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Fracture :
Fracture is the separation of a specimen into completely brittle but crystalline solids usually
two or more parts by an applied stress. Fracture exhibit some plastic deformation.
can occur under all service conditions. Materials
subjected to extended cyclic loading may result Mechanism of Brittle fracture :
in fatigue fracture (delayed fracture). Also under
the influence of a constant applied stress many Griffith’s theory :
materials continue to deform indefinitely. This The explanation of the fracture of amorphous
process is called creep. It is an important materials such as glass was first proposed by
consideration in high temperature applications. Griffith. He assumed that in a brittle materials
Prevention of failure during service is one of the there are many fine cracks. These cracks
most important problems faced by the concentrate the applied stress at their tips. when
engineers. the stress at the tips of a crack exceeds
theoretical stress values the crack expands and
Brittle fracture ; fracture occurs. If of is the critical fracture
Brittle fracture is the failure of a material stress, then
without apparent plastic deformation. since this 2𝑦𝐸 1/2
𝜎1 = 𝜋𝑐
occurs without any indication, this is most
Which is called Griffith equation.
dangerous and produces worst consequences. If
where y = surface energy per unit area of the
we join together the broken pieces of a brittle
material.
fracture, we get back the original shape and
From the above equation it is clear that the
dimensions of the specimen.
stress necessary to cause brittle fracture varies
In an ideal material, brittle fracture occurs due
inversely as the square root of the crack length.
to the pulling apart and breaking of the inter
Hence the tensile strength of a completely brittle
atomic bonds across two neighbouring atomic
material depends on the length of the largest
planes. The calculated theoretical tensile stress
crack existing in the material.
required to break the inter atomic bonds across
The Griffith equation is not only valid for a
two adjacent atomic planes is of the order of
surface crack but also for a crack inside the
E/6, where E is the Young’s modulus of the
material.
material. But since often brittle fracture occurs
In all materials cracks are distributed
by the rapid propagation of a crack under
throughout when the applied stress is increased,
applied stresses, brittle materials break at much
the longest crack with favourable orientation
lower stresses, which are several orders of
causes fracture first when similar test is carried
magnitude lower than the theoretical stress
out on one of the broken pieces, the tensile
values. Amorphous materials such as glass are
strength required is usually higher. This is
because the most effective crack opened first.
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FRACTURE IN MATERIAL SCIENCE
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The measured fracture strengths for most brittle 1. The separation occurs normal to the tensile
materials are significantly lower than those axis.
predicted by theoretical calculations based on
atomic bonding energies. This discrepancy is
due to the presence of very small, microscopic
flaws or cracks existing on the surface as well as
with in the interior of a body of material.
The applied stress may be amplified or
concentrated at the crack tip. The magnitude of
the amplification depends on crack orientation 2. There is no gross deformation or very little
and geometry. Because of their ability to mass deformation.
amplify an applied stress in their locale, these 3. There is no plastic deformation.
flaws are sometimes called stress raisers. Thus 4. Rate of crack propagation is rapid with
cracks are a detriment to fracture strength. minimum energy absorption.
𝐶 1/2 5. Common b.c.c metals and polycrystalline
𝜎1 = 2𝜎 𝑃 h.c.p metals are brittle while many f.c.c metals
where 𝜎 is the longitudinal tensile stress remain ductile.
applied.
𝜎m = maximum stress at is tip. Ductile fracture :
P = radius of curvature at the tip. Ductile fracture is the rupture of a material
𝜎
The ratio 𝜎𝑚 = stress concentration factor, K. after a considerable amount of plastic
𝜎𝑚 𝐶 1/2 deformation.
K= =2
𝜎 𝑃 When a common ductile materials is subjected
This is a measure of the degree to which an to tensile stress the fracture process can be
external stress is amplified at the tip of a small distinguished by three stages.
crack. a) the specimen begins necking and minute
For many brittle crystalline materials, crack cavities form in the reached region.
propagation on the atomic level corresponds to b) the cavities join and form a minute crack in
the successive and repeated breaking of atomic the centre of the specimen; and
bonds along specific crystallographic planes. c) the crack spreads outwards to the surface of
This type of fracture is said to be intragranular the specimen in a direction at 45° to the tensile
(transgranular) fracture because fracture cracks axis. This results in cup and cone fracture
pass through grains. The fractured surface looks surfaces.
grading or granular. In some alloys, crack Fully ductile materials will continue to neck
propagation along grain boundaries is also down to an infinitesimally thin edge or a point.
possible this is termed intragranular fracture. when the cross section at the neck becomes so
This yields a relatively shiny and smooth small that it cannot bear the load any longer
fracture surface the main characteristics of ductile fracture occurs.
brittle fracture are
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FRACTURE IN MATERIAL SCIENCE
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Ductile cracks are often found to nucleate at toughness. It is defined by the critical value of a
brittle particles. The brittle particles may be parameter Gc. 𝜎f 𝜋c 𝐸
naturally there in multiphase materials such as
cementite in steel or they may be present as Gc = 𝜎f𝜋 E
foreign inclusion such as oxide inclusion in also Gc = 2𝛾
copper. Another parameter more commonly used to
The engineer requires both strength and describe the fracture toughness of a material is
ductility for his structural materials. Ductility critical stress intensity factor Kc. For a sharp
increases the strength of the material and also crack, when the applied tensile stress is
avoids unpredictable brittle fractures. perpendicular to the crack faces, the critical
Difference between brittle and ductile stress intensity factor is given by
fractures: Kc =𝜎f 𝜋𝑐
Facture initiates in a material as soon as Kc is
Brittle fracture Ductile fracture reached.
1. Occurs with Occurs with large plastic
minimum deformation
deformation
2. Occurs suddenly Occurs with slow
without any tearing of the metal with Fatigue failure ;
warning absorption on of energy. Ductile materials may also fracture when
3. Occurs at the Occurs in some localised subjected to cyclic stresses. The cyclic stresses
point where micro region where the are considerably lower than the static fracture
crack is largest. deformation is very
stress such a delayed fracture resulting from
large.
4. Movement of Crack propagates as a extended service is called fatigue.
crack involves very result of highly localised A fatigue failure can occur well below the yield
little plastic plastic deformation of stress of a material. For example for mild steel,
deformation metal the yield strength is 220 MNM-2 but it fails at a
adjacent to the stress of 140 MNM -2 when subjected to large
crack number of cyclic stresses i.e. stress reversals.
5. Metals fail by Metals fail with
cleavage after negligible macroscopic
relatively large strain. Fatigue limit ;
macroscopic strain. Fatigue limit or the endurance limit can be
6. Fractured surface Fractured surface is dirty defined as the stress that would cause failure
shows sharp planar with rough contour. after a specified number of stress reversals.
facets.
Note :
Fracture toughness : When the applied stress is below the fatigue
A material’s inherent resistance to fracture limit, the material withstands any number of
when a crack is present is termed its fracture stress reversals.
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