own self, for whatever is, is.
• Say, if this thing is a pen then this is a pen; or it this pen is black, then
this pen is black, for it cannot be otherwise.
THE PRINCIPLE OF CONTRADICTION

This principles states that “a thing cannot be and not be at the same time
under the same respect.”
One and the same thing cannot be and not be at the same time.
If a thing is, then it cannot be is not.
Say if a thing is black, then it cannot be not black.
Conversely, if a thing is not black, then it cannot be black at the same time, for
there will exist a contradiction.
THE PRINCIPLE OF CONTRADICTION
At a different perspective, we will see that this principle is but the Principle of
Identity expressed in a different manner.
According to the Principle of Identity, whatever is, is.
Thus, it cannot be is not.
This is also what the Principle of contradiction is stating, whatever is, is; it
cannot be is not, because it will be impossible for one and the same thing to
be and not to be the same time under the same respect.
THE PRINCIPLE OF
EXCLUDED MIDDLE
This principle states that;
Two contradictories cannot be both true or false together.
1. “A thing either is or is not”
2. “Everything must either be or not be”
If one is true, its contradictory must be false and vice versa.
It must be one or the other.
There can be no middle ground.
Between being and not being, there can nothing be in between.
Between is not there can be no middle ground.
THE PRINCIPLE OF
EXCLUDED MIDDLE
Identity tells us that whatever is, is.
It cannot be is not, as put forward by Contradiction.
And between is and is not, there is nothing in between, as put forward by
Excluded Middle.
These principles (Principles of Identity, Contradiction and Excluded Middle) are
the fundamentals in correct thinking and truth.
To have them readily present in the mind will give anyone ease in
understanding the properties of propositions when place in opposition to with
each other.
THE LOGICAL OPPOSITION
It refers to the relationship existing between propositions with the same
subject and predicate terms but differ terms of quality or quantity or both.
The propositions A, E, I and O differs in terms of quality and quantity;
DIFFERENCES OF LOGICAL PROPOSITIONS

A and E in terms of quality (affirmative and negative)
A and I in terms of quantity (universal and particular)
ON THE OTHER HAND
A and O in terms of in terms of quality (+ & -) and quantity (U & P)
A paired with E, I and O in terms of quality and quantity
E and I
E and O in terms of quantity (U & P)
I and O in terms of quality (+ & -)
TWO PROPOSITIONS CAN BE OPPOSED IN A NUMBER OF WAYS

 (A) Every dog is an animal. – (E) No dog is an animal.
 (A) Every dog is an animal – (O) Some dog is not n animal.
 (A) Every dog is an animal – (I) Some dog is an animal.
 (E) No dog is an animal – (I) Some dog is an animal.
 (E) No dog is an animal – (O) Some dog is not an animal.
 (E) Some dog is an animal – (O) Some dog is not an animal.
Sub-Alternation (A – I; E – O)
This type of opposition exist between proposition that have the same subject
and predicate terms and the same quality, but differing in terms of quality.
The involved propositions are called sub-alterns and their relation is known as
sub-alternation.
Sub-Alternation (A – I; E – O)
A and I (affirmative)sub-alterns
E and O (negative sub-alterns
The universal sub-altern – SUB-ALTERNANT

The particular sub-altern – SUB-ALTERNATE
All men are mortal beings. A proposition (U/+)

Some men are mortal beings. I proposition (P/+)
Contradiction (A – O; E – I)
This type of opposition exist between propositions that have the same subject
and predicate terms but differing in terms of both quality and quantity.
The involved propositions are called contradictories and their relation is known
as contradiction.
Contradiction (A – O; E – I)
Contradictories A and O E and I

Some Men are not mortal beings. O proposition (P/-)
All men are not mortal beings. E proposition (U/-)
Logicians call this perfect type of opposition for is an example of total

exclusion.
The relation between contradictory proposition is similar to the relation of
contradictory ideas or terms (white –non white).
It is the relation of mutual exclusion.
Contrariety (A – E)
This type of proposition exist between universal propositions that have the
same subject and predicate terms but differing in terms of quality.
The involve propositions are called contraries and their relation is known as
contrariety.
Contrariety (A – E)
CONTRARIES A and E (+/-)

All men are not mortal beings. E proposition (U/-)
Sub-Contrariety (I – O)
This type of proposition exist between particular propositions that have the
same subject and predicate terms but differing in terms of quality.
The involved propositions are called sub-contraries and their relation is known
as sub-contrariety.
Sub-Contrariety (I – O)
SUB CONTRARIES I and O (+/-)

Some men are not mortal beings. O proposition (P/-)
4 OPPOSITIONS OF CATEGORICAL PROPOSITIONS
A – O contradictory
E–I contradictory
A – E contrary
I – O subcontrary
A – I subaltern
E – O subaltern
THE SQUARE OF OPPOSITION
A E
I O
LAW OF SUB-ALTERNATION
“The truth of the universal involves the truth of the particular, but the truth of
the particular does not involve the truth of the universal.”
“The falsity of the particular involves the falsity of the universal, but the falsity
of the universal does not involve the falsity of the particular.”
If the statement is Doubtful it is definitely false
Sub-alternation law
The relation of the universal to the particular is similar to the relation of the
whole to its parts.
The truth about the whole involves or includes the truth of the parts.
Whatever is true to the whole must also be true to each and every part of the
whole; whatever is true to all is therefore , also true to some.
If the sub-alternant (universal) is true, then the sub-alternate (particular) is
also true.
It is because the particular is involved or included in the universal.
However the truth of the particular does not necessarily involve or include the
truth of the universal.
What is true to some need not be true to all.
The law says that the truth of the particular does not involve the truth of the
universal.
1. If A is true, then I is also true.
If E is true, then O is also true.
2. If I is true, then A is doubtful (may be true, may be false).

If O is true, then E is doubtful (may be true, may be false).
The second phase of the law of sub-alternation, on the other hand, is telling
us that the falsity of the particular would necessarily involve or include the
falsity of the universal.
What is false about the certain part of the whole would inevitably be false if
applied to the whole which involves or includes the same (certain) part.
What is false to some necessarily false to all.
However, if a certain fact is false as applied to the whole, the same cannot
necessarily be said about each part of the same whole.
What is false to all may not necessarily be (also) false to some.
1. If I is false, then A is also false
If O is false, then E is also false.
 If A is false, then I is doubtful

(may be true, may be false).
If E is false, then O is doubtful
LAW OF CONTRADICTION
Contradiction is considered by most logicians as a perfect form of opposition
because of a formal exclusion of the contradictories from each other.
“Contradictories cannot be true together nor can they be false together.”

As contradictories would formally exclude each other, both cannot be affirmed
at the same time or even be denied at the same time.
Consequently, if one is true, its contradictory must be false and if one is false,
then its contradictory must necessarily be true.
1. If A is true, then O is false.
If O is true, the A is false.
If E is true, then I is false.
If I is true, then E is false.
2. If A is false, then O is true.

If O is false, then A is true.
If E is false, then I is true.

If I is false, then E is true.
Contradiction Law
LAW OF CONTRARIETY
Contrariety refers to the relation of universal propositions that have same
subject and predicate terms, but differing in terms of quality.
Proposition involved herein are A and E propositions.
They are, therefore, contrary to each other, or simply, contraries.
“Contraries cannot be true together, but they can be false together.”

LAW OF CONTRARIETY
As contraries refers to the extremes among objects of a series that belong to
the same class or genus, both cannot be true at the same time but may be
false at the same time.
If one extreme is applicable, then the other extreme cannot anymore be
applied.
Thus, if one is true, then the contrary must be false.
However, if one extreme is not applicable, then we may not necessarily
conclude whether the other extreme is applicable or not.
It may or may be applicable.
Thus, if one is false, then the contrary is unknown, because it may be true or
false.
LAW OF CONTRARIETY
1. If A is true, then E is false.
If E is true, then A is false.
 If A is false, then E is doubtful

If E is false, then A is doubtful
Law of Contrary
LAW OF SUB-CONTRARIETY
Sub-contraries (or under the contraries) are those in between the contraries.
A and E are contraries.
A refers to all, while E refers to none.
Between all and none may be (I = some – are; O = some - are not).
Thus contraries have some thing in between and they are the sub-contraries.
“Sub-contraries cannot be false together, but they can be true together.”
Sub-contraries cannot be false together, because it is already possible for the
contraries to be false together.
4 propositions A, E, I and O.
A and E – contraries can already be false together.
I and O – impossible to be both false otherwise no truth is had.
Among the 4 propositions, one at least, must be true.
Thus, sub-contraries cannot be both false together.
However, sub-contraries can be true together (but not necessarily).
If the extremes or the contraries are both false at the same time, then it would
mean that the all and none cannot apply.
If all and none are both false, it may be because some – are (I), and or
some – are not (O).
 If I is false, then O is true.
If O is false, then I is true.
 If I is true, then O is doubtful
If O is true, then I is doubtful
(may be true, may be false)
Sub Contrary Law
Equivalent Proposition
In the immediate equivalent inference, also known as eduction, he 2
propositions speak of the same truth, and either one is directly
inferred/indirect from the other
2 kinds of eduction
Formal Eduction
Based on it’s validity on the quality of the propositions and the quantity
of terms
Material Eduction
Based it’s validity on the meanings of terms or the special character of
their matter or thought content
FORMAL EDUCTION
Is the formulation of a new proposition by either interchanging the subject and
the predicate terms of an original proposition and/or by the use or removal of
negative.
4 KINDS OF EDUCTION
 CONVERSION
 OBVERSION
 CONTRAPOSITION
 INVERSION
CONVERSION
Is the formulation of a new proposition by interchanging the subject and the
predicate of an original proposition but leaving its quality unchanged.
RULES IN SIMPLE CONVERSION
E–E;I–I
sample: (E) All rabbits are not birds.
Su Pu
(convertend – original proposition)
 Interchange the S and P birds rabbits
 Retain the quality birds are not rabbits.
 Maintain the quantity
All birds are not rabbits.
Su Pu
(converse – new proposition)
RULES IN SIMPLE CONVERSION
E–E;I–I
sample: (I) Some students are lazy
Sp Pp
(convertend – original proposition)
 Interchange the S and P lazy students

 Retain the quality lazy are students.
 Maintain the quantity
Some lazy persons are students.
Sp Pp
(converse – new proposition)
Note
A and O propositions
Cannot be converted by simple conversion because of the quantity of the
predicate term is not equal/the same
RULES IN PARTIAL CONVERSION
A–I;E–O
sample: (A) All men are living creatures
Su Pp
(convertend)
1. Interchange the S and P living creatures men.
2. Retain the quality living creatures are men.
3. Reduce the quantity Some living creatures are men.
Sp Pp
(converse)
RULES IN PARTIAL CONVERSION
A–I;E–O
sample: (E) No human being is a monkey.
Su Pu
(convertend)
1. Interchange the S and P monkey human being

2. Retain the quality NO monkey is a human being
3. Reduce the quantity Some monkey is not a human being.
Sp Pu
(converse)
Note
Partial conversion is applicable only for A and E propositions (Universal)
Cannot deduct to a (Particular) quantity
OBVERSION
Is the formulation of a new proposition by retaining the subject and quantity of
an original proposition, changing its quality and using as predicate the
contradictory of the original predicate
Eduction by the use of removal of negative (S)

RULES IN OBVERSION
A – E; E – A; I –O; O – I
sample: (A) All dolphins are mammals.
(obvertend –original proposition)
 retain the S dolphins

 maintain the quantity All dolphins
 Change the quality (+/-)All dolphins are not
 Put the predicate in itsAll dolphins are not non-mammals.
contradictory (obverse – new proposition)
CONTRAPOSITION
Is the formulation of a new proposition whose subject is the contradictory of
the original predicate.
Is a combination of obversion and conversion.
The original proposition is called contraponend, while the newly formed
proposition is called contraposit or contrapositive.
RULES IN PARTIAL/SIMPLE CONTRAPOSITION
A – E; E – I; O-I
How to get?
 obvert. (rules in obversion will be applied)
 then, simple/partial convert the obverse. (applicable rules in
conversion will employed).
How to check?
 the S is the contradictory of the original P
 the quality is changed.
 the P is the original S
Sample
A–E
Obvert
Simple Conversion
A= Slander is an evil act (contraponend)

Su Pp
Obvert Slander is not non-evil act
Convert (Simple)
E= No non-evil act is a slander (contraposit)
Su Pu
Sample
E–I
Obvert
Partial Conversion
E= No hero is a coward (contraponend)

Su Pu
Obvert All hero is a non-coward
Convert (Partial)
I= Some non-coward person is a hero (contraposit)
Sp Pp
Samples
O–I
Obvert
Simple Conversion
O= Several forests are not protected (contraponend)

Sp Pu
Obvert Several forests are non-protected
Convert (Simple)
I= Several non-protected places are forests (contraposit)
Sp Pp
Note
I propositions do not have contraposit
The obversion of I propositions are O propositions
After the obversion, the next step in conversion but O proposition cannot be
converted
Therefore I propositions cannot be subjected to contraposition
RULES IN COMPLETE CONTRAPOSITION
A – A; E – O; O–O
How to get?
 obvert.
 then, simple convert the obverse.
 then, obvert the converse of the obverse.
How to check?
 the S is the contradictory of the original P
 the quality is not changed
 the P is the contradictory of the original S
Sample
A–A
Obvert
Simple Conversion
Obvert
A= All cyclones are natural phenomena's (contraponend)

Su Pp
Obvert All cyclones are not non-natural phenomena’s
Convert (Simple) All non-natural phenomena’s are not cyclones
Obvert
A= All non-natural are non-phenomena’s (contraposit)
Su Pp
Sample
E–O
Obvert
Partial Conversion
Obvert
E= All parishioners are not boastful.(contraponend)

Su Pu
Obvert All parishioners are non-boastful
Convert (Partial) Some non-boastful are parishioners
Obvert
O= Some non-boastful persons are not
non-parishioners (contraposit)
Sp Pu
Sample
O–O
Obvert
Simple Conversion
Obvert
O= Some endangered species are not protected (contraponend)

Sp Pu
Obvert Some endangered species are non-protected
Convert (Simple) Some non-protected are endangered species
Obvert
O= Some non-protected animals are not non-species (contraposit)
Sp Pu
INVERSION
Is the formulation of a new proposition whose subject is the contradictory of
the original subject.
The original proposition is called inverted while the newly formed proposition
is called inverse.
Only A and E propositions have the inverses.
RULES IN PARTIAL INVERSION
A – O; E – I
 reduce the quantity

 quality is changed
 S is contradictory of the original S
 P is retained.
Sample
A=O
A= All terrorists are criminals (invertend)
Su Pp
Convert (partial) Some criminals are terrorists
Obvert Some criminals are not non-terrorists
Convert (simple)
O= Some non-terrorists are not criminals
(Inverse) Sp Pu
Samples
E=I
E= No reckless man is prudent. (invertend)
Convert (partial) Some prudent are reckless man
Obvert Some prudent are not non-reckless man
Convert (simple)
I= Some non-reckless man are prudent person
(Inverse) Sp Pp
RULES IN COMPLETE INVERSION

A – I; E – O
 reduce the quantity

 quality is retained
 S is contradictory of the original S
 P is contradictory of the original P
Samples
A=I
A= All martyrs are saints (invertend)
Su Pp
Convert (simple) All saints are martyrs
Obvert All saints are not non-martyrs
Convert (partial) Some non-martyrs are not saints
Obvert
I = Some non-martyrs are non-saints (Inverse) Sp
Pp
Sample
E=O
E= No X is Y (invertend)
Su Pu
Convert (simple) No Y is X
Obvert All Y is non-X
Convert (partial) Some non-X are Y
Obvert
O = Some non-X are not non-Y (Inverse)
Sp Pu
Material Eduction
Eduction by added determinant
This type of material eduction is arrived at by formulating a new proposition in
which some modifier is added to both the subject and the predicate terms of
the original proposition thereby limiting their extension
The added modifier has exactly the same meaning in relation to both
propositional
Sample
Voters are 18 years old persons
Therefore, principled voters are principled 18 years old (valid)
Principled has exactly the same meaning when used as added modifier to both
voters and 18 years old persons
Eduction by complex conception
It obtained by formulating a new proposition whose subject-term is a term
modified by the subject term of the original proposition and whose predicate-
term of the original proposition
While in eduction by added a determinant a new term modifies the original
subject and predicate terms, in eduction by complex, conception a new term is
modified by the subject and predicate terms
Negative propositions cannot be reformulated by way of eduction by complex
conception
Sample
If mother are loving are loving persons
The hearts of the mothers are the hearts of loving persons
And the caring of mothers is the caring of loving persons
Eduction by omitted determinant
This type of material eduction is attained by formulating a new proposition in
which a modifier of the original predicate-term is omitted
In effecting this care should be taken so as not to change the meaning of what
is left of the original predicate-term
Negative propositions cannot be reformulated by means of eduction by
omitted determinant
Sample
This is genuine gold
Therefore, it is gold
Eduction by converse relation
This type of material eduction is obtained by formulating a new proposition in
which a relationship is the very opposite of the one stated in the original
proposition
Sample
Venna is the dauther of Erlina
Therefore, Erlina is the mother of Venna
FINAL TERM
REASON ING
THE THIRD ACT OF THE MIND
THE SIMPLE CATEGORICAL SYLLOGISM

Gottfried Leibniz
German Mathematician and Philosopher
I consider the invention of the form of syllogisms one of the most important,
made by the human mind.
Review on the definition of the third act of the mind
REASONING - The act wherein the mind, from truths already known, proceeds
to the knowledge of another truth.
MENTAL PRODUCT: ARGUMENT – the mental contention on the truth or falsity

affirmed or denied.
EXTERNAL SIGN: SYLLOGISM – the inferential presentation of an argument.

NATURE OF REASONING
Among the physical beings , man alone has the ability to reason by virtue of
being rational.
To reason is the supreme operation of man.
This power to reason is subject to progressive phases from infancy to
adulthood.
Man has to undergo the proper stages of thinking by using first his common
sense until he develop it to correct thinking by using the scientific logic to
form a persuasively valid argumentation.
NATURE OF REASONING
In reasoning, the mind reaches its perfection.
First, it connects the idea to create knowledge in a form of judgment to
express truth or falsity of something.
The fullness of knowledge is not contained in judgment, hence the mind has to
go further to reach it.
This advance in knowledge is accomplished in the mind in the third act of the
mind.
TYPES OF REASONING
DEDUCTION
is the type of reasoning wherein the mind proceeds from more universal
or general truth to a less universal truth or particular truth.
Sample:
All material beings are corruptible.
But all dogs are material beings.
Therefore , all dogs are corruptible.
TYPES OF REASONING
INDUCTION
is the type of reasoning wherein the mind proceeds from sufficiently
enumerated individual instances to a universal or general truth.
Sample:
This mother (Maricris) is a female human beings;
Claire who is a mother is a fem human being;
Karen who is a mother, is a female human being;
This one (Mary), this (Stella), and this (Portia);
Therefore, all mothers are female human beings.
MEDIATE INFERENCE
It derives the conclusion (consequent) from two propositions (antecedent).
The inference is called mediate because of the following reasons;
 It connects or separates the conclusion’s subject and predicate
through the mediation of the middle term in the categorical syllogism.
 The major premise is the cause of the conclusion through the
mediation of the minor premise in the hypothetical syllogism.
Sample of Hypothetical Syllogism
If HE IS HIRED, he is a Sebastinian. Antecedent
But HE IS HIRED.
Therefore, he is a Sebastinian Consequent
Sample of Categorical Syllogism
Every DOG is an animal Major Premise
But every poodle is a DOG. Minor Premise
Therefore, every poodle is an animal Conclusion
Review of the Inference
Is any process by which our mind proceeds from one or more propositions
(from one or more statements, in which anything whatsoever is affirmed or
denied) to another proposition, so related to original propositions, that if they
are true, it must be also true.
A (old proposition) - B (new proposition)
2 PARTS OF INFERENCE OR SYLLOGISM
ANTECEDENT – is that from which something is inferred (secondary/indirect).
CONSEQUENT – is that which is inferred from the antecedent.
MEDIATE INFERENCE
Sample:
Every HUMAN BEING is a thinking being. Antecedent

But every Sebastinian is a HUMAN BEING.
Therefore, every Sebastinian is a thinking being Consequent
IMMEDIATE INFERENCE
Sample
Every HUMAN BEING is not non-thinking being Antecedent

Therefore, every HUMAN BEING is a thinking being Consequent
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN MEDIATE AND IMMEDIATE INFERENCE
Mediate Inference is a discussion falling under the third act of the mind.
Immediate Inference is a topic is still under the second act of the mind
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN MEDIATE AND IMMEDIATE INFERENCE

SYLLOGISM
Is a mediate inference wherein the conclusion (third proposition) is derived
from the premises (two propositions) that contain a medium.
The conclusion is so related to the premises that if they (premises) are true,
the former is also true.
Conclusion-indicators
Therefore - for these reasons
Hence - it follows that
Thus - we may infer
So - I conclude that
Accordingly - which shows that
In consequence - which means that
Consequently - which entails that
Proves that - which implies that
As a result - which allows us to infer that
For this reason - which points to the conclusion that
2 KINDS OF SYLLOGISM
 Categorical Syllogism
 Hypothetical Syllogism
Definition of Categorical Syllogism
Is a deductive argument which has a set of three categorical propositions that
are so related to make the conclusion’s subject and predicate connected or
separated through the mediation of the middle term.
Sample of Categorical Syllogism
Every DOG is an animal Major Premise
But every poodle is a DOG. Minor Premise
Therefore, every poodle is an animal Conclusion
We can observe that “poodle” and “animal” are connected through the
mediation of the term “dog”.
The same example illustrates the standard from meaning:
(a) It contains three categorical propositions
(b) The major premise is first asserted, followed by the minor premise and,
lastly, by the conclusion.
Basic Structure of a Syllogism
first element - TERM
MAJOR TERM
must occur in the conclusion as the predicate and in one of the premise,
generally in the first proposition.
Let us use T to label the major term or rectangle to display it
more graphically.
MINOR TERM
must occur in the conclusion as the subject and in one of the premises,
generally in the second proposition
Let us use t to label the minor term, or ellipse

to display it more graphically.
MIDDLE TERM
occurs in both premise but not in the conclusion.
Let us use M to label the middle term or M-shape box to

display it more graphically.
It is the medium that connects the minor and major term in an

affirmative syllogism and separates those terms in negative syllogism.
Second element - PROPOSITION
MAJOR PREMISE – is the proposition containing the major term, generally, the
first premise. It has greater extension than the other proposition of the
syllogism.
MINOR PREMISE – is the proposition containing the minor premise, generally
the second premise.
CONCLUSION – is the proposition containing both the major and the minor
terms.
Third element - CONSEQUENCE
This formal element is the form of syllogism wherein there is mutual
dependence of the proposition on each other.
The conclusion is dependent on premises.
This expressed externally by the words but and therefore.

Sample
SUBJECT COPULA PREDICATE
Every margay is a cat. T a M

But some animals are cats. t i M
Therefore, some animals aremargays t i T
Margay T Major Term

Cat M Middle Term
Animal t Minor Term
OTHER SYMBOLS:
u Universal
p Particular
+ Affirmative
- Negative
Sample 2
Arranging the statement into a logical form
Some Filipinos are not overseas workers because some dollar earners are
Filipinos and all overseas workers are dollar earner.
Major Premise: All overseas worker are dollar earner

Minor premise: Some dollar earners are Filipinos.
Conclusion: Therefore, some Filipinos are not overseas workers.
Major term: Overseas workers

Minor term: Filipinos
Middle term: Dollar earners
RULES OF CATEGORICAL SYLLOGISM
Chapter VIII
THE RULES OF THE TERMS
Their Number and Arrangement
RULE 1
There must be three (3) and only three (3) terms
-THE MAJOR TERM
-THE MINOR TERM
-MIDDLE TERM
Every margay is a cat. T a M
But some animals are cats. t i M
Therefore, some animals are margays t i T

Their Number and Arrangement
RULE 2
Each term must occur in two propositions.
The major term must occur in the conclusion, as predicate, and in one of the
premises, which is therefore called the major premise.
The minor term must occur in the conclusion, as subject, and in the other
premise, which is therefore called the minor premise.
The middle term must occur in both premises but not in the conclusion.
Sample in rule 2
All politicians are sociable people.

All councilors are politicians.
Therefore, all councilors are sociable people.

The Quantity or Extension of the Terms
RULE 3
The major and minor terms may not be universal (or distributed) in the
conclusion unless they are universal (or distributed) in the premises.
Mu e Tu
tp i Mp
tp o Tu
The Quantity or Extension of the Terms
RULE 4
The middle term must be universal, or distributed, at least once.
Some animals are pigs.

but all cats are animals.
therefore, some cats are pigs
THE RULES OF THE PROPOSITIONS

The Quality of the Proposition
RULE 5
If both premise are affirmative, the conclusion must be affirmative.
All risk-takers are gamblers.

but some Filipinos are gamblers.
therefore some Filipino are risk-takers.

RULE 6
If one premise is affirmative and the other negative, the conclusion must be
negative.
No computer is useless.
but all ATM are computers.
therefore no ATM is useless.
RULE 7
If both premises are negative-and not equivalently affirmative –there is no
conclusion at all.
No country is leaderless.
but, no ocean is a country.
therefore no ocean is leaderless. NO CONCLUSION

The Quantity of the Proposition
RULE 8
At least one premise must be universal.
* U+U=U
* U+P= P
All cats are domestic animals.

but no unicorns are domestic animals
therefore, some unicorns are not cats.
RULE 9
If a premise is particular, the conclusion must be particular.
•P+P=No Conclusion
No dogs are cats.
but some poodle are dogs.
therefore some poodle are not cats.
RULE 10
The actual real existence of a subject may not be asserted in the conclusion
unless it has been asserted in the premises.
This wood floats

but that wood floats.
therefore, all wood floats.
Logical Forms of the
Categorical Syllogism
The basic structure is also known as the logical form, which includes;
The arrangement of the terms
The arrangement of the propositions based on the quality and quantity.
General Nature
of the Figures and Moods
FIGURE OF A CATERORICAL SYLLOGISM
The figure is defined by the arrangement of the terms in the premises.
In the categorical syllogism, there are four figures based on the location of the
middle term that is found only in both premises but not in the conclusion.
4 FIGURES
OF THE CATEGORICAL SYLLOGISM
General Nature
of the Figures and Moods
MOOD OF A CATEGORICAL SYLLOGISM
The mood is defined by the arrangement of the kinds of propositions
(according to the quantity and quality combined)in the categorical syllogism.
It is based of propositions according to the quantity and quality (A, E, I and O)
MOOD OF CATEGORICAL SYLLOGISM
16 FAIRS
Invalid fairs
Violates rule # 7
Invalid fairs
Violates rule # 3
Invalid fairs
Violates rule # 8
The remaining valid combinations
but still violates the general rules
TH
THE SPECIAL RULES GOVERNING EACH FIGURES
1st figure (sub-pre)
RULE 3 is violated by mood A-E and A-O
RULE 4 also invalidates the moods I-A
and O-A
(for this reason we have only four (4) moods remaining)
4 MOODS remaining
SUB-PRE
1. M a T 2. M a t
t a M t i M
t a T t i T
3. M e T 4. M e t
t a M t i M
t e T t o T
Special rules of the first figures

1. The major premise must be universal
(A or E)
2. The minor premise must be affirmative
(A or I)
2nd figure (pre-pre)
RULE 4 is violated by moods A-A, A-I and I-A
RULE 3 also excludes the mood O-A
(for this reason, we have again the four remaining moods)
4 MOODS remaining
PRE-PRE
1. T a M 2. T a M
t e M t o M
t e T t o T
3. T e M 4. T e M
t a M t i M
t e T t o T
Special rules of the second figures
1. The major premise must be universal
(A or E)
2 One premise must be negative (E or O)
3rd figure (sub-pre)
RULE 3 disqualifies the mood A-E and A-O
(for this reason, we have the six remaining moods)
6 MOODS remaining
SUB-SUB
1. M a T 2. M a T 3. M e T
M a t M i t M a t
t a T t i T t o T
4. M e T 5. M i T 6. M o T
M i t M a t M a t
t o T t i T t o T
Special rules of the third figures

1. The minor premise must be affirmative
(A or I)
2. The conclusion must be particular (I or O)
4rt figure (pre-sub)
RULE 4 discards the moods A-I and A-O
RULE 3 also excludes the mood O-A
(for this reason, we have now the five remaining moods)
5 MOODS remaining
PRE-SUB
1. T a M 2. T a M 3. T e M
M a t M e t Ma t
t a T t e T t o T
4. T e M 5. T i M
M i t M a t
t o T t i T
Special rules of the fourth figures
 It he major premise is affirmative (A or I), the minor premise must be
universal (A or E)
Note: that the I-E combination has been proven to violate Rule 3 is
invalid.
 If the minor premise is affirmative (A or I), the conclusion must be
particular (I or O)
 If a premise is negative (E) the major premise must be universal (A).
The Valid Moods of Each Figure
There are 19 valid moods;
4 valid moods – 1st figure
4 valid moods – 2nd figure
6 valid moods – 3rd figure
5 valid moods – 4rt figure
The Valid Moods of Each Figure
MNEMONIC VERSES (Latin hexameters)
Barbara, Celarent, Darii, Ferioque prioris;

Cesare, Camestres, Festino, Baroco secundae;
Tertia Darapti, Disamis, Datisi, Felapton, Bocardo, Feriso habet.
Quarta insuper addit, Bramantip, Camenes, Dimaris, Fesapo, Fresison.
The first vowel – major premise

The second vowel – minor premise
The third vowel - conclusion
FIRST FIGURE (sub-pre)

Barbara Celarent Darii Ferio
M a T M e T M a T M e T
t a M t a M t i M t i M
t a T t e T t i T t o T
SECOND FIGURE (pre-pre)
Cesare Camestres Festino Baroco
T e M T a M T e M T a M
t a M t e M t i M t oM
t e T t e T t o T t o T
THIRD FIGURE (sub-sub)

Darapti Disamis Datisi
M a T M i T M a T
M a t M a t M i t
t i T t i T t i T
Felapton Bocardo Ferison

M e T M o T M e T
M a t M a t M i t
t o T t o T t o T
FOURTH FIGURE (pre-sub)

Bramantip Camenes Dimaris
T a M T a M T i M
M a t M e t M a t
t i T t e T t i T
Fesapo Fresison
T e M T e M
M a t M i t
t o T t o T
KNOWING THE TRUTH
LEARNING COMPETENCIES
THE NATURE OF TRUTH
Explain the nature of truth in terms of
A. being property of beliefs or statements
B. the consideration that have given rise to different kinds of truth
TRUTH AND KNOWLEDGE
Distinguish between the different ways or methods for knowing
determining or establishing the truth of a statements or beliefs
Explain the conditions of knowledge and how disagreement s about truth
and knowledge can be resolve
REASONING AND FALLACIES
Distinguish the kinds of reasoning used to arrive at or justify truth and
identify some common errors in reasoning.
THE NATURE OF TRUTH
TOPICS TO BE COVERED
 THE BEARERS OF TRUTH
 KINDS OF TRUTH
KEY CONCEPTS
Beliefs and statements are the bearer of truths
Empirical and rational truths
Universal and relative truths
Subjective and objective truths
Private and public truths
Necessary and contingent truths
A priori and a posteriori truths
Analytical and synthetic truths
Certain and probable truths
Religious, scientific, physical and psychological truths
EXPECTED LEARNING COMPETENCIES

Explain the nature of truth as a property of beliefs and statements
Identify the different ways of distinguishing certain kinds of truth
Explain the differences among certain kinds of truths
THE BEARER OF TRUTHS
Traits of a WISE PERSON
Aware of his/her ignorance
What is it that we know or do not know?
TRUTH
THE BEARER OF TRUTHS
PHILOSOPHY
Love of Wisdom
Search for TRUTH
WHAT IS TRUTH?
How do we know it?
When can we say that what we know is the truth?
What are the ways by which we can know the truth?
WHAT ARE THE KINDS OF THINGS THAT WE CAN PROPERLY SAY TO BE TRUE?
TRUTH
Understanding about truth;
Kind of property whose opposite is falsity
Something that is said to be true
We express as THE TRUTH or A TRUTH
To have the property of TRUTH or BEING TRUE
Sample;
THE TRUTH HURTS
What is being declared is that things that are
true
The property of being true – hurt
PROPERTY OF TRUTH
BEARER OF TRUTH
Which we can properly attribute the property of truth
Philosophers referred as the BEARERS OF TRUTH
3 CANDIDATES
FOR THE BEARERS OF TRUTH
BELIEFS
STATEMENTS
SENTENCE
SENTENCE
Not all sentences can be either true or false
When we say that sentences can be true, what we have in mind are the
declarative sentence only.
We do not say of a question, an exclamation or essential that is either
true or false.
Declarative sentence
to issue command
Grammatical form of sentence – meaning is urgent
Sample;
Your mother tells you that the floor is dirty
Most likely your mother wants you to clean the floor
Not just to inform you that the floor is dirty
STATEMENTS
not sentences are properly speaking the bearer of truth
Philosophers called it PROPOSITION
Refers to linguistic expression whose function is to advance a claim about the
world.
Claims may be about the things or events in the world about relations of
ideas.
Claims can be true or false – statements is either true or false
Express as declarative sentences
To describe a things in the world
Say to issue a command
It express claim
STATEMENTS
Truth bearers – they make claims
In terms of describing the world
Asserting/declaring ideas
Linguistic expression of our claims
BELIEFS
Mental expression of our claims – made in the mind
Statements are expression of beliefs – which makes as more basic than
statements
Determine the truth of a statement without associating it with belief.
Sample;
THE TABLE IS BROWN
Observe whether the table the statement is referring to is
actually brown.
Belief determine its truthfulness without associating its first
to the statement.
BEARERS OF TRUTH
Statement and beliefs are bearers of truth.
Sentences are bearers of truth only when function as statements and
statements and beliefs can be treated independently when determining their
truth.
CONFUSION BETWEEN
TRUTH AND A FACT
FACT
something that occurs in the world
makes certain statement true
Sample
There is a table at back
It is true that there is a table at the back (existence)
There is a table at the back but in reality there’s not - falsity
KINDS OF TRUTH
Statements and beliefs are either TRUE or FALSE
Certain questions or considerations about certain aspects of the truth or falsity
of statements and beliefs, which have given rise to different kinds of truth.
KINDS OF TRUTH
1. Truth of a belief or statement is established or arrived at by means of;
SENSE EXPERIENCE
Experience through the use of five sense organs
REASON
Through inference or analysis of concept
KINDS OF TRUTH
EMPIRICAL TRUTH
Established by means of sense experience
Technically describe as A POSTERIORI
It can only be known after some relevant experience
Sample
It’s raining – use of sense of sight
KINDS OF TRUTH
RATIONAL TRUTH
Established by means of reason
Technically describe as A PRIORI
It can be known before some relevant experience
Sample
Triangle has tree sides (mathematical truth)
Five and five are ten
KINDS OF TRUTH
2. Truth of a statement or belief extends our KNOWLEDGE OR ADDS TO WE
ALREADY KNOW
Question is technically express by some philosophers in terms of whether
the predicate of a true belief or statement is already contained in the
information provided by its subject.
KIND OF TRUTH
SYNTHETIC (FAKE) TRUTH
The information provided by the predicate is not contained in the information
provided by the subject
All empirical truth are synthetic truths
Sample
THE TABLE IS BROWN
Subject
Predicate
Are all table is brown?
KINDS OF TRUTH
ANALYTIC TRUTH
The information provided by the predicate is contained in the information
provided by the subject.
Definitions and identity statements are good examples of analytic truths
Sample
THE TRIANGE HAS THREE SIDES
Information about having three sides is contained in
the information of being a triangle
MAN IS A RATIONAL BEING
Subject
Predicate
Conformity to the essence of man
THERE IS NO EXTENSION OF KNOWLEDGE THAT
HAPPENS
KINDS OF TRUTH
3. The question of whether or not the statement or belief is true in all possible
situations
KINDS OF TRUTH
CONTINGENT/CONDITIONAL TRUTH
Is not true in all possible situations
Empirical truth are contingent truth
Sample
THE TABLE IS BROWN
Only true in a situation where there is a table that happens to
be brown in color - TRUE
Another situation where there is table that is black in color -
FALSE
KINDS OF TRUTH
NECESSARY TRUTH
Rational truths are necessary truths
Always true
Sample
A TRAINGLE HAS TREE SIDES
True in all possible situations in which it is said or expressed
KINDS OF TRUTH
4. Truth of a belief or statement can only be known by the person who has
belief or makes the statement.
KINDS OF TRUTH
PRIVATE TRUTH
Can only be known by the person who has the belief or makes the statement
considered to be true.
The truth of psychological statements or statements about one’s own mental
states.
Empirical and rational truths are both private truths
Sample
MY SKIN IS CUT AND BLEEDING – public truth
I feel great pain , I can directly know that I am in great pain -
result of private truth
Everyone in principle that my skin is cut and bleeding
KINDS OF TRUTH
PUBLIC TRUTH
The principle be known by everyone (by in principle we mean that occurrence
or presence of the necessary conditions like the knowing person is a normal
adult)
KIND OF TRUTH
5. The truth of a belief or statement is dependent on;
Attitudes
Preference
Interest of a person or a group of person.
KIND OF TRUTH
SUBJECTIVE TRUTH
Dependent on the attitudes, preferences or interests of a person or a group of
persons
Value judgment – aesthetic judgment
Sample
THE ROCK MUSIC IS THE BEST KIND OF MUSIC
Subjective –depend on one’s musical preferences
There are others;
Pop
Rap
KINDS OF TRUTH
OBJECTIVE TRUTH
Based on value judgment – factual/accurate judgment
Sample;
ROCK MUSIC IS ONE OF THE MAJOR KINDS OF MUSIC
Objective for whether one likes rock music or not the
statement.
Rock music is one of the major kinds of music remains to be
true.
Day 7
KIND OF TRUTH
6. Question of whether a belief or statement is acknowledged to be true by
everyone or only by some people.
KINDS OF TRUTH
UNIVERSAL TRUTH
Universally true if its true is acknowledge by everyone.
Objective truths are universal truth
KINDS OF TRUTH
RELATIVE TRUTH
Relatively true if its truth acknowledge only be some people.
Subjective truth are relative truth
KINDS OF TRUTH
7. The truth of a belief is arrived at through the process of deductive reasoning
or inductive reasoning
KINDS OF TRUTH
CERTAIN TRUTH
The truth of statement arrived at through the process of deductive reasoning is
certain.
Sample
ALL HUMANS ARE MORTAL
PEDRO IS MORTAL
PEDRO IS MORTAL
Inferred from the truth of statement that
ALL HUMANS ARE MORTAL
KINDS OF TRUTH
PROBABLE TRUTH
The truth arrived at through the process of inductive reasoning is merely
probable.
Sample
MOST FILIPINOS ARE HOSPITABLE
JUAN IS HOSPITABLE
JUAN IS A FILIPINO? is a probable truth
KINDS OF TRUTH
8. The question of under what area of study does the topic or content of a
belief or statement that is held to be true falls.
This gives us the rise number of truth, as many as there are different
areas of study.
KINDS OF TRUTH
DISCIPLINAL KINDS OF TRUTH
Religious truth
Concerns the truth of religious statements or beliefs
Scientific truth
The truth of scientific statements or beliefs
Psychological truths
The truths of psychological statements
Biological truths
Economic truths
KINDS OF TRUTH
Some of these kinds of truth interact with or closely related to one another
EMPIRICAL TRUTH
Synthetic and contingent truth
RATIONAL TRUTH
Analytic and necessary truth
Deductive or certain truths are necessary truth
OBJECTIVE TRUTH
Universal and subjective truth
THE TRUTH AND KNOWLEDGE
TOPICS TO BE COVERED
 WAYS OF KNOWLEDGE
 CONDITIONS OF KNOWLEDGE
KEY CONCEPTS
Theories of truth
Methods of truth
Correspondence of truth
Coherence of truth
Pragmatic of truth
Internal observation
External observation
Reasoning
Intuition
Authority
Mystical experience
Opinion
Knowledge of acquaintance
Practical knowledge
Propositional knowledge
Justified true belief
Disagreement
Disagreement in belief
Disagreement in attitude
Merely verbal disagreement
EXPECTED LEARNING OUTCOMES
Explain the differences among the correspondence, coherence and pragmatic
theories or methods of truth
Distinguish and explain the particular methods of observation, reasoning,
intuitions, mystical experience and the appeal to authority
Distinguish between knowledge by acquaintance, practical knowledge and
propositional knowledge
Explain the nature of knowledge as justified true belief
Explain the conditions of beliefs, truth and justification of knowledge
Distinguish between knowledge and forms of non knowledge (opinion and
guess)
Distinguish between disagreements in belief, attitude and merely verbal .
CULTIVATING KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS
WAYS OF KNOWING
Determining the truths of a given statement or belief
METHODS OF TRUTH
Distinguish into general and particular kinds
GENERAL METHODS OF TRUTH
Methods of truth described in what philosophers usually call theories of truth
Consisting of the
. Correspondence
Coherence
Pragmatic theories
Theories of truth are actually ways of explaining the truth or what makes the
statement or belief true
PARTICULAR METHODS OF TRUTH
Refers to a specific ways of applying of the general methods of truth
These are the
Observation
Reasoning
Intuition
Mystical experience
The appeal to authority
GENERAL METHOD OF CORRESPONDENCE
To know the truthfulness of a statement/belief
Examines whether the statement/belief
Corresponds to
Represent a fact in the world
If the statement/belief does correspond to a fact then the
statement is true
If the statement/beliefs does not correspond to the
statement, then it is false
Sample;
THE SKY IS BLUE – TRUE represents or
correspond to the fact that the sky is blue
WATER IS NOT WET – FALSE it does not
correspond to a fact that there is no form of
water that it is not wet.
GENERAL METHOD OF COHERENCE

To know the truthfulness of the statement/belief
Examining whether the statement/beliefs
coheres with the rules of the relevant system.
If the statement/belief coheres with these rules – TRUE
If does not - FALSE
Sample
THREE AND THREE ARE SIX – TRUE it coheres
with the rules of the mathematical system
BACHELORS ARE MARRIED MALES – FALSE it
violates the rules of language
GENERAL METHOD OF PRAGMATISM

The truthfulness of a statement/belief
Examining the consequences of holding or accepting the statement/belief
to be true
Holding of the statement/belief to be true result of beneficial
consequences – TRUE
If does not – FALSE
The statement/belief which we hold to be true though there are no
objective (universal) means to verify their truth.
Sample
Some people think that there are ghost or vampires
base their belief in the fact that they find it useful to
hold such a belief – like explaining unusual
phenomena and dealing with fears
TRUTHFULNESS OF STATEMENT/BELIEF
Generally examine whether or not;
They correspond to fact
Coherence with the rules of a system
Result of beneficial consequence
THE TRUTH AMONG THE
3 GENERAL METHODS
Depending on which is appropriate given the kind of statement/belief that we
are considering.
Sample
Believe in VAMPIRES
They believe because they think that there are vampires in
the world
These people, what makes their belief about vampires is true
that correspond to or represents actual creatures in the world
They justify by some kind of experience that they had or
accounts by some people.
QUESTION ABOUT THE GENERAL METHOD OF TRUTH
How does one know whether a statement/belief does;
Correspond to the fact
Coherence with the rules of a system
Result in beneficial consequence
We shall briefly examine the particular methods of
Observation
Reasoning
Intuition
Mystical experience
Appeal to authority
OBSERVATION
The method used if an empirical statement
A statement an observable fact in the world
Correctly represents a fact
INTERNAL OBSERVATION
INTROSPECTION
Observation of our own thoughts and feelings
To determine the truth by psychological statements
Statements about the mental or conscious states
OBSERVATION – EXTERNAL
Observation of things outside our mind or consciousness
The physical objects using the five organs of sense
Done with or without the aid of sensory extending devices such as telescope
and microscope
To verify the truth of physical statements
Statements about physical or material objects
REASONING
The process of knowing or establishing truth by means of our reason.
Varity of ways;
Testing for coherence
Use of 2 statements are contradictory or cannot be held to be true
at the same time
Using of inference (depending on whether the truth being proven is
regardless to be certain or merely probable).
Inductively
Deductively
INTUITION
DIRECT GRASPING OF TRUTH
The way by which we directly grasp the truth of something
Immediately know that something is true without going through the process of
observation and reasoning
Direct access to the truth that bypasses the processes of observation and
reasoning
Intuition in the areas of ethics, arguing
Sample
Immediately know what our moral duties are in a given situation
MYSTICAL EXPERIENCE
Provides the person having the experience of knowing something which cannot
be known using the usual methods of observation by our sense organs and
reasoning.
The assumption is that there are some aspects of reality
Forms of truth that cannot be accessed or known using our normal ways of
knowing
MYSTICAL EXPERIENCE ARE;
Spiritual – dealing with non physical aspect of life
Religious – dealing with divine or sacred
Experience of our union with God
Receiving messages and instruction from God
Interrelatedness of things
Religious truth are known
APPEAL TO AUTHORITY
Form of testimony of a reliable eyewitness
Information provided by an appropriate expert truth
Reliable documents
Required observation of reasoning to know a truth may have already been
done and documented by someone else
Knowing this person’s testimony, the information that they provides as well as
a documents is also a way of knowing the truth.
APPEAL TO AUTHORITY SAMPLE
Wants to know whether a particular movie is already being shown in SM
Cinema
We can rely a testimony of someone who has already seen the movie at
SM Cinema
Check in the newspapers or internet
Call the authority in the management in SM Cinema
FALLACY IN APPEAL TO AUTHORITY

When we appeal to a wrong authority
Sample ;
TV Ads
Basketball player endorsing some product which is not
connected in the game of basketball.
Toothpaste – dental product
CONDITION OF KNOWLEDGE
Referring to the thing that should occur so that we can rightly say that we
know something.
Distinguish the kind of knowledge that deals with truth from other kinds
Specify the condition of knowledge
Distinguish between
knowledge and certain dorms of non-knowledge (opinion or guess)
Kinds of disagreement
KNOWLEDGE
How we use the word KNOW in different situations
KNOW
KNOWLEDGE OF ACQUINTANCE
To mean acquaintance or familiarity with a place or person
Expressing familiarity with the person or things
PRACTICAL KNOWLEDGE
Asserting their knowledge of skills
SAMPLE OF
KNOWLEDGE OF ACQUAINTANCE
I know this place, this is the National Museum.
I know this person, he is Ms. Tina our principal in St. Columban Montessori
School in San Felipe Zambales.
SAMPLE OF
PRACTICAL KNOWLEDGE
I know how to cook Chicken Adobo
I know how to operate the washing machine
I know how to use the computer
I know how to play Piko
KNOW – KNOWLEDGE OF THE FACT
PROPOSITIONAL KNOWLEDGE
A situation or anything that can either be true or false
What I claim to know are things that can either true or false
Truthfulness and falsity started in the form of a proposition of statement
Sample
I know that the clinic closes at 5:00 in the afternoon
I know that you like to eat spicy food
To determine whether indeed KNOWLEDGE and not AN OPINION OR A GUESS
Specify the conditions for knowledge
JUSTIFIED TRUE BELIEF
We can only correctly say that X, if only if
1. we believe that X to be true
2. X is indeed true
3. we are justified in believing X to be true
Problem;
Supposed Jose claims that he knows that Manila is the capital
city of the Philippines.
For Jose to really know that Manila is the Capital City of the
Philippines
The following conditions should occur:
JUSTIFIED TRUE BELIEF
1. Jose believes that Manila is the capital of the Philippines
2. It is true That Manila is the Capital of the Philippines
3. Jose is justified in believing that Manila is the capital of the Philippines
3 CONDITIONS FOR KNOWLEDGE
BELIEF
TRUTH
JUSTIFICATION
ANALYSIS OF THE PROPOSITIONS
1ST If Jose does not believe that Manila is the capital of the Philippines
Either Jose doubts it or he has other reasons for saying that he knows it
If Jose doubts that Manila is the capital of the Philippines then he does not
really know whether Manila is the capital of the Philippines
If he has other reasons for saying that he knows it, like to express a joke or to
deceive his listeners

2ND Suppose what Jose claims instead is that he knows that Quezon City is the
capital of the Philippines
That he is convinced of the truth of what he claims to know
But we know that what Jose claims to know is false (for Manila is the capital of
the Philippines)
Jose is mistaken in believing the Quezon city is the capital of the Philippines
And because Jose is mistaken in his belief then he does not really know what
he claims to know
3 rd Maintaining that Jose claims that Manila is the capital of the Philippines,
and that he believes it, which happens to be true
Is it enough to say that Jose knows that his evidence for saying that he knows
that Manila is the Capital of the Philippines or what led him to think that he
knows it
Jose will tell us that he got this information from the conversation in a cartoon
comedy movie that he saw in Youtube, can we say that Jose really knows it? I
think not
That is just by luck or coincident that Jose gets to know it
The information must be justified by having a sufficient evidence in believing
that Manila is the capital of the Philippines.
CONDITION OF JUSTIFICATION
Distinguish knowledge form an opinion and from guess
OPINION
is simply unjustified belief that may turn out to be true
A person claims to know a certain event based on little or insufficient
evidence.
GUESS
a person claims to know something without any evidence at all
What is a certain event happened in the history of AFRICA?
Sample OPINION
LESS KNOWLEDGE
I could offer an opinion based on what I know
Sample GUESS
NO KNOWLEDGE
I don’t know but I could make a guess
Opinion and guess could be true
But still they are not knowledge
What I know to be true is true not by mere luck or coincidence.
DISAGREEMENT/DISPUTES
OF BELIEFS
What we believe to be true or false.
How do we resolve these agreements?
How does this type of disagreements differ from other types?
KINDS OF DISAGREEMENTS
1. Disagreements in Belief
2. Disagreement in Attitude
3. Merely Verbal Disagreement
DISAGREEMENTS IN BELIEF
Disagreement about the facts which are properly resolved by verifying the facts
at issue.
The verification of fact can be done either by;
directly observing the facts
Examining relevant documents
Appealing to appropriate authorities
SAMPLE
Disagreement of this kind is the one over whether a certain
politician stole money form the government.
DISAGREEMENT IN ATTITUDE
Disagreement over preferences
They usually resolve by persuasion if not by compromise
Persuasion done either
logically one’s arguments are consistent with the valid rules of deduction
Illogically one’s arguments commit the informal fallacies
Sample
Disagreement of this kind of issue of divorce and same sex
marriage should be legalized in our country
MERELY VERBAL DISAGREEMENT

Disagreement that arise out of the misunderstanding of the meanings of our
linguistic expressions
Properly resolved by clarifying the meanings of the misunderstood linguistic
expression
Sample
Two friends are arguing over which movie to watch together only to
find out later that they have the same movie in mind.
DISAGREEMENT
Truth involves disagreements in belief
Conditions for knowing something to be true
Disagreement in belief and attitude considered genuine and real disagreement
Merely Verbal disagreement are not real disagreement, it is just a though that
they are.
It is a waste of time and energy
Needless
It is pity that some relationships are ruined
FALLACIES
Chapter IX
Plato
Arguments, like men, are often pretenders.
FALLACIES
Fallacy is an erroneous reasoning that comes from false premises or irrelevant
conclusion which seems to be correct.
FALLACY
FALLERE (Latin)
To deceive or to lead astray.
This is a form of deception coming from an argument that is lacking in the
basis or evidence which we sometimes cannot easily detect without paying
close attention to it.
They are created either intentionally or unintentionally in order to deceive
other people.
FALLACIES OF AMBIGUITY
It is committed when the meaning of words or phrases created a different
meaning in the conclusion.
This may happened, if the words that are used or structurally presented in the
premise are not properly expressed grammatically or syntactically.
An argument is called ambiguous when the meaning of a certain statement or
argument is not clearly stated.
KINDS OF FALLACIES
FORMAL FALLACIES
Are errors in reasoning due to an incorrect form or structure of an
argument
It correspond to invalid deductive arguments
INFORMAL FALLACIES
Known as material fallacies
Errors in reasoning due exclusively to an anomaly or defect in the content
of an argument
This is usually psychologically influential and commonly committed
3 GROUPS OF
INFORMAL FALLACIES
FALLACIES OF RELEVANT
FALLACIES OF PRESUMPTION
It is committed when the meaning of words or phrases created a different
meaning in the conclusion.
This may happened, if the words that are used or structurally presented in the
premise are not properly expressed grammatically or syntactically.
An argument is called ambiguous when the meaning of a certain statement or
argument is not clearly stated.
FALLACY OF AMPHIBOLY
This kind of fallacy of ambiguity is committed when the expression of
statements are not properly constructed grammatically.
These statements created problems in the clarity of meaning for they become
open to different interpretations.
FALLACY OF EQUIVOCATION
This fallacy of ambiguity appears when the meaning of a particular word in a
premise is different in use as given in the other premise.
A word is ambiguous when used in two different senses in an argument.
FALLACY OF ACCENT
This fallacy of ambiguity is committed due to the different ways a word is
emphasized or accented in a premise.
This misplaced emphasis causes misinterpretation by the listener.
FALLACY OF COMPOSITION
This fallacy is committed due to the assumption that the whole has the
characteristics of its parts.
This happens when one transfers the characteristics of the parts unto the
whole, by arguing that since the part has this, the whole must necessarily have
also this.
FALLACY OF DIVISION
The fallacy of division is committed when one assumes that the parts have the
characteristic s of the whole.
The qualities of a whole to the qualities of the parts of the whole.
This is the opposite of the fallacy of composition which asserts the whole as
having the characteristics of its parts.
FALLACY OF RELEVANCE
It is committed due to the premises that are not significant to their conclusion
in an argument.
This happens when premises have no relationship to the conclusion, therefore,
this argument cannot establish its truth.
ARGUMENTUM AD IGNORANTIAM
This is called ARGUMENT OF IGNORANCE because this one argues that an
argument is wrong since it has not yet been proven as true, or it is true since it
is not yet proven to be false.
ARGUMENTUM AD VERECUNDIAM
This is called the APPEAL TO INAPPROPRIATE AUTHORITY because this is
committed when one appeals to an authority whose field of expertise does not
include the nature of the conclusion being establish.
ARGUMENTUM AD HOMINEM
This is called the ARGUMENT AGAINST THE MAN, wherein one uses an
argument that focuses on attacking the person or the opponent in the issue
rather than on the issue.
This happens when one argues that since this man is like this (by attacking his
character, personality status or belief) and so his argument should be
dismissed.
It is known to us, as black propaganda character assasination, mud slinging,
expose, bomba, mura or kabastusan.
ARGUMENTUM AD POPULUM
This is called the APPEAL TO PEOPLE because this is committed when one
argues using expressive language or other devices to excite passion
(enthusiasm, happiness, anger, hate, lust or fear) of the people or the crowd.
An argument ad populum is the conviction of the heart. As such, it is not
entirely groundless and whimsical (fanciful).
ARGUMENTUM AD MISERICORDIAM
This is called the APPEAL TO MERCY, because this is committed when someone
instead of proving his argument relies in soliciting the sympathy or pity of the
listener.
Shedding tears and showing sadness are examples of this fallacy.
ARGUMENTUM AD BACULUM
This is called the APPEAL TO FORCE since this is committed when one resorts
to using force or threat in trying to push others to accept the issue.
Its purpose is to scare people to accept or to be convinced about something.
Argumentum ad Crumemam
This is called the ARGUMENT TO THE MONEY this fallacy when we appeal to the
sense of greed or cupidity of an individual
When instead of reasoning out of an argument, we use money to bribe the
opponent to concede
Argumentum ad Auctoritatem
This is called ARGUMENT TO THE AUTHORITY, this fallacy related to the
argument to the customs and traditions
We commit this fallacy when instead of showing the intrinsic merit of the issue
at hand, we appeal to the authority of some prominent person to support our
contention
Argumentum Pansarilum
This is called ARGUMENT TO ONE’S OWN ADVANTAGE, this fallacy ignore an
issue and appeal to a person or a group of persons to adopt a belief or policy
which the person or group of persons concerned would heed unless the
advantage offered were given especially if such belief or policy is contrary to
the person’s accepted sense of morality
FALLACIES OF PRESUMPTION
Referring to a fallacies in which error in reasoning brought about by the
occurrence of complex or loaded expressions whose assumptions are
questionable or have not yet been proven to be true
PLURIOM INTERROGATIONUM
This fallacy is called MANY OR COMPLEX QUESTIONS because this is committed
when an argument demands a simple answer to a complicated question.
PETITIO PRINCIPII
This is called BEGGING THE QUESTION because this is committed when an
argument has not reached the conclusion by presenting questionable or weak
premises.
This happens when the argument is not proving anything about the
conclusion.
POST HOC ERGO PROPTER HOC
This fallacy is called FALSE CAUSE in that this is committed when an argument
assumes that the effect is attributed to an inadequate cause.
This happens when one argues that since this event happened before the other
or in the next event, this must be the cause of that event.
Oftentimes, this fallacy is accompanied by superstitions and presumptions.
IGNORATIO ELINCHI
This fallacy is also known in Latin, the NON SEQUITOR or it is called the
ARGUMENT OF IGNORANCE OF REFUTATION or irrelevant conclusion.
This fallacy is committed when the conclusion is drawn from premises which
are not related of proving the issue, it rather ignores, kisses the point, or
evades it.
FALLACY OF BEGGING QUESTION
Is committed when reasoning is circular in that the conclusion is already
assumed in the premises
FALLACY OF ACCIDENT
Committed when one applies a general rule to individual cases, which because
of their special or accidental nature
The general rules does not properly apply
FALLACY OF HASTY GENERALIZATION
Is committed when one makes a generalization from a special or accident case
or simply from insufficient number of cases.
Converse accident is a case of weak inductive reasoning.
Practical Applications of Logic to Argument and Debate
Argumentation and Debate Differentiated
Argumentation
The art of influencing others through the medium of reasoned discourse to
believe or act as we wish them to believe or act
It is the process of changing the belief or behavior of the bearer or reader,
through the use of spoken or written speech by persuading him with reasons
and by strring up his feelings
Debate
Is a formal and direct oral contest in argumentation between two or more
persons on one single definite proposition at a definite time
It is the art of persuasive communication
It requires skill in performance
Uses a systematized body of principles intended to enhance skill in the
application of that process
An oral controversy on a definite question between opposing speakers (the 2
sides are the affirmative “accept“ and the negative “reject”)
The Value of
Argumentation and Debate
BASIC SKILL IN THE PROCESS INFLUENCING OTHER TO ACCEPT OR REJECT
BELIEFS
It trains men in a democracy in quick and accurate thinking
Democracy becomes useless if the democratic processes are not
prepared to weight the logic and reasonable propositions it
becomes an exercise of futility
DEVELOPS THE HUMAN QUALITIES OF SELF RELIANCE AND ASSURANCE
Man lives in the society and is endowed with the gift of his
communicating his thoughts and ideas
Teacher – student (use of language)
The 2 Approaches in the work of Argumentation and Debate

Conviction which appeals to reason
Persuasion which appeals to human emotion or feeling
MAN as
Rational
Emotional (emotion can dominate reason)
CONVICTION
* it is an aspect of argumentation whereby the debater direct his
words to the reasoning faculty of man
* it makes the truth clear and makes it more interesting
* Opinion leads one to embrace the truth
The Four Process of Argumentation
Invention
Determining ideas whose truth the arguer or debater whishes his listener
to believe
Selection
`gathering of data and information needed to serve as a proof
Arrangement
The materials are supposed to be arranged according to a pre established
plan which can clearly, effectively and forcefully presented as proof
Presentation
To communicate ideas, invented, selected and arranged
The Subject of Argumentation: The Proposition

The proposition in a debate enables the debater to understand the issues and
how to discuss them
It prevents using his time and effort uselessly in arguing about the matter
wholly outside the real question and issue and proving things that are
considered as BESIDE THE POINT AT ISSUE
2 classification of Propositions
Proposition of the fact
Is the one whose chief concern is the truth or falsity of an act of
judgment
It aims to belief
It addresses itself to the question: IS THIS AFFIRMATION TRUE OR FALSE?
That the Duterte Administration deserves to be supported
Proposition of policy
It aims at action and only at belief
It addressed the question of SHOULD OR OUGHT THIS TO BE DONE
That the US maintain its military presence in the Philippines
The Forms of the Proposition
Association/ Organization/Class (School) as form of resolution
Lawmaking body (Senate or House of Representative) in making some bill,
resolution or a motion
Sanguniang Panlunsod or Panlalawigan ( in making some ordinance)
In a court of law (form of pleading)
Complaint
Information
Petition
motion
Qualities of Good Propositions for Debates
The proposition should be debatable
The proposition must be simple and concise
The proposition must be free from any ambiguity
The proposition must not be biased
The proposition must not use abstraction and vague generalizations
The proposition must be in the form of assertion/allegation
The proposition must result in only one act of judgment
The proposition must be so worded in a manner that the burden of proof will
fall on the affirmative side
The proposition must be interesting
Nature, Function, and Kinds of issues in a Debate
Issues in a debate are essential points, segments, elements or smaller
propositions affirmed by the affirmative or denied by the negative
Issues are of 3 types
Potential issues
Admitted issues
Stock issues
Evidence, Proof and Argument

Evidence
Anything that tends to prove or disprove something. It must pass the
parameter of acceptability in regard to conviction and opinion
Proof
To convince the mind of truth or falsity of any proposition (presentation
of evidence/fact that sought to be proved –principal fact “factum
probandum”)
Argument
The arguer infers the existence of other facts from knowing the existence
of one or more facts in order to establish the reality of a point
Outline of Debate
Title
Preliminary introduction
Main introduction
Statement of the issues
Brief of the argument
conclusion
Rules
The brief must be presented in the form of heading and sub headings
The brief must be partitioned into 3 parts (introduction, discussion and
conclusion)
Each heading and sub-heading must be shown in the form of a complete
sentence
Each heading and sub-heading must embody only one sentence except when
it includes a lifted but properly acknowledge quotation
Every series of sentences must follow the principles of rhetoric/public
speaking
All sources of materials and other information should be properly
acknowledged, stating the bibliographic information
The 1st part of the introduction must embody all the information needed for a
clear comprehension of the discussion
The last portion of the introduction must embody the statement of the
different issues and of the portion of the main body
The main body of the argumentative speech must contain all the evidences and
arguments to be used on the given side of the proposition
In the main body of the main speech, each broad heading must be treated as a
reason for the truth or falsity of the proposition
Each sub-heading or series of coordinate sub-headings must be treated as a

reason for the truth of the heading immediately above it
Possible objections to be proved false must be recorded and the possible
denial must be noted
In phrasing the denial, the heading must clearly state the argument to be
answered and the character of the answer to be made
The conclusion must embody a summary of the essential points of the proof
The debater must in the entire course of the debate, think and act logically
The Interpellation and the Rebuttal Rules
The interpellator and the one interrelated must stand near the front part of the
platform and should speak aloud while giving the remarks to the other
Question as well as the corresponding answer must be brief and concise
Question must be so designed as to force the opponent to accept the strength
of the interpellator ‘s reasoning or evidences
Questions must be asked in such manner as to show the opponent's absence
or reasoning and evidences, the weakness of his evidences or simply illogical
reasoning
Question must be directed to the arguments of the opponents
In his denial speech the interpellator must unveil the insignificance of his
opponent’s answer
The Points of Difference Between the main and the rebuttal speech
The debate characterized as a friendly encounter of minds in the arena of the
academe
There are 2 kind of speech
CONSTRUCTIVE SPEECH
The debater show a direct proof for the truth of one side of the
proposition
REBUTTAL /DENIAL SPEECH
The intention of the debater is to destroy the proofs previously
presented by the opposing side
Special Problems Encountered in the Making of the Rebuttal Speech
Rule of thumb
THERE SHOULD ABSOLUTELY BE NO NEW PROOF TO BE INTRODUCED IN
THE REBUTTAL/DENIAL SPEECH, EXCEPT WHAT IS REQUIRED TO GOVE AN
APPRORIATE REPLY TO THE PROOF OF THE OPPONENT
Debate
Group 1 – Christian to non Christian view
Group 2 – same sex marriage legalization
Group 3 – God is dead – God is not dead (faith)
Group 4 – Death penalty legalization
Group 5 – Divorce legalization
Other topics
China vs Philippine sea
Burial of Ferdinand Marcos in libingan ng mga bayani
De Lima’s case on drugs
Publication of the names of celebrity who involve in drugs
Change of name Gordon College to Olongapo City College
God may be gloried!

That in all things

Introduction To Philosophy With Logic and Critical Thinking

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Introduction To Philosophy With Logic and Critical Thinking

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Introduction to Philosophy with Logic and Critical Thinking

What is your philosophy in life?

The Greek Philosophy

Etymological Definition of Philosophy - PHILOSOPHIA

THE LOVE OF WISDOM

The Philosopher – lover of wisdom

SOPHIST - one who is wise

Socrates (Gadfly / annoying person of Athens) go to Agora listening and keep

Supernatural Wisdom – It is a level of wisdom which is acquired by reason

An academic course or degree

Philosophy as Ideas, views, principles, perspective s or beliefs

Held either by individuals or groups of individuals, regardless of the specific

Relates to the way, we Filipinos, originally use or understand the meaning of

Philosophy as an Academic Course or Degree

Refers to an academic subject or course that is taught usually in colleges,

The Nature of Philosophy

-Science may be defined principally in 2 ways;

John 6:35, 41, 48, 60-66

PHILOSOPHY IS BASED ON SKEPTICISM (always in doubt)

OTHER DISCIPLINE OF PHILOSOPHY

THE REGIONAL TYPES

The 2 major kinds

2 OPPOSING SCHOOLS OF THOUGHT DURING THE MODERN PHILOSOPHY

Period of Enlightenment during the Modern Philosophy era

JEREMY BENTHAM &

ARTHUR SCHOPENHAUER &

WILLIAM JAMES &

Sigmun Freud &

FR. Roque J. Ferriols, S.J.

Importance of philosophy in 2 ways

2 CHARACTERISTICS ATTRIBUTED TO PHILOSOPHY – CONTRATS WITH SCIENCE

HOW DOES PHILOSOPHY DO THIS?

THE WHAT, WHY AND HOW OF LOGIC

MAN – NATURAL LOGIC

It is not a mere opinion or hypothesis.

LOGIC AND INFERENCE

It trains us in the technique of determining implications. It provides training in

LOGIC AND THE OPERATIONS

THE SECOND ACT OF THE MIND

SIMPLE APPREHENSION WITH REFERENCE TO TERM

OBJECTS OF SIMPLE APPREHENSION

The Proper object of Senses

Man has the following comprehension:

product of Qualities/ Dematerialized Made up Store

FROM THING TO IDEA

Subject is one of the spoken of and looked upon having a perfection or

Form which an object exists as it is

e.g. every man

e.g. some men

INVISIBLE immaterial – no bodies

SENTIENT NON SENTIENT

RATIONAL NON RATIONAL

e.g. Ma. Katrina Mendoza

Peter John Lising

San Sebastian College – Recoletos

MVP (most valuable player)

e.g. This student

e.g. The Lady Stags is a volleyball team to

Those five men make up a basketball

e.g. The man is studying (singular)

The man is rational being (universal)

e.g. Not all students are diligent.

e.g. A man is walking (particular)