METEOROLOGY

HANDBOOK

COMPILED BY: AKSHEY SOOD

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METEOROLOGY

METEOROLOGY: The branch of Science dealing with the Earth’s Atmosphere & the Physical Processes
occurring in it.

CLIMATOLOGY: The study of climate, scientifically defined as weather conditions Averaged over a Period
of Time.

ATMOSPHERIC CHEMISTRY: Branch of atmospheric science in which the chemistry of the Earth’s
atmosphere is studied.

Examples of problems which have been addressed by Atmospheric Chemistry are:-

1. Acid Rain 2. Ozone Depletion 3. Photochemical Smog

4. Greenhouse Gases (Keeps the earth warm) 5. Global Warming

Chemistry: It is a branch of physical science that studies the composition, structure, properties & change of
matter.

The composition & Chemistry of the Earth’s Atmosphere is of importance for several reasons, but
primarily because of the interactions between the atmosphere & living Organisms.

The composition of the Earth’s Atmosphere changes as a result of Natural Processes such as:-

1. Volcano Emissions
2. Lightning
3. Bombardment by the Solar Particles from Corona
4. Also changed by Human activities

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ATMOSPHERE
ATMOSPHERE: It is defined as the gaseous envelope surrounding a celestial body.

PRODUCTION OF GASES: Happens because of Volcanic Eruptions and Photosynthesis from Plants mainly.

HOW THEY ARE HELD: Once gases are produced, they become trapped by the Gravity & are therefore held
against the surface of the earth.

COMPOSTION OF GASES IN OUR ATMOSPHERE:-

1. Nitrogen - 78% 2.Oxygen - 21%

3. Argon - 0.93% 4. CO2 - 0.035%

Nitrogen and Oxygen constitute almost 99% of the air. Their Ratio by proportion is

Nitrogen : Oxygen (By volume) Nitrogen : Oxygen (By Weight)

4 : 1 3 : 1
Supplementary Oxygen is needed above 10,000ft

TRACE GASES: These are gases which are present in our Atmosphere in very low concentration are Neon,
Helium, Methane, Ozone, Hydrogen and Water Vapours. Together these gases form an aggregate of 1% of
gases present in our Atmosphere.

WATER VAPOUR: It is the most significant gas. Without Water Vapour, there would be no weather.

CAN WE SEE WATER VAPOUR:-

Yes, Water Vapour can be seen by us in the form of Clouds, Rainfall, Snow & Hail.

*More of understanding of weather comes with the understanding of behaviour of Water Vapours.

The properties of the constituent gases remain constant up to a height of at least 80Km(Homosphere).

 High Concentration of Ozone at about 20-25km

 If the whole of the layer of Ozone were brought down to sea level it would be only 3mm thick.

THE EARTH’S ATMOSPHERE VARIES VERTICALLLY& HORIZONTALLY IN:-

1. Pressure
The Earth’s atmosphere – Poor conductor
2. Temperature
3. Density The Earth’s atmosphere - Fluid
4. Humidity

The organisation of the atmosphere into different layers is determined by the Temperature Lapse Rate.

 Each layer of the atmosphere has a Unique Temperature Profile.

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THE TROPOSPHERE

1. Closest to the Earth’s surface.

2. Temperature decreases with height @ 0.65o C/100m or 1.98o C/1000ft.
3. Consists of 3/4th of the total Atmosphere weight & contains almost all the weather.
4. Range of the Troposphere is Surface to 11Km[Average].
5. About 70% of the atmosphere lies within troposphere

THE TROPOPAUSE

1. Top of the Troposphere.

2. Boundary between the Troposphere and Stratosphere.
3. That part of the Atmosphere where the Temperature no longer decreases with height.

HEIGHT & TEMP. OF TROPOPAUSE IS IMPORTANT TO KNOW BECAUSE:-

1. The height of the tropopause is controlled by the temp of the air near the surface.
The warmer the air, the higher the Tropopause.
WARM IS HIGH, HIGH IS
The colder the air, the lower the Tropopause. TROPOPAUSE , VICEVERSA
Over the Poles = 8-10Km FOR COLD AIR
Over the Equator = 16-18Km
2. Surface Temperature due to latitude, season, land & sea will cause varying height of the
tropopause.
 In winter, the tropopause is lower than in the summer.

3. Since temp decreases with height, it goes to follow that the temp at the tropopause is controlled by
its height.
The higher it is, the colder the temp at the Tropopause. The lower it is, the warmer the temp at
the tropopause.
Poles = -40oC
Equator = -80oC
At average height of the Tropopause(11 km) = -56.5oC

Q. WHY IS IT IMPORTANT TO KNOW ABOUT THE HEIGHT OF THE TROPOPAUSE ?

The significance of the tropopause height is that it usually marks

1. Maximum height of the cloud.

2. The presence of Jet Streams.
3. The presence of Clear Air Turbulence(CAT).
4. The Maximum Wind Speed.

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PLACES WHERE THE TROPOPAUSE BREAKS OR FOLDS

The folds or breaks in the Tropopause take place because of

significant temp difference and significant Altitude change.
1. 40o N and S : Warm air from equator meets cool air from
mid latitudes. This temp difference causes height change
in Tropopause.
2. 55o N and S: Polar Air meets Tropical air.
3. 60o-70o N: North in winters only. Very cold Arctic air
meets relatively warmer Polar Air.

 The closer the Tropopause to the surface, the hotter it will

be at the tropopause and vice versa.
 The temp at Tropopause INCREASES WITH LATITUDE.
 Tropopause signifies the start of temp. inversion. This limits the vertical movement of clouds.

Q. HOW IS OZONE FORMED?

Ozone is thus continuously created & destroyed in the

atmosphere by UV radiation coming from the Sun.

 When O2 absorbs UV it splits into 2 atoms.

 The amount of Ozone molecules created & destroyed
are roughly equal.

THE STRATOSPHERE

1. The layer above the Tropopause, up to 50km, is the

Stratosphere
2. Stratosphere temp profile is significantly influenced by the presence of Ozone.
3. Temp shows gradual increase with height.
4. Temp. is zero at 50km.
5. Stable layer with no humidity and no weather
6. Nacreous Clouds or Mother of Pearl clouds seen in upper stratosphere
7. Commercial aircraft fly in the lower stratosphere to avoid turbulence.
8. Upper boundary of the Stratosphere is called Stratopause. It is at this point when the Temp starts
to fall again.
9. The Stratosphere is very dry (No humidity).

THE MESOSPHERE

1. Temp decreases with height.(Lack of absorption of solar radiation and weak vertical mixing)
2. Extends about 80-90km above Earth surface.
3. Coolest Temp i.e. the coolest layer this is the temp can fall down to -73oC.
4. Upper boundary is called the Mesopause.
5. Noctilucent clouds are located in the Mesosphere.

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THE THERMOSPHERE

1. Where temp rapidly increases with altitude upto 200km.

2. Temp. ranges from 600oC – 2000oC.
3. The lower portion of the Thermosphere is called the Ionosphere.

 Within the ionosphere we have the Kennelly, Heavyside & Appleton layers.
110km 160km 250km
4. Ionosphere is important for radio wave propagation by reflecting them back to the earth and
propagating them hundreds of kilometres away from their origin.
5. The upper part of the Thermosphere is called the Exosphere.

 Above 50,000ft, normal concentration of Ozone exceed tolerable limits & air needs to be filtered
before entering the cabin. The heat of the compressor system will assist in the breaking down of
the Ozone to an acceptable level.

INTERNATIONAL STANDARD ATMOSPHERE (ISA)

1. Atmospheric conditions vary around the world due to changes in the properties of the atmosphere
2. Established to provide a common reference for Temperature, Pressure and density at varying
altitude

Temperature 15oC
Pressure 1013.25 Hpa
1013.25 Milibar
14.69 psi
29.92 inches of mercury
Density 1.225 kg/m3

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PRESSURE
For understanding weather we shall know the variations in atmospheric pressure across the Earth’s
Surface.

ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE: It is caused by the weight of air above the object.

HORIZONTAL PRESSURE DIFFERENCE: It gives rise to both horizontal & vertical air movement creating
Winds & Clouds.

VARIATION OF ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE WITH ALTITUDE: It allows us to measure the vertical separation
of an Aircraft from the Earth’s surface.

 Atmospheric pressure acts in all directions on any object contained within the Atmosphere.
 Atmospheric Pressure is the force or weight exerted on any object by the column of air above
that object.
 The air pressure changes cause ears to pop up when traveling over significantly varying
topography and during rapid descent of an aircraft.

UNITS OF ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE:-

 29.92 Inches of Mercury [Used in USA].

 1013.25 HectoPascals(hPa)[ICAO standard Atmosphere].
 1013.25 Millibars(mB)[Used in UK].

INSTRUMENT TO MEASURE ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE:-

 The word Barometer comes from two Greek words,

“Baros” meaning weight and “Metron” meaning measure.

Barometer

Aneroid Barometer Mercury Barometer

[Non-Liquid] [Mercury]

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ADVANTAGES OF ANEROID BAROMETER OVER MERCURY BAROMETER:-

 Aneroid Barometer is more sensitive to small changes in pressure than the Mercury Barometer.
 Aneroid Barometer can be calibrated in feet or inches to indicate height above the Earth’s surface;
the instrument is known as an Altimeter.

BAROGRAPH: An Aneroid Barometer which records pressure over time on a cylindrical chart.

PRESSURE VARIATIONS AT THE EARTH’S SURFACE:-

1. Difference in weight of different columns of air overlying different locations on the Earth’s surface.
2. By mapping these pressure variations, it is possible to analyse & therefore predict the weather.
3. Surface pressure charts or synaptic charts is diagrams of variations in surface pressures.
4. Isobars: These are the lines connecting areas with same pressure readings.
5. Low pressure areas are known as Depressions.
6. High pressure areas are known as Anticyclones.

THE PRESSURE GRADIENT FORCE:-

1. A Force exists which acts from the high pressure region to the low pressure region. This force is
called Pressure Gradient.
2. The spacing between isobars is indicative of the relative strength of the pressure gradient force.
3. Closely spaced isobars show a large change in the pressure over a short distance, indicating the
presence of a large pressure gradient force; this is common within Low Pressure Area.
4. Widely spaced isobars show a change in the pressure over a large distance, indicating a small
pressure gradient.

ISOBARIC TROUGHS:-

Low pressure isobars protuding outwards from Low pressure in

between the areas of two highs, we call it isobaric troughs.

ISOBARIC RIDGES:-

Protuding Outwards from High Pressure areas.

COLS:-

Areas which are not high or low pressures.Generally found

between highs and lows and are called COLS.

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VERTICAL PRESSURE VARIATION:-

1. Atmospheric pressure falls very quickly with altitude near the Earth’s Surface.
2. At high altitudes, the rate of pressure reduction is much less marked.
The Rate at which pressure decreases with altitudes also falls as altitude increases.
Close to Sea Level : 1 millibar/Hpa - 27ft
At 1000ft : 1 millibar/Hpa - 36ft
Average change of pressure with height below Tropopause:-
1 millibar/Hectopascal - 27ft

ISALLOBARS: A line joining points of equal pressure change during a specific time interval. [3hrs
ahead]

3. In cold air, pressure changes more rapidly with height than in warm air.
4. Cold air increases the pressure lapse rate.

THE EFFECT ON TEMPERATURE ON VERTICAL PRESSURE VARIATION:-

1. Pressure change with altitude is not constant

Reason: a. Variation in temperature over Earth’s surface.
b. Warm air is less dense than the cold.
 Pressure Lapse Rate: Cold air causes pressure to fall more rapidly with height.
 Warm air causes pressure to fall more slowly with height.

HEIGHT DIFFERENCE for 1hPa pressure change = 96t/p Feet

Where t = Temperature in Kelvin

p = Pressure

 If the temperature is lower than that of ISA, then there is a Large Pressure Lapse Rate(AS AIR IS
COLD) and if the temperature is higher than that of ISA, then there is Small Pressure Lapse Rate(AS
AIR WARM).

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DENSITY
Density is defined as the Mass per Unit Volume, i.e., the quantity of any material present in a given space.
Relative Density: Relative Density is the prevailing density expressed as a percentage of Mean Sea Level
density in ISA.

Example: Current density at Sea Level is 1000g/m3

ISA is 1225g/m3

Hence R.D = (1000/1225) x 100

= 81.63%

DENSITY ALTITUDE: Density Altitude is the altitude in the ISA at which the current observed density would
occur.

Density Altitude = PA +/- (ISA Deviation x 120)

1. The pressure altitude and the density altitude have the same value in the ISA( As ISA deviation will be
zero hence DA = PA)
2. For every 1oC rise in temperature above ISA, the density altitude increases by about 120ft above the
Pressure altitude.
3. The Density altitude is higher if the atmosphere is warmer than the ISA.
4. Higher density altitude would mean taking off from or landing at an airfield located at a higher
altitude
5. We can say Density altitude is inversely proportional to Density.

 An increase in temperature & an increase in humidity cause a reduction in air density.

Thus, in hot & humid conditions, the density altitude at a particular location may be significantly
higher than the actual altitude.

EFFECT OF CHANGES OF PRESSURE ON DENSITY:-

Density = Mass/Volume

As pressure is increased, the air will be compressed which reduces the volume & increase the density.
P V D

Therefore, Density is directly proportional to pressure.

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EFFECT OF CHANGE OF TEMPERATURE ON DENSITY:-

If a volume of air is heated, it will expand & the mass of air contained in unit volume will be less.

Thus, density will decrease with an increase in temperature.

T V D

Therefore, Density is inversely proportional to temperature.

EFFECT OF CHANGE OF HUMIDITY ON DENSITY:-

Humidity is a measure of the water vapour content of the air.

1. Humid air is lighter.

2. Less dense than the dry air.

This is because the molecule of H2O weighs less than the molecules of
Nitrogen(N2) & Oxygen(O2).

Therefore, Density is inversely proportional to Humidity.

EFFECT OF CHANGE OF ALTITUDE ON DENSITY:-

Density will change by 1% for a 3oC change in temperature or a 10hPa change in Pressure.

As Pressure lapse rate reduces with increase in height, density lapse rate also reduces with pressure lapse
rate.

EFFECT OF CHANGE OF LATITUDE ON DENSITY:-

Along the surface, density increases with latitude.

At altitude, density decreases with latitude.

Density is ½ of surface value at 6km,1/4 at 11km and 1/8th at 17km.

EFFECT OF CHANGES IN DENSITY ON A/C OPERATIONS:-

Low density of air will reduce the lift of the A/C , increase the take-off run and reduce maximum T/O
weight.

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PRESSURE SYSTEMS
The general vertical movement of air constitutes the primary distinction between high & low pressure
system.

In Low pressure areas – air is rising

In High pressure areas – air is descending

Pressure systems are defined by the relative pressure.

Low Pressure -> Cyclones -> Depressions

High Pressure -> Anti-Cyclones

Low pressure systems are of two types, namely, Small Scale Lows & Large Scale Lows.

SMALL SCALE LOWS:-

Conduction: Takes place between two objects in contact with each other.
Heat Energy moves from one material to the other. In heat conduction, the heat energy travels from the
hot point to a cold point.

1. Air lying above a warm surface will be heated by conduction.

2. Due to heating, air will expand or in other words, volume will increase hence density will reduce.
3. The rising air travels up through the atmosphere.
4. Air cools as it travels up to the surrounding air and it diverges or spreads out.
5. This causes atmospheric pressure to fall at the surface.
6. Surrounding air converges at low or is drawn inwards in an attempt to fill the low.
7. Inward moving air experience friction because of Earth’s surface and thus slows the air down.
8. More air leaves the low then the air converging hence low is maintained.
 Dew Point: It indicates the amount of moisture in the air.

The higher the dew point, the higher is the moisture content of the air at a given
temperature.

 Dew point temperature is defined as the temperature to which the air would have to cool (at
constant pressure & constant water vapour content) in order to reach saturation.
 A state of saturation exists when the air is holding the maximum amount of water vapour
possible at the existing temperature and pressure.
 When the dew point temperature and air temperature are equal, the air is said to be saturated.
Dew Point temperature is never greater than the air temperature.
 It can be said, if an air parcel is lifted till it gets saturated, the temperature attained by it is
called Dew Point
 Therefore if water cools, moisture must be removed from the air & this is accomplished through
condensation.
9. As air rises, it gets cold due to adiabatic cooling and condensation takes place when the air
temperature has fallen to its dew point.
10. As water vapour changes state to become liquid water droplets, cloud is formed.
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11. The clouds which are created within a small scale low develop vertically and are called cumuliform
or cumulus clouds.
HAZARDS TO AVIATION FROM SMALL SCALE LOWS:-
 TURBULENCE

Moderate Severe

1. The velocity of the rising air can be very significant inside a vigorously developing cumuliform cloud.
2. In some cases, hail stones up to 2lb(1Kg) in weight may be suspended inside the cloud by strong up
currents.
3. When the weight of the water droplets or hail stones suspended within the cloud exceeds the force
of the rising air, they will fall to the earth as precipitation.
4. The precipitation is both rapid & intense, resulting in air being forced downwards toward the
Earth’s surface, creating very active downdraughts.
5. The strong up draughts & downdraughts within small scale lows generate moderate to severe
turbulence.
 ICING:-
1. Icing occurs when liquid or super cooled water, held within the cloud, freezes onto an aircraft
surface.

Light Icing Moderate Icing Severe Icing

VISIBILITY IN SMALL SCALE LOWS:-

Horizontal Visibility is good as air is converging & rising, any impurities near the Earth’s surface will be
drawn up into the upper atmosphere leaving much cleaner air at the surface.

THE EQUATORIAL LOW PRESSURE BELT:-

The most frequent occurrence of small scale low pressure

areas is around the equator.

The central belt is the Equatorial Low Pressure Belt

where very extensive cumuliform cloud development
occurs.

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TROPICAL REVOLVING STORMS:-

These are also known as Hurricanes, Cyclones or Typhoons.
1. Small scale depressions around the equator evolve into a violent weather phenomenon.
2. It can expand to over 700nm in diameter.
3. Because of their scale, spin of the earth becomes
important.
4. The airflow is deflected as it is drawn towards the
centre of the depression.
5. This deflection results in rotational wind speed of up to
200 Miles per hour.
6. Generally found only over the tropical oceans.

LARGE SCALE LOW PRESSURE AREAS (DEPRESSIONS):-

1. Polar Frontal Depressions are Large Scale Low Pressure Areas which are created in a very different
manner to the small scale heat lows.
2. Polar Frontal Depressions are found 40o to 60o latitude, North or South, depending on the season.
3. The depressions typically move from West to East across the Earth’s Surface.
FORMATION OF POLAR FRONT DEPRESSIONS:-
1. The boundary between warm & cold air masses is called a Polar Front.
2. As with any boundary between two air masses of different densities, the boundary will not be a
straight line.
Kinks: Small irregularities, in these kinks, the warm tropical air intrudes into the cooler polar air.
3. The lighter, warm air in the Kink replaces the colder, heavier air, so the weight of the overlying air is
reduced, leading to a fall in the surface pressure.
4. Cold Front: This is where the cold polar air undercuts lighter
warm tropical air.
5. Warm Front: This is where the warm tropical air override the
colder dense air.
6. Warm Sector: This is the warm tropical air between the two
fronts.
7. Wind movement: In the Northern Hemisphere, the
deflection of the moving air mass is to the right, causing
winds to blow anticlockwise around the depression.
In the Southern Hemisphere, the deflection is to the left,
the wind blows clockwise around a depression.
This deflection of the moving air mass
is caused by a force known as the
Coriolis Force.
THE WARM FRONT:-
The warmer air , being less dense, will ride
up & over the colder air.
1. Warm air will condense creating clouds
along the frontal boundary. This layer type
cloud is called Stratiform Cloud.
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THE COLD FRONT:-

The colder, heavier air will undercut the warmer, lighter air in the form of a wedge creating a Cold
Front.
1. As the cold air advances, it forces the warm air upwards casing the warm air to cool.
2. The water vapour in the warm air mass condenses & clouds are created.
3. Clouds take on a general Stratiform appearance.

UNSTABLE REGION:-
The cold front slopes forward first,
slopes backwards creating a wedge
shape.
The portion of the front in contact
with the ground will slow down due
to friction as the front advances and
will lay behind the air immediately
above it.
1. The unstable air just ahead of
the cold front is forced to rise
vigorously.
2. This vigorous vertical ascent creates vertically developed Cumuliform Cloud.
3. The Cumuliform clouds are potentially hazardous often becoming storm clouds called
Cumulonimbus which may often be embedded within the Stratiform Cloud.
THE OCCLUDED FRONT:-
These are created when the cold & warm fronts merge. On the
graph, the warm and cold front symbols are found together
along one line.
ISOBARIC TROUGHS:-
If the isobars form a finger-like protrusion away from the
centre of the depression an isobaric trough of low pressure is
present.
NON-FRONTAL TROUGHS:-
These are usually U-shaped.
1. Convergence of air at the Earth’s surface.
2. Causes air to rise over a large area, producing extensive cloud with associated rain & showers.
TROUGH LINES:-
Surface trough which is caused by processes higher up in the atmosphere.
1. Represented on surface pressure charts with a Solid Black Line.
2. Significant formations of Cumuliform Storm Cloud can occur along these trough lines.
ANTICYCLONES:-
1. Weight of a column of air needs to be high.
2. The air converges at the tip of atmosphere, descends or subsides & then diverges once it
reaches the surface.

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Adiabatic Warming: As the air descends in a high pressure system, it becomes compressed. This
compression causes the air to warm & thus prevents any significant cloud from forming.
Subsidence Inversion: Foot of the warm air sits a few thousand feet above the surface & creates a
temperature inversion.
Movement Of Air: The air diverges from the region of higher pressure & this air flow will eventually
be turned right in the Northern Hemisphere or left in the Southern Hemisphere by the Coriolis
Force.
Inward and Clockwise in Northern Hemisphere.
Outward and Anticlockwise in Southern Hemisphere.
WARM ANTICLYCLONES:-
1. Excess of air at high level.
2. Descending air will be heated by compression & surface temperature will rise.
3. Found between 20o and 40o latitude.
4. They are called Sub-Tropical Highs.
5. Moving to higher latitude in summer & lower latitude in winters.
6. Stable weather; Radiation Fog.
COLD ANTICYCLONES:-
1. Caused by low surface temperature.
2. Decreasing surface temperature of large land masses in winter cause a slow but progressive
sinking of the atmosphere.
3. Common in winters, more on land than water as land cools faster than sea.
TEMPORARY OR TRAVELLING COLD ANTICYCLONES:-
1. Found along the polar front between polar front depressions.
2. More akin to a ridge of high pressure.
BLOCKING ANTICYCLONES:-
1. Warm Anticyclones formed from an extension of high pressure areas developed in the Sub-
Tropical regions.
2. May hold up or divert the normal west-east passage of polar front depressions.
3. The Blocking Anticyclones must persist at latitude between 45o to 65o for it to be effective at
blocking the polar front weather.
Weather At High Pressures
Cloud Very little cloud. Some low stratus and fog in winters but never cumuliform
cloud
Precipitation None
Visibility Generally poor
Temperature Depends on type of anticyclone
Winds Light and variable

RIGDES:-
1. Extending outwards from an Anticyclone.
2. Their weather & characteristics are similar to a high pressure.
COLS:-
1. Region of almost level pressure.

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2. It is an area of Stagnation.
3. Weather in COLS is normally settled but is dependent on changing pressure.
4. In Autumn and Winters, COLS produce poor visibility & fog. In summers, thunderstorms are
common.

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ALTIMETER

1. Form of Aneroid Barometer.

2. The aircraft’s Altimeter is basically an instrument which measures atmospheric pressure & in
doing so, it is calibrated so as to indicate the vertical separation of the Aircraft from a defined
pressure datum level.
 SUB-SCALE SETTINGS:-
 QNH: This is the barometric pressure at the airfield,
reduced to MSL using the ISA temperature at the
airfield and the ISA pressure lapse rate.
 QFE: The atmospheric pressure read from a
barometer on an airfield will give the aerodrome
pressure.
 QFF: This is the barometric pressure at the surface
reduced to MSL using the observed temperature at
the surface and it’s corresponding pressure lapse rate.

 HORIZONTAL PRESSURE VARIATION:-

1. Atmospheric pressure at the destination airfield is lower than at the departure airfield.
High Low High
From High to Low, look out below.
2. The QNH at the destination airfield being higher than
at departure airfield.
Low High Low
3. The procedure of setting airfield QNH gives an
appropriate altimeter subscale setting for departure or
arrival at an airfield.
 REGIONAL PRESSURE SETTINGS:-
1. With an airfield QNH set on the Altimeter, its indications
may be inaccurate when the Aircraft is flying cross-
country at considerable distance from the departure
Aerodrome. Problem is solved by RPS.
These regions are known as Altimeter Setting Regions.
2. When flying in the regions below the transition Altitude,
we set RPS.
3. The RPS value is based on the lowest forecast pressure within the whole of the Altimeter
Setting Region and is valid for 1 hour.
The Standard Pressure Setting is 1013.25HPa.
1. Transition Altitude: is not a constant altitude. It is from
QNH to SPS(QNE).
2. Transition level: SPS(QNE) to QNH and is not fixed.
3. Transition Level is always higher than the Transition
Altitude. The layer between these two levels is called
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the Transition Layer.

QNE: QFE or QNH cannot be selected on the altimeter subscale when the atmospheric pressure
values are outside the Range of Subscale (850 – 1050HPa).

QNE is defined as the pressure altitude indicated on landing at an aerodrome when the altimeter
subscale is set to 1013.25HPa. Normally QNE is used for high altitude airfield.

 TEMPERATURE ERROR:-
1. No Altimeter setting which will compensate for temperature error.
2. The Altimeter is calibrated against the ISA temperature and pressure lapse rate profile.
3. Cold Air: The pressure change with height is greater.
4. Warm Air: The pressure change with height is decreased.
5. High(Temp) Low(Temp) High(Reading)
Low(Temp) High(Temp) Low(Reading)
 TRUE ALTITUDE:-
1. It is the actual physical altitude of the Aircraft above the Sea Level.
2. This can only be directly measured by Radio Altimeter.
3. Aneroid Altimeter can read true altitude but only if the atmosphere exactly matches the ISA
conditions.
4. The amount of error suffered by the instrument is a function of the ISA deviation, surface
pressure and altitude of the instrument.
1o C Deviation: The aneroid altimeter is in error by 4ft for every 1000ft of pressure altitude.
5. If the atmosphere is hotter than ISA, then the aneroid altimeter set to QNH will read less than
the true altitude, whereas if the atmosphere is colder than ISA, the aneroid altimeter set to
QNH will read higher than the True Altitude.

ROUGH CALCULATIONS OF ALTIMETER CORRECTION

1. Due to Pressure Difference from ISA: Add 30ft for every 1hpa difference when MSL pressure is
higher than 1013.2 hpa and subtract 30ft when lower than 1013.2 hpa.
2. Due to Temperature difference from ISA: Add 1% if indicated altitude for every difference of 3 oC
when actual temperature is higher than ISA at the Flight Level and subtract when lower than
ISA.

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TEMPERATURE

Temperature: How hot or cold a substance is. Heat is the sum total of the KE of all the molecules
and atoms of a substance.

 MEASUREMENT:-
SCALES

Celsius Fahrenheit Kelvin

0 to 100 +32 to +212 +273 to +373

F = (9/5)C + 32

K = C + 273
A louver (American English) or louvre
 INSTRUMENT:-
(British English) is a window blind or
1. Mercury Thermometer placed in Stevenson Screen.
shutter with horizontal slats that are
2. Electrical Resistance thermometer may be used where angled to admit light and air, but to
the screen is not readily accessible to the observer. keep out rain and direct sunshine.
3. Stevenson Screen is a louvered box – 1.25m above the
ground.
4. Thermograph: Similar in its output to a Barograph. (Can also be inside the screen)
5. Upper air temperatures are taken using a Radiosonde, a device transmitting continuous
readings of temperature, pressure , humidity & wind speed.
Rate of Climb – 1200fpm
Maximum Ceiling – 65000ft and 115000ft.
6. Stevenson Screen: Standard Shelter form rain, snow
and high winds. It is painted white so that reflection of
Sun’s Rays is better. The door of Stevenson’s screen is
open opposite to sun.
 HEATING OF THE ATMOSPHERE:-
Atmosphere is heated by five different processes.
Solar Radiation:-
1. Radiation from the Sun is of short wavelength and of
high intensity.
2. The complete solar radiation, including visible
light(45%),UV(09%) and IR(46%) is responsible for
all the heat that the earth receives.
3. Some Solar radiation is reflected back to the upper
air from cloud tops and from water surface on the
earth.
4. Insolation: The process whereby the surface is
heated by solar radiation. In other words, it is the
AKSHEY SOOD
 20

amount of solar radiation received per unit area.

5. 5/6th of solar radiation get received by earth surface on a clear day
6. Stefan Boltzman’s Law: states that the total amount of energy radiated by a black body is
proportional to the fourth power of its absolute temperature i.e E directly proportional to T4.
7. Black body: Everybody, emits radiation, at its temperature in the form of electromagnetic waves
over a wide range of wavelengths simultaneously. A radiating body is called a black body.

Terrestrial Radiation:-
1. Sunlight reaches earth and it absorbs and warms the earth.
2. Earth radiates its energy at much longer wavelength than the sun.
3. Some of these longer wavelengths are absorbed by water vapour and CO2 in the atmosphere.
4. Water vapour is partially transparent to terrestrial radiation
5. Re-transmission of heat to the surrounding air is the main method by which the atmosphere is
heated.
6. The radiation emitted by earth at night are called Nocturnal Radiation. Warmer the earth
intense will be the Nocturnal radiation
7. Since there is more water vapour and CO2 in the
lower atmosphere than in the upper atmosphere,
than there will be more warming taking place within
the lower atmosphere. This explains why the
atmosphere reduces in temperature with an
increase in height.
Greenhouse Effect:-
 Greenhouse Gasses: The gasses which warm the
atmosphere. CO2, Methane, Nitrous Oxide,
Water Vapour.
 Major natural Greenhouse gas is Water Vapour which
causes about 36 – 70% of the greenhouse effect.
Conduction:-
1. Air lying in contact with the Earth’s surface by day will be
heated by conduction.
2. At night, air in contact with the Earth’s Surface will be
cooled by conduction.
3. At night, because of the air’s poor conductivity, the air at a
higher level will remain at the same temperature as
during the day and inversion will result. This is
sometimes called a nocturnal inversion or radiation
inversion.

Covection:-
1. Air heated by conduction will be less dense & will
therefore rise.
2. This will produce upcurrents called Thermals or
Convection currents.
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3. Warm air will rise to the upper levels, thus helping to heat the upper atmosphere.
Advection: Horizontal transition of heat.
Condensation: As the air is lifted, it will cool adiabatically and the water vapour in the air will
condense out as visible droplet forming cloud. As this occurs, latent heat will be released by the
water vapour and this will heat the atmosphere.
The release of latent heat into the surrounding air as condensation takes place is an important
explanation as to why Cumuliform clouds have such strong up draught.
 SURFACE TEMPERATURE:-
The surface air temperature measured in a Stevenson Screen is subject to considerable variations.
1. Latitude Effect
2. Seasonal Effect
3. Diurnal Variation
4. Multiple Effects due to cloud and wind.

 ANGULAR ELEVATION OF SUN:-

 Latitude Effect:-
1. At the equator, only a small area is
affected by the sun rays and therefore will
be subject to the greatest heat per unit
area.
2. At poles, the sun rays will cover a larger
area and there will be the least heat per
unit area.
 Seasonal Effect:-
1. 20/21st March - Sun is directly overhead the equator
22/23rd Sept - and maximum heating
occurs.
st
2. 20/21 June - Overhead Tropic of Cancer and
Maximum heating @ 23o N
3. 21/22nd Dec - Overhead the Tropic of Capricorn
Maximum heating @ 23o S.
 Time of Day ( Diurnal Variation):-
1. Diurnal variation is greatest with clear skies & calm
wind. Diurnal variation varies with a number of
factors, but in temperate latitudes is about +/- 6o C about the mean.
2. The sun is at its highest elevation at noon, but for two to three hours after this time due to
Thermal Inertia.
3. Lowest temperature occurs at about 30minutes to 1 hour after dawn.
4. Diurnal variation of temperature is maximum over land.
5. CLOUD COVER BY DAY: By day, some of the solar radiations is reflected back by the cloud tops
and temperature max is decreased.
6. CLOUD COVER BY NIGHT: By night terrestrial radiation is absorbed and radiated back to the
Earth’s surface from the clouds. Temperature Minimum is increased.

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7. EFFECT OF WIND BY DAY: By day wind will cause turbulent mixing of the warm air at the
surface with cold air above reducing Temperature Max. Wind will also reduce the time the air is
in contact with the warm ground.
8. EFFECT OF WIND BY NIGHT: By night there will normally be an inversion above the surface and
wind will cause cold air to be turbulently mixed with warm air above thus increasing Tmin.
9. SUMMARY: Wind and cloud cover will cause Tmax reduce and Tmin to be increased.
Therefore Diurnal Variation will be reduced.

10. DIURNAL VARIATION OVER THE SEA:-

The temperature rise and fall over the sea is small, generally less than 1 oC.
As the specific heat of water is 1(Unity), sea takes long time to heat and cool.
Nature of the Surface:-
ALBEDO is a measure of the ratio of the scattered to incident light or radiation.
1. A substance with a high ALBEDO is a substance that scatters or reflects a large proportion of
the radiation or light it receives.
2. Albedo is radiation received by earth.
3. 80% of Solar Radiation is reflected from snow surfaces.
4. The difference in DV values between land and sea is the cause of sea breezes.
5. At a coastal station the diurnal variation of temperature depends on Wind direction.

Specific Heat

The specific heat is the amount of heat per unit mass required to raise the temperature by one degree
Celsius.

1. Rise in temperature of a surface is inversely proportional to its Specific Heat.

2. Specific heat of land is lower than of water

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HUMIDITY

Latent Heat: The amount of energy in the form of heat that is required for a material to undergo a change
of state or phase.

Latent Heat is Absorbed

ICE WATER WATER VAPOUR

Latent Heat is Released

 CHANGE OF STATE:-
 EVAPORATION:-
1. Liquid to water vapour.
2. Latent Heat is absorbed.
3. Evaporation can occur at any temperature, even from ICE.
4. For a particular temp, there is a particular amount
of water per unit volume that the air can hold.
When this maximum is reached, evaporation will
cease.
 SATURATION:-
1. Air is saturated if it contains the maximum
amount of water vapour that it can hold at that
temperature.
2. If saturated air is cooled, condensation will occur.
3. Warm air can hold more water vapour than cold.
Saturation can be achieved by cooling the air.
 CONDESATION:-
1. Vapour to liquid.
2. Stored energy is released as sensible heat onto the surface
where condensation has occurred.
3. Condensation causes cloud & fog to form.
4. Condensation will require minute impurities or particles
called Condensation Nuclei.
5. Without Nuclei, the vapour would become super saturated
which is greater than 100% humidity but still in gas form.
 FREEZING:-
1. If the water droplet is cooled below zero, state changes to ICE.
2. Need freezing nuclei, then only freezing occurs.
3. Without the nuclei, the droplet remains as super cooled water droplets.
 SUBLIMATION/DEPOSITION:-
1. Sublimation is the change of state directly from ICE to Water Vapour
without water droplets being formed.

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2. Latent Heat is absorbed.

3. Gasses to ICE is deposition. It releases Latent Heat.
4. Example: Dry Ice.
 INSTRUMENTS TO MEASURE HUMIDITY:-
Instrument to measure Humidity is called Hygrometer or Psychrometer.
1. A psychrometer makes use of the phenomenon that water from wetted sock placed over one
thermometer bulb will evaporate.
2. The rate at which this water evaporates is related to the amount of water already present in the
atmosphere. The higher the amount of atmospheric water present, the slower the evaporation.
3. Evaporation of water from the wetted sock has a cooling effect on the bulb.
4. Dew Point, relative humidity & vapour pressure & Humidity mixing ratio can be read from tables
or a slide rule by entering the values.
 ABSOLUTE HUMDITY:-
It is the exact measurement of how much water vapour is in the air.
AH = (Mass of Water Vapour)/(Volume of Air)
 RELATIVE HUMIDITY:-
The compression of amount of water vapour in air to the maximum amount (Saturation/Dew
Point).
Expressed in %.
RH = [(Absolute Humidity)/(Saturation Point)] x 100
Eg: 25% - 60% is comfortable , <25% is Too Dry
>60% is Too Humid
 Humidity Mixing Ratio :-
1. It is defined as the mass of water vapour contained in a given mass of air. It is expressed as g/Kg
2. Humidity mixing ratio remains constant when air is lifted adiabatically.
 Humidity Mixing Ratio for Saturated Air.
It is defined as the maximum mass of water vapour that can be contained in a given mass of air at a
particular temperature and pressure. It is also expressed as g/kg of dry air.

 Vapour pressure
Imagine we fill a jar halfway with water, and seal it. (Figure 8-9) Some of the water will start
evaporating until the air above the container has some water vapor in it. On a normal temperature
day, the partial pressure from just the water vapor is about 3% of the pressure of the air in the jar.
This partial pressure of the vapor of a liquid is called the "vapor pressure." Any liquid placed in a jar
will produce a vapor pressure in this way, but the vapor pressures will vary for different substances.

 Important Points
1. Free air temp, wet bulb temp and dew point temp are equal when Relative humidity is 100%
2. On a rainy day we have more humidity hence density of air is less and we would need more
length of runway.

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ADIABATICS AND STABILITY

Adiabatic: Relating to or denoting a process or condition in which heat does not enter or leave the
system concerned.
This means that it is possible to change the temperature of a fluid without adding or subtracting
heat from it and it is possible if the fluid is either compressed or expanded.
 ADIABATIC WARMING:-
1. If the air is compressed, the molecular movement or energy of the molecules is confined into a
smaller and smaller volume.
2. This makes the molecules hit each other more often, creating friction and generating more
heat.
3. Therefore, if air is compressed, it warms up. This is called “Adiabatic Warming”.
 ADIABATIC COOLING:-
1. If the air is expanded, the molecules will have a larger volume to move around in.
2. Now the molecules are less likely to hit each other and they will not generate as much heat.
3. Therefore, if air expands, it cools. This process is called “Adiabatic Cooling”.
 DRY ADIABATIC LAPSE RATE:-
1. ”Dry” air is air with a relative humidity of less than 100%.
2. Therefore, a relative humidity of 99.9% is considered as dry or unsaturated.
3. Change in its temperature is 1oC per 100m(10oC/km) or 3oC/1000ft, is called as Dry Adiabatic
Lapse Rate (DALR) and it is fixed.
 SATURATED ADIABATIC LAPSE RATE (SALR):-
1. 0.5oC per 100m(5oC/km) or 1.8oC/1000ft, this change of temperature is called Saturated or
Moist Adiabatic Lapse Rate(SALR).
2. The SALR varies strongly with the moisture content, which when saturated, depends on
temperature and pressure of the air passed.
 THE REASON FOR THE DIFFERNCE BETWEEN DALR & SALR:-
1. When Saturated air either warms or cools, latent heat is either released or absorbed.
2. When saturated air rises it cools, but as it cools, condensation takes place which releases latent
heat to the air passed. This slows down the rate of cooling of that air passed from 1oC/100m to
0.5oC/100m.
 ENVIRONMENT LAPSE RATE(ELR):-
Lapse Rate of non-rising air commonly referred to as the normal or environmental lapse rate. It is
highly variable, being affected by radiation, convection & condensation.
 REASON FOR SALR VARIATION WITH TEMPERATURE:-
1. The warmer the saturated air, the more moisture it contains and therefore the more
condensation occurs when it rises and cools.
Therefore, more latent heat is released to the air parcel.
2. As a result, warm saturated air cools at a slower rate than 0.5oC/100m and cold saturated air
cools at a faster rate than 0.5oC/100m.
3. At high altitude( & latitudes) temperature are low, little latent heat is released and thus DALR
and SALR are nearly the same. SALR approaches DALR at -40oC.

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 STABILTY:-
1. Atmospheric stability describes the tendency of a parcel of air to either continue to move or
return to its original position after an applied displacement force.
2. If, once disturbed, a parcel of air returns to its original position it is described as being stable.
3. Whereas if it continued to move it would be described as unstable.
4. Neutral stability is when the air neither or continues to move.
 STABLE AIR/ ABSOLUTE STABILITY:-
1. The air is resistant to vertical motion.

2. If ELR is less than the SALR the atmosphere is stable .

3. The atmosphere will be even more stable in Isothermal Conditions or in an inversion.

 ABSOLUTE INSTABILITY/UNSTABLE AIR:-
1. The air is very susceptible to vertical motion.
2. The reason the displaced air continues to rise is because it has become warmer and therefore
lighter than its surrounding.
3. In other words, the lifted air parcel has cooled down more slowly than the surrounding
environment.

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4. Any time ELR is more than the DALR and SALR, air is unstable.

5. Saturated air will tend to rise more than the dry air in an unstable atmosphere which explains
why up current inside thunderstorms are for more powerful and for faster than the up currents
outside the storm.
6. Any time the environmental temperature falls rapidly with height, such as when cold air is
found above warm air, expect unstable condition and strong up currents.
 CONDITIONAL STABILITY/UNSTABILITY:-

1. The atmosphere is described as being in a conditional stable when the ELR is between the DALR
and SALR.
The ELR controls stability.

2. In such a case, dry air is disturbed it will return to its original position – Air is stable.
3. When saturated air is disturbed it will continue to rise and is unstable.
4. The air is stable if it’s dry and unstable if it’s saturated.
5. The ELR controls stability.
 NEUTRAL STABILITY:-
If the lifted air’s lapse rate [either dry or saturated] is the same as the environmental lapse rate
then we have neutral stability.

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TURBULENCE
Turbulence: Disturbed state/disturbed or rough air.
CAUSES
Turbulence is caused by up and down currents which interfere with the normal horizontal flow of
air. The two type of turbulence are:-
1. Thermal 2. Frictional or Mechanical

Gust: A gust is a rapid increase in wind strength, of short duration (less than 1 min).

Squall: A squall is a sudden increase of wind speed of at least 16kt rising to 22kt or more and lasting
at least 1 min. A squall may be accompanied by a marked drop in temperature, cloud and
precipitation.

Turbulence Occurs

1. In the Friction Layer.

2. In clouds.
3. In clear air.

 FRICTION LAYER
1. The friction layer is a layer of air on the Earth’s surface 2000 to 3000ft (1Km) thick where the
horizontal flow of air is disturbed by
both Thermal and Mechanical
turbulence.

 THERMAL TURBULENCE
1. This is caused by convection currents
resulting from insolation.
2. Thermal turbulence is greatest around
1500hrs on clear sunny days.
3. There is no thermal turbulence over the sea.

 MECHANICAL TURBULENCE
This is caused by physical obstructions to the
normal flow of air such as hills, mountain, trees
and buildings.

 TURBULENCE WITHIN CLOUDS

1. Turbulence is found in and around significant cloud
development, especially in cumuliform clouds created
by rising air currents.
2. The vertical extent of a cumulus cloud is therefore a
very good indication of the intensity of the vertical air
flow beneath and within the cloud.

AKSHEY SOOD
 29

3. Cumulonimbus Clouds generate the most violent turbulence.

 TURBULENCE SURROUNDING CLOUDS

1. Around well-developed cumulus cloud and cumulonimbus downdraughts are active at some
distance from the cloud itself.

 TURBULENCE BENEATH CLOUDS

1. Beneath the base f cumulus and cumulonimbus,
convective up currents are very strong. Downdraughts
can be met beneath cloud base too.
2. Most severe downdraughts occur in precipitation.
3. If the mass of air descending from the cloud is
significant enough, a phenomenon known as a
Microburst or on a large scale, a Microburst is
created.
4. When downdraught are strong and spread out from the cloud itself they cause large changes in
direction and speed of wind and give rise to dangerous low level wind shear.

 LOW ALTITUDE WINDSHEAR

 VERTICAL WIND SHEAR:-
1. Vertical Wind shear is change in wind velocity with height.
2. It is typically measured in Knots per 100ft.
3. Common inversion, therefore expect them at night and in
well developed high pressure systems.

 HORIZONTAL WIND SHEAR

1. Horizontal wind shear is change in wind velocity with
horizontal distance.
2. Common with the passage of fronts.
3. Measured in Knots per 1000ft.

 STANDING OR MOUNTAIN [LEE] WAVES [MTW]:-

CONDITIONS NECESSARY FOR FORMATION OF STANDING WAVES:-

1. Wind speed at mountain height must be at least 7m/s for small mountains and 15m/s for large
mountains increasing with height.
2. The wind must blow within 30 degree of the perpendicular to the range of hills/mountains.
3. There must be a region of marked stability
such as an inversion or isothermal layer at
mountain top height with less stable air
above and below.

 VISUAL RECOGNITION FEATURES OF STANDING

WAVES:-

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 30

Lenticular: Lens shaped clouds which form an the crests of standing waves.
Rotor or Roll Clouds: Occur under the crests of story waves down wind of the ridge.
CAP Clouds: Form on the ridge and strong winds may sweep the cloud down the lee slopes.
If air is dry , clouds may not form at sea, even though standing waves are present.

 Mountain Waves Understanding

1. Mountain waves develop on the lee, or downwind, side of mountains
2. These waves are generated when strong winds flowing toward mountains in a generally perpendicular
fashion are raised up over the mountains. As the winds rise, they may encounter a strong inversion or stable
air barrier over the mountain that causes the winds to be redirected toward the surface. Instead of reaching
back down to earth, the winds continue in an up-and-down wave-like pattern downwind of the mountains
that may extend for hundreds of miles.
o When approaching an area where mountain waves have been reported, a pilot should expect:
 Possible presence of roll clouds and lenticular clouds
 Intense up drafts and down drafts on the lee side of the mountains.
 Moderate to severe turbulence as far as 20 to 30 miles from the range on lee side.
 Altimeter Error
Hysteresis Error:-In mountain waves an aircraft is subjected to rapid height fluctuation, due to up
and down currents. The aneroid capsules of altimeter are unable to respond correctly to these
fluctuations. This is called Hysteresis effect.

 CAT
1. Turbulence can occur in clear air, particularly near the Tropopause .
2. CAT is associated with JetStreams, standing waves, air surrounding CB cloud, upper level
Troughs and sometimes upper level Ridges.

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WINDS

1. Wind is air in horizontal motion. Wind velocity(W/V) has both direction and speed.
2. Wind is given in degree true, but wind direction given to a pilot by ATC or in ATIS will be given in
degree magnetic.
 Veer: Change in Wind direction in a clockwise direction.
 Back: Change in wind direction in an anti-clockwise direction.
 Gusts: A gust is a sudden increase in wind speed, often with a change in direction. It lasts for a few
seconds and is very local.
 Lull: Sudden decrease in wind speed.
 Squall: A squall is a sudden increase in wind speed, often with a change in direction. It lasts for
some minutes and can cover a wide area. Often associated with cumulonimbus cloud and cold
fronts.
 Gales: A gale is a condition where the wind speed exceeds 33Kts as if the wind gusts exceed 42Kts.
 Hurricanes: A Hurricane means a wind speed exceeding 63Kts.
 Cross winds: A wind 90o to the runway in use.

 MEASUREMENT OF WINDS:-
1. Surface wind is measured by a wind vane which aligns itself with the wind direction and an
Anemometer which measures the speed.
Anemometer is a set of 3 hemispherical cups which rotate
on a shaft with the effect of the wind. The speed of rotation
of the shaft is directly proportional to the wind speed.
2. Both Vane and Anemometer are positioned 33ft(10m) AGL.
3. The wind is averaged for 10 minutes for all weather
observation. For take off and landing purpose the wind is
averaged for 2 minutes.
4. Upper winds are measured by radar tracking of a radio sonde and by A/C reports.

 THE GEOSTROPHIC WINDS:-

1. The Geostrophic wind is said to have only
two forces. These must be working opposite
from each other and in balance; forces are
Pressure Gradient force and Coriolis Force.

2. Geostrophic Wind only blow above the

friction layer.
3. V = [PGF]/2ΩρsinΘ
4. Geostropic wind speed will decrease as
latitude reduces.
5. The Geostrophic winds blow parallel to straight isobars. If the wind were to follow a curved
path, it cannot be considered as a Geostrophic Wind because of additional forces involved,
centrifugal or centripetal force

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 PRESSURE GRADIENT FORCE:-

1. PGF is the force that acts from a high pressure to a low pressure.
2. Wind force is directly proportional to the pressure gradient force.
3. The relationship between the isobar spacing, the pressure gradient force and the wind speed
can be seen in the Geostrophic Wind Scale(GWS).

 CORIOLIS FORCE:-
1. The Coriolis force is the force caused by the rotation of the earth.
2. It acts 90o to the wind direction causing air to tilt to the right in the Northern Hemisphere and
to the left in the Southern Hemisphere.
In NH - In SH -

Wind Wind
CF CF

3. CF is maximum at the poles and minimum at the equator.

4. 𝐶𝐹 = 2Ω𝜚𝑉𝑠𝑖𝑛Θ

 BUYS BALLOT’S LAW:-

1. If an observer stands with his back to the wind, the lower pressure is on the left in the Northern
Hemisphere and on his right in the Southern Hemisphere.
2. This implies if an Aircraft is experiencing starboard drift in the Northern Hemisphere, the
Aircraft is heading towards low pressure.
3. Local winds do not follow Buys Ballots law.
4. If an A/C in northern hemisphere flies from HP to LP it will experience Starboard drift.
5. In N-Hemisphere if you experience Port drift, altimeter will Under Read.(L-H-L)

 CONDITIONS NECESSARY FOR THE WIND TO BE GEOSTROPHIC:-

1. Above the friction layer.
2. At a latitude greater than 15o.
3. When the pressure situation is not changing rapidly.
4. With the isobars straight and parallel.

 WINDS BELOW 2000-3000FT(1KM):-

1. Friction between moving air and the land surface will reduce wind speed near the ground.
a. This reduction also reduces the CF.
b. This will cause the two forces in the Geostrophic Wind to be out of balance since
CF<PGF.

The wind is now

called a surface
wind.

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 33

c. Resulting in a reduction in the Coriolis force, the PGF is now more dominating. This
causes the wind to blow across the isobars towards the lows.

 SURFACE WIND OVER SEA AND LAND:-

1. The surface wind over land is backed by 30 degree from the geostrophic wind and its speed is
reduced by 50%.
2. Over the sea, friction is very much less and the surface winds are closer to geostrophic values.
Surface wind over the sea is backed by 10 degree from the geostrophic wind and speed reduced
to 70%.
PS: Surface winds will veer in the southern hemisphere.

 DIURNAL VARIATION OF THE SURFACE WINDS:-

1. Diurnal Variation of surface winds is due to thermal turbulence which mixes the air at the
surface with air moving freely above.
a. During the day, thermal currents mix the faster air at altitude with the surface wind. This
increases the surface wind speed.
b. At night, there is no thermal mixing and therefore the surface wind stays slow.
c. During 23hr period, it veers and increases by day reaching maximum strength about
1500hrs. It backs and decreases thereafter with the minimum strength around dawn.

 THE GRADIENT WIND:-

1. The gradient wind occurs when the isobars are curved.
2. This brings into a play a force which makes the wind follow a curved path parallel to the isobars.
These forces are
a. PGF
b. CF
c. Centrifugal Force

GRADIENT WIND IN A DEPRESSION:-

1. The centrifugal force opposes the PGF and therefore reduces the wind speed.
2. The gradient wind speed around a depression is less than the Geostrophic wind for the same
isobar interval.

GRADIENT WIND IN A HIGH:-

1. Air moving steadily around a high, the centrifugal force acts with PGF, increasing the velocity of
the wind.
2. The gradient wind speed around an anticyclone is greater than the geostrophic wind for the
same isobar interval.

 THE ANTITRIPTIC WIND:-

The wind which blows in low latitudes(within 15 o) where the Coriolis force is very small is called the
antitriptic wind.

 Inertial Wind

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 34

1. Imagine a current of air trapped along a mountain range. Suddenly the mountain
range gives way to an open plain and the airflow is left 'on its own'. In the absence of
a large-scale pressure gradient, it will start to circle, and this slow rotation is known
as 'inertial' motion. The Coriolis force initiates the rotation, which is then opposed by
the centrifugal force. The inertial flow is anticyclonic in both the Hemisphere.
2. It is a frictionless flow under the balance between the Centrifugal Force and the Coriolis force
and there is no Pressure Gradient Force.

LOCAL WINDS:-

1. With the onset of sea breeze there is a Fall in temperature and Rise in relative humidity.
2. Sea breeze sets in by Day and dies off at Night.
3. Sea breeze is stronger than land breeze.

PRACTICAL COASTAL EFFECTS:-

VALLEY OR RAVINE WINDS:-

1. Gives Venture effect

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Anabatic winds and Katabatic winds

1. The wind sliding down a hill during night is called Katabatic wind.
2. Katabatic winds is down slope cold wind due to nocturnal cooling.
3. Anabatic winds occurs during day.

 Fohn Winds
1. Fohn winds are dry and warm on the leeward side of a mountain.

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 36

UPPER WINDS
The winds are stronger because the density is less.
𝑃𝐺𝐹
V = 2Ω𝜌𝑠𝑖𝑛Θ
At 20,000ft for the same PGF, the wind speed is double the surface wind speed, since density is
half that at the surface.
 THERMAL WIND:-
1. The pressure changes that exist in the upper
atmosphere that control our upper winds are
directly related to the temperature difference
between air masses.
2. Temperature difference between two air
masses dictates the pressure we find in the
upper atmosphere.
 CONTOUR CHARTS:-
1. Contour Chart is a chart where the pressure is constant everywhere.
2. These heights are plotted as contour lines with the reference being MSL.
3. The heights give us an indication of the distance that a pressure level is from MSL.
4. If the pressure level is higher, then we can assume a high pressure exists aloft. Conversely if the
pressure level is much lower and the contour line shows a lower height then we assume a low
pressure is aloft.

 THE UPPER WIND PRINCIPLE:-

It states that with your back to the upper wind, the cold air is to your left in the northern
hemisphere and to your right in the southern hemisphere.
 SIMPLE MODEL OF THE GENERAL UPPER WIND PATTERNS OF THE WORLD:-

 JET STREAMS:-
1. As we go higher in the troposphere, the density decreases and the temperature effect
overwhelms the pressure effect.
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2. The strongest winds are to be found just below the tropopause.

3. Where the winds exceed 60Kts and where vertical wind shear is about 5m/s, they are termed
JET STREAMS.
4. Jet stream is a strong narrow current of winds and compared to its horizontal wind shear the
vertical wind shear is stronger
5. Jet Stream is defined as a flat tubular current of air, quasi-horizontal, whose axis is along a line
of maximum speed and which is characterised not only by great speeds but also by strong
transverse (horizontal and vertical) gradients of speed (World Meteorological Organisation).
6. Jet stream may have one or more maxima and path of the maximum speed is known as Axis.
Also, the wind speed along the axis of a jet stream is always not uniform.
7. Jet Streak:- These are centres of high speed winds along the axis of a jet stream.
8. In a wavy jet the Jet streaks are located over or near the ridge
9. Jet Stream is about 2000miles long, 200miles wide and 2miles deep.
10. Jet Streams are causes by large mean temperature difference in the horizontal.
11. Jet stream has extensive sheets of high clouds on warm side. CI clouds are more common on
the cold side while CS and CC cloud on the warm side. Jet stream can be recognized by streaks
of CI

SUB-TROPICAL JET STREAMS:-

1. Form in the area of the sub-tropical anti-cyclones.
2. It is a westerly jet stream
3. They move South in the winters and North in the summers.
4. Found at latitudes 25o to 40o and its normal position is 27oN and its southern most position in
February is 22oN.
5. Average speed 100kts, maximum 200kts. Lowest speed in October and May and the highest in
January.
6. It has a layered structure and is often two layers of maximum wind, to the south of the jet core.
The jet stream strengthens by 10-15kt downstream along the axis.
7. It is located 2-4km below the tropopause.
8. At and near this jet stream the temperature gradient is very small or negligible.
9. It affects India from October to May( 8 months), it prevails over India during non-monsoon
months.
10. Strong vertical shear is often concentrated just above and below the core, it is greater above
the core than below it.
POLAR FRONT JET STREAM:-
1. Created by the temperature difference along the polar front.
2. The front jet is in the warm air.
3. Is generally at 45o latitude in winters and 65o latitude in summers.
4. Found at approximately 30,000ft and is lower in winter, higher in summers.
5. Speed strongest in winters.
ARCTIC FRONT JETS:-
1. Between the boundary of arctic air and polar air.
2. Found mainly in winter and at 60oN latitude.
3. At 10,000ft.
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TROPICAL JET STREAM:-

1. Commonly known as the Easterly jet stream.
2. Prominent during the monsoons (June to August) and becomes weak in winters.
3. Average speed varies from 60-80kt, maxima of 150kts, strongest in July and August.
4. Tropical jet stream occurs in the summer over south east Asia and central Africa.
5. It is located over the Indian Peninsula at 13oN and about 15-16km height.
6. Tropical jet’s wind shear as compare to subtropical jet is less

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CLOUD FORMATION & PRECIPITATION

 VERTICAL MOTION:-
1. Cloud is formed by air being lifted and cooled adiabatically until the water vapour condenses
out as water droplets.
2. The height at which this occurs is called the Condensation Level. It is also called the height of
Cloud Base.
 WAYS OF LIFTING OF AIR:-
1. Turbulence
2. Orographic Lift [1,2,4 & 5 are forced convection]
3. Convection
4. Slow widespread ascent(Frontal Uplift)
5. Convergence
 CONDENSATION LEVEL:-
1. If an unsaturated parcel of air
rises, it will cool adiabatically.
2. This cooling increases the
relative humidity of the parcel
of air until eventually the
temperature of parcel has
reached dew point
temperature and the relative
humidity will be 100%.
3. At this point, the air parcel is saturated and further ascent and cooling will cause condensation
and cloud to form.
4. The level in the atmosphere at which this happens is called the condensation level and this
usually marks the base of any cloud formation.
5. The greater the difference between the initial temperature and the dew point, the higher the
condensation level or cloud base.
 OROGRAPHIC CLOUD:-
1. Air is forced up.
2. If air is stable, the cloud base is formed below
the crest of the ridge.

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3. If air is dry/unstable, the cloud base will be above the ridge and lenticular cloud would result.
4. Strong winds with most air can cause CB embedded in other cloud types.
 CONVECTION CLOUD:-
1. Air need to reach the dew point temperature.
2. At early hours of morning, the earth is nit heated up that much that it makes the air rise and
reach dew point temperature.
3. Critical Temperature: The surface air
temperature required for the air to
be lifted to the condensation level.
4. As temperature generally rises during
the day, the cloud base is found at
higher altitudes and the cloud depths
increases.
5. Two cases appear, first in fair
weather, Cu clouds are formed in early morning.
Second, Cu/Cb clouds are formed later in the day.
6. Pure convection cloud cannot form over the sea.
7. If cold air moving over a warm surface, the air will become unstable and convection type cloud
can form.
8. Convection cloud formed over land by surface heating soon dissipates at night because
insolation stops and cloud droplets evaporate.
 FRONTAL UPLIFT: At a front, there is widespread lifting of air as warm air comes into contact with
cold air.
 COVERGENCE CLOUD:-
1. When there is low pressure, there is always
convergence at the surface which leads to air
being lifted.
2. In depressions and troughs, there are no
occluded fronts, therefore cloud formation
occurs.
3. Types of clouds formed are Cumulonimbus and
Cumulus.

 INVERSION: This produces extreme stability and inhibits the formation of cloud

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CLOUDS

Clouds indicate to pilots possible weather problems, such as

1. Turbulence
2. Poor Visibility
3. Precipitation
4. Icing
 CLOUD AMOUNT:-
1. Cloud amounts are reported in OKTAS.
2. It is assumed that the sky is divided into 8 equal parts.
3. The total cloud amount is reported by an assessment of the number of eight of the sky covered
by clouds.
FEW SCT BKN OVC
1–2 3–4 5–7 8
 CLOUD BASE: The cloud base is the height of the base of the cloud above ground – above official
aerodrome level.
 CLOUD CEILING: The height above aerodrome level of the lowest layer of more than 4 OKTAS.
 MEASUREMENT OF CLOUD BASE:-
1. By day a balloon:-
a. Rate of ascent is known.
b. Time taken from released to disappearance into cloud notes.
c. Base of cloud is calculated.
2. By Night:-
a. An Alidade is used.
b. Angle is measured and using trigonometry, height is measured.
3. A Cloud Base Recorder or Ceilometer:_
It is a device that uses a laser or other light source to determine the height of a cloud base.
 MEASUREMENT OF CLOUD TOPS:-
1. Visual Assessment, if conditions permit it.
2. RADAR or employ A/C observation.
 CLOUD MOVEMENT: Movement of clouds measured by means of Nephoscope.
 CLASSIFICATION OF CLOUDS:-
1. It is based, primarily, on the shape or form of clouds.
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2. The basic forms of clouds are Stratiform and Cumuliform and Cirriform.

Cumuliform Stratiform
Cumulus(Cu) Stratus(ST)

Cumulonimbus(Cb) Stratocumulus(SC)

Altocumulus(AC) Nimbostratus(NS)

Altocumulus Cirrostratus(CS)
Castellanus(ACc)
Cirrocumulus(CC) Cirrus

 STRATIFORM CLOUD: It is a layered type of cloud of considerable horizontal extent, but little
vertical extent.
 CUMULIFORM CLOUD: It is heaped cloud, display is a marked vertical extent, of greater or less
degree.
 CIRRIFORM CLOUD: It is a cloud which is fibrous, wispy or hair-like in appearance. Found only at
high levels in the Troposphere.

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 Important points to remember

1. Drizzle occurs from Stratus clouds.
2. Showers occurs from cumulonimbus clouds
3. A short duration, showery precipitation is associated with cumulonimbus clouds.
4. Heavy Icing in possible in cumulonimbus clouds
5. To avoid icing in cloudy conditions, a pilot is advised to fly through a cloud which shows an
optical phenomena of Halo.
6. Dark gray cloud giving continuous rain is called nimbostratus.
7. A uniform layer of cloud resembling fog but not on the ground is Stratus clouds.
8. The clouds composed of ice crystals having feathery appearance is Cirrus.
9. Nimbostratus clouds occur at warm front.
10. Halo is associated with the cloud cirrus.
11. Corona is associated with the cloud Altostratus.
12. Rain Falling from cloud but not reaching ground is called Virga.
13. Cumulonimbus with distinct anvil is called Capillatus.
14. Hail may be experienced under the anvil of a cumulonimbus.
15. The most hazardous cloud for aviation is cumulonimbus.

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PRECIPITATION
Two theories governing the formation of these precipitation drops.
A day is called Rainy day when rainfall in 24hr is 2.5mm or more.
 INRODUCTION:-
1. Precipitation is any form of water(Liquid or
Solid) that falls from a cloud and reaches the
ground.
2. Different types of Precipitation – Rain, Snow,
Hail, Sleet.
3. Each type of precipitation has undergone its
own unique process of formation prior to reaching the surface.
4. When the water vapour condenses or freezes, it prefers to condense or freeze onto something
– it needs a surface(preferable some liquid water or ice already present).
5. Away from the surface of earth(in the free atmosphere),
the only surface are tiny solid particles suspended in the
air(dust, smoke particles, sea salt). These are called
condensation nuclei whose size varies from 0.01 to 1
micrometer in diameter.
6. The formation of precipitation begins with the process of nucleation, which is the deposition,
freezing, or condensation of water vapour in the free air onto condensation nuclei.

 COALESCENCE THEORY (WARM AIR PROCESS):-

Collision: Liquid cloud droplets carried by air motions within the clouds can collide with each
another.
Coalescence: Refers to the fact that water
is sticky. If two water droplets come into
contact (say by collision), then they will
stick together and make one larger
droplet.
These colliding droplets will tend to limit
the size that a precipitation particle can
reach no larger than about 5mm in
diameter.
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o The clouds whose tops do not extend to the freezing level are called Warm clouds.
o Coalescence theory explain occurrence of rainfall from the warm clouds.
 THE BERGERON PROCESS:-
1. It was first proposed by the Swedish
Meteorologist Tor Bergeron in the early
1920’s. The Bergeron process takes place
when ice crystals form high in the cloud
tops. These small, often microscopic ice
crystals attract more water vapour, causing
them to increase in size. As the ice crystals increase in size, the vapour pressure drops. This
allows surrounding water droplets to evaporate, becoming smaller and smaller as the ice
crystals grow. Eventually, these ice crystals become large and heavy enough that they begin to
fall towards the Earth’s Surface. As they do, they pass through the lower warmer portion of
clouds, attracting even more water vapour and growing larger still.
2. Super cooled water drops and Ice particles co-exist, the ice crystals grow at the expense of
water drops because saturation vapour pressure over the ice crystals is less than over water
drops.
3. The clouds whose tops extend well above the freezing level are called Cold clouds.
4. Ice crystal Theory explains occurrence of rainfall from the cold clouds.
 Giant Nucleus Theory:-
1. In the maritime areas clouds with lesser vertical development can give rain as compared to
inland arreas.
2. In these areas large number of salt particles exist in the atmosphere.
3. These giant hygroscopic nuclei absorb water vapour and form large water drops and initiate the
chain reaction of coalescence.
 Cloud Burst
1. Very heavy showers or rain over an area in a short period is called Cloud Burst.
 Flash Flood:-
1. A sudden rise in the level of rivers or streams causing floods, is called Flash Flood.
 Cloud Seeding:-
1. Is an attempt to stimulate precipitation by injecting into the cloud the nucleating agent like
common salt, Silver iodide etc.
2. It is found useful in fighting fires, ending draught, promoting harvests, draining clouds and fog
dispersal.

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THUNDERSTORMS

Thunderstorms occur in well developed(Cb), though not all Cb’s produce Thunderstorms.

 CONDITIONS FOR THUNDERSTORM:-

1. A lapse rate greater than SALR(Steep lapse rate).
2. Sufficient water vapour to form and maintain the cloud.
3. A trigger action to produce the ascent of air and cloud formation.
 TRIGGERS:-
1. Convection
2. Orographic Uplift
3. Convergence
4. Frontal Uplift
 CLASSIFICATION OF THUNDERSTORMS:-
1. Heat or airmass type.
2. Frontal Type.
3. Mesoscale Convictive Complex(MCC)(Mesoscale-middle scale or in-between scale)
 HEAT TYPE THUNDERSTORMS:-
1. Isolated – all triggers except frontal.
2. Most frequent over land in summers.
3. Formed by day, cleared by night.
4. Formed in COLS or weak lows.
5. Thundestorm formed by advection can occur day or night, over land or sea or at any time of
the year.
 FRONTAL TYPE THUNDERSTORMS:-
1. Most frequent in winters .
2. Formed over land or sea, day or night.
3. Usually formed in a line at a cold front or occlusion.
4. Often accompanied by a line squall.
 THUNDERSTORM DEVELOPMENT:-
INITIAL STAGE(CUMULUS STAGE):-
1. These are strong up currents of 30m/s or 60kts.
2. Lasts for 15 to 20 mins.
3. Characterized by only up draughts.
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MATURE STAGE:-

1. When precipitation occurs, the storm has reached the mature stage.
2. The rain or hail will cause strong down currents of up to 2400fpm and will also bring cold air to
lower level.
3. These down draughts will warm initially at SALR causing the air to warm very slowly thereby
staying colder than the surrounding air causing it to sink further.
4. Cold air reaches the surface, it spreads out and leads to the formation of the GUST FRONT.
5. A strong gust front can be experienced up to 13 to 17nm (24 to 32Km) ahead of the storm and
be up to 6000ft in depth.
6. Below the cloud, a squall and associated wind shear can be expected.
7. Microbursts: are possible where the down currents are very strong and are confined to less
than 4km in diameter and die down in 15-20 minutes.
8. Macrobursts: are slightly larger in area diameter more than 4km.
9. Rising and falling water droplets will produce a considerable build-up of static electricity, usually
of positive charge at the top of the cloud and negative at the bottom. The build-ups eventually
lead to lightning discharge and thunder.
10. The mature stage lasts for a further 15 to 20 mins and this stage
is characterized by both up and down draughts.
 Clouds emanate from a cumulonimbus clouds
1. Roll Cloud- It is an elongated cylindrical dark cloud which
appears to rotate slowly about its horizontal axis. It
occurs behind the First Gust.
2. Shelf cloud- It is a wedge shaped elongated cloud
having flat base. It occurs at the edge of gust front.
DISSIPATION STAGE:-
1. At this stage, there is wider distribution of precipitation, which
is heavy and extremely turbulent.
2. The cloud extends to the Tropopause, where it is spread out by the upper wind to form an anvil.
At these levels, the cloud thins out to form Cirrus.
3. Large radiation in static charges in and around the cloud cause discharge in the form of lightning
which can appear in the cloud, from the cloud to the ground, or from the cloud to the air.
 The life of a Cb cell is usually ½-1 hour.

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 Generally the severest activity of a cb clouds is for 30-45minutes

4.

 FORECASTING:-
Satellite Photography an Computer modelling are used to predict this occurrence.
 SUPERCELL THUNDERSTORMS:-
Conditions necessary to initiate these thunderstorms are:-
INITIAL STAGE:-
1. Great depth of instability.
2. Strong vertical Windshear.
3. Stable layer between
warm(lower) and cool(upper)
air which is eventually broken
down by insolation.

MATURE STAGE:-

Very Strong up and down

draughts produced in the one
large(super) cell give rise to
violent weather and even tornadoes.

 LOCATION:-
Over Continental land masses than over maritime area.
 MESOSCALE CONVECTIVE COMPLEX(MCC)
1. Circular cluster of many interacting TS over a very large area,
2. New TS develop continually within MCC thus this increases the life from 6 to 24 hrs
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3. These produces severs weather, tornadoes and flash flood

 RADAR:-
1. Airplane weather radar.
2. Stormscope: that detects, locates and maps areas of electrical discharge activity contained
within thunderstorms permitting avoidance of the associated hazards.

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VISIBILITIY

Meteorological Optical Range(MOR) or “Met Vis” is the greatest horizontal distance at which a dark
object can be recognized with normal eyesight or at which lights of specified candlepower can be seen by
night.

 PREVAILING VISIBILITY:-
In aviation, it is a measurement of the greatest distance visible throughout at least half of the
horizon, not necessarily continuously.
1. Point of observation is centre of circle.
2. The prevailing visibility is considered to be 5nm because this is the
maximum value common to ½ or more of the horizon circle, 60o +
120o = 180o.
3. The lowest or ‘minimum visibility’ will also be reported in the
METAR, after the prevailing visibility, if the visibility in one direction,
which is not the prevailing visibility, is less than 1500m or less than
50% of the prevailing visibility.
 OBSCURITY:-
1. Visibility is a measure of atmospheric obscurity.
2. Obscurity can be caused by water droplets – clouds, fog, rain or solid particles – sand, dust or
smoke or by a mixture of the two – Smog(fog & smoke). Ice in the form of crystals, hail or snow
will also reduce visibility.
 VARIOUS TYPE OF REDUCTION IN VISIBILTY:-
Description Lower Limit Upper Limit Relative Humidity
Fog Zero <1000 100%
Mist 1000 5000 100%
Haze/Smoke zero 5000 <95%
Haze: Extremely small solid particles – sand, dust or smoke. Gives milky appearance to
thetmophere.
Mist: Very small water droplets. In mist relative humidity is almost 100%
Smog: When fog and smoke haze co-exist.
Sea spray: Salt particles get sprayed from wave crest in the lower levels, which acts as
condensation nuclei and thus reduces visibility for low flying aircrafts.

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 TYPE OF FOGS:-
1. Radiation Fog
2. Hill Fog
3. Advection Fog
4. Frontal Fog
5. Arctic or Stream Fog
 RADIATION FOG:-
1. Caused by radiation of the Earth’s heat at night. It is essentially a nocturnal phenomenon.
2. Conductive cooling of the air in contact with the ground to below dew point.
3. If light winds, fog is formed otherwise in calm conditions dew will form.
4. Usually few hundred feet to 1500feet thick.

CONDITIONS NECESSARY FOR RADIATION FOG:-

1. Clear Sky: To increase the rate of terrestrial radiation.
2. High RH: So that little cooling will lead to saturation and condensation.
3. Light Wind: 2-8Kts to minimize the layers of air causing turbulence so that droplets will be kept
in suspension and also warm air can be brought to thicken the fog.

TIME OF OCCURRENCE:-
1. Autumn and Winter
2. Night and early morning.
3. Forms over north India during May to June.
4. Radiation fog activity increases after the passage of a western disturbance.

LOCATION:-
1. Over land and not over sea.
2. In valleys because of the Katabatic effect.
3. In anticyclones(HP), ridge and COLS.

DISPERSAL:-
1. By insolation causing convection which will lift the fog. Also evaporate the lower layer.
2. Strong wind lifting the fog to form Stratus Clouds.
 HILL/OROGRAPHIC FOG:-
1. Hill Fog is cloud on the sides of or the top of a hill or mountain which has been generated by the
movement of humid air up the hill side.
2. Visibility will be 200m or less.

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 ADVECTION FOG:-
1. Fog is formed by the movement of warm, moist air over a cold surface.
2. The surface can be land or sea.

CONDITIONS NECESSARY FOR ADVECTION FOG TO FORM:-

1. Winds up to 15Kts to move the air.
2. A high RH so that relatively little cooling is required to produce saturation and subsequent
condensation.
3. A cold surface with a temperature lower than the Dew Point of the moving air to ensure
condensation.

TIME OF OCCURRENCE & LOCATION:-

1. Over land areas in winter and early spring.
2. Over sea areas in late spring and early summers.

DISPERSAL:-
1. Change of air mass.
2. By a wind speed greater than 15Kts.
 STEAMING FOG(ARCTIC SMOKE):-
1. Occurs in Polar regions.
2. Cold air from a land mass moving over a warmer moist surface or sea.
3. Small amount of evaporation from the sea is enough to cause saturation and condensation.
4. Fog can be as thick as 500ft.
5. Steam can be seen coming from water. Therefore it is often called sea smoke.

DISPERSAL: By increase in wind speed.

 FRONTAL FOG:-
1. At warm front or occlusion.
2. Precipitation lowering the cloud base to the ground.
3. 200nm wide.
 SMOKE:-
1. Smoke consists of solid particles produced by combustion.
2. Bad condition in stable condition.
3. Smoke may cause widespread visibility reduction.
The reduction will depend upon:-
a. Rate of Production.
b. Rate of dispersal by wind.
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c. Distance from the smoke source.

The particles provide ample Hygroscopic Nuclei for vapour to condense on to, thus increasing
the severity of Radiation Fog.

 DUST:-
1. Dust is a particle less than 0.08mm in Diameter.
2. As it is light, it is carried high into the atmosphere.
3. Dust storms mainly occur in daylight due to Diurnal Variation of wind.
 SAND:-
1. Particles between 0.08mm and 0.3mm in diameter.
2. As the weight of particles is more, it will be carried a few feet above the surface.
3. Dust or Sandstorms imply a visibility below 1000m.
 PRECIPITATION:-
Type Intensity Visibility
Drizzle - 500-3000
Rain Moderate 3000m-10Km
Heavy <1000m
Tropical <100m
Snow Moderate 1000m
Heavy 50-200m
 VISIBILTIY MEASUREMENT:-
By Day: Measurements are made by reference to suitable objects at know distance from an
observing position.
By Night: Gold’s Visibility Meter, the filler is varied until the light is no longer visible.
 RUNWAY VISUAL RANGE:-
1. RVR is the max distance that a pilot 15ft above the runway in the touchdown area can see
marker boards by day or runway lights by night when looking in the direction of T/O or landing.
2. The RVR can be assessed by positioning an observer 76m from the centre line of the runway.
 TRANSMISSOMETER:-
This is an electronic device where the intensity of a light a distance from a photoelectric cell gives
an indication of the equivalent daytime visibility.

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AIRCRAFT ICING
 FORMATION OF ICE ON AN AIRFRAME:-
1. Water in a super cooled liquid state.
2. Ambient air temperature below 0oC.
3. Airframe temperature below 0oC.
 SUPERCOOLED WATER DROPLETS:-
1. A supercooled water droplet is a droplet of water still in the liquid state although its
temperature is below 0oC.
2. Supercooled water droplets can exist in clouds at temperature as low as -40oC.
3. When an A/C strikes a supercooled water droplet, it will start to freeze.
Sizes:-
0oC to -20oC: Both large and small supercooled droplets.
Stratiform Clouds: Only support small droplets.
Cumuliform Clouds: Both types
-20oC to -40oC: Small supercooled droplets exist. Large supercooled water droplets will have
become ice.
Below -40oC: Only very small supercooled water droplets can exist.
 THE EFFECT OF ICING:-
1. Ice tends to form on leading edges, thereby spoiling the aerodynamic shape.
2. This result in reduced lift, increased drag, increased weight, increased stalling speed and
increased fuel consumption.
 RIME ICE:-
1. When the supercooled water droplets are small.
2. Freezes instantly on impact.
3. Ice is weak and very brittle.
4. Air becomes trapped between each frozen droplet, which makes the Ice white.
5. White opaque and granular, having light porous texture.
6. Found in Ns, As, Ac,Sc,St.
7. On top of heap clouds.
 CLEAR (OR GLAZE) ICE:-
1. If a large supercooled water droplet strikes an A/C, it will start to freeze and this will release
latent heat.
2. Latent Heat will delay the freezing process while part of the supercooled water droplets will
flow back over the impact.

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3. Formed by large supercooled water droplets.

4. Ice appears transparent because there is no air trapped under the Icing.
5. Lamination of ice into layer increases its strength.
6. Much stronger and harder to remove.
7. Glazed ice poses serious aviation hazard.
8. Forms in Ns, Cu and Cb at temperature 0 to -20oC.
 MIXED ICE: Both RIME ICE and CLEAR ICE.
 RAIN ICE:-
1. It occurs in rain which becomes supercooled by falling through an inversion into air below 0 oC.
2. Supercooled water droplets are now rain sized.
3. Freezes to form clear ICE with significant flowback.
4. Occurs at low level at about 1000ft, ahead of warm front or occlusion.
5. Often found in Nb.
 HOAR FROST:-
1. Occurs in clear air.
2. It will form if airframe temperature is below 0 oC or the temperature is below the frost point.
3. Water vapour in contact with the airframe is converted to ice crystals without becoming liquid
i.e., Sublimating.
4. Presence of Sublimation Nucleus.

There are 2 situations where the Hoar Frost can occur:-

1. On the Ground
2. In Flight:-
Cold region to warm region involves Rapid descent and Inversion.
 CONCENTRATION OF SUPER COOLED WATER DROPLETS:-

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 CLOUD BASE TEMPERATURE:-

 FREEZING LEVEL:-
1. The height where ambient temperature is zero is called the freezing level.
2. With an inversion, two freezing levels are possible.
 Airframe Icing in relation to cloud Forms
1. CI,CS,CC: These consist mostly ice crystals. Icing Hazard is therefore, negligible.
2. AS, NS: They consist of super cooled water drops and ice crystals in varying proportion. Light to
moderate icing is possible.
3. AC: Light to moderate icing is likely but severe icing is possible in mountains.
4. TCU: Icing may range from light to severe type at least up to -20oC level.
5. CB: Icing may range from light to severe type up to -20oC level. Below this temperature severe
icing is not significant.
 Engine Icing
1. Impact Icing: This occurs due to the impact of super cooled water drops on the air intake. Icing
restricts air inflow, which reduces the engine power.
2. Carburetor Icing: When air passes through the carburettor choke and past the throttle
butterfly, the pressure falls inside the carburettor and due to adiabatic cooling the temperature
drops to a very low value. The cooling is further enhanced by the evaporation of fuel. If
humidity is high icing may occur due to sublimation. This type of icing may also occur in clear air
even at the ambient air temperature of +30 oC. Below -10oC this type of icing is negligible unless
liquid water is present.

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AIR MASSES

1. An air mass is a large volume of air where the humidity and temperature in the horizontal are more
or less constant.
2. The temperature and humidity properties are obtained by the air remaining roughly stationary over
a surface where conditions are generally constant for some length of time – a high pressure area.
Therefore at source, all air masses must be stable.
3. An air mass moving to a warmer area will become heated in the lower layers and should become
I. Unstable
II. Warmer
III. Lower Relative Humidity.
4. Air mass moving to a colder region should become
I. More stable
II. Colder in the lower layers
III. have an increased Relative Humidity.
 AIR MASS IDENTIFICATION:-

IDENTIFICATION BY TEMPERATURE INDENTIFICATION BY HUMIDITY

Tropical Maritime(Moist air mass)

Polar Continental(Dry air mass)

Arctic

Combinations:- TM, TC, PM, PC, Arctic( Not subdivided)

 The air mass which originates at sea in high Latitudes is called Polar Maritime.
 The air mass which originates over equatorial region is warm and wet
 The air mass which originated over land area located in polar region cold and dry
 The air mass which originates from sea area located in lower latitude is warm and wet.
 FRONTS:-
1. A front is a boundary zone or surface of interaction between two air masses of different
temperature.
2. When the two air masses meet, the warmer air will rise over the top of the colder because of
the difference in density.
3. If the term zone is used, then the region of interaction is much wider(up to 300nm).
4. Frontal Surface:- is the sloping surface along which the two air masses exist.

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5. Frontogenesis: In a front weather occurs only when there is significant density difference in two
air masses. If the density difference increases the front becomes active. The strengthening of a
front is called Frontogenesis.
6. Frontolysis: Weakening of front with time and dissipation of frontal weather is called
Frontolysis.
 MAIN GLOBAL FRONTS:-
1. The Polar Front
2. The Arctic Front
3. The Mediterranean Front
4. The Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone(ITCZ)
 Polar Fronts: Boundary between Polar and Tropical Air masses.
 Arctic Fronts: Boundary between Arctic and Polar air Masses.
 Mediterranean Front: Boundary between Polar Continental or Maritime air from Europe and
Tropical Continental air from North Africa.
 Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone:-

Also known as the Thermal Equator or Equitorial Trough.

1. Broad Zone of separation between the air masses either side of

the heat equator.
2. The air is conveyed by the Trade Winds Northeast or
Southeast.
 FRONTAL FACTORS:-
1. Could be warm or cold depending upon whether warm or cold
air is replacing the other.
2. All fronts have a slope(frontal surface).
3. Fronts are associated with Convergence and Ascending air, giving much cloud and bad weather.
It is possible for air masses to flow side by side with little
interaction, such front is termed as Quazi Stationary.
 EQUILIBRIUM:-
1. When the winds are Geostrophic, the frontal surfaces would
be in equilibrium with no tendency for the cold air to
undercut the warm air.
2. Little weather.

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 CONVERGENCE:-
There is always convergence in any depression but this will normally be small and give light
precipitation and thin cloud only.
Unbalancing can be caused by the pressure falling in the depression. This will cause the winds to
no longer be Geostrophic and there will be a flow of air across the isobars towards the deepening
centre.
 COLD FRONT
1. Cold air overtaking warm air, formation of wedge.
2. Slope of 1:80 to 1:120
3. There are two type of cold fronts:
I. Kata type front
II. Ana type front.
 KATA TYPE COLD FRONT
1. Slope of 1:120 and speed is about 20kts.
2. There is general sinking of warm air at high levels therefore cloud development is restricted.
3. Showery precipitation occurs in advance and just behind surface front.
4. Line squall occur ahead of cold front
 ANA TYPE COLD FRONT
1. Slope of 1:50 to 1:80 and speed exceeds 30kts.
2. There is instability and rising warm air at high levels.
3. Violent thunderstorm and showeres of short duration are its basic features,confined to 100-
150km.
4. Behind the front there may be CU, CB and isolated showeres
 OCCLUDED FRONTS/OCCLUSIONS:-
1. An occlusion occurs when the cold front in a depression catches up with or overtakes the warm
front.
2. An occlusion forms because the cold front normally
moves faster(double the speed) than the warm
front.

WARM TYPE OCCLUSION:-

1. If the air ahead of the warm front is colder than the
air behind the cold front, then a warm type occlusion will be formed.
2. Common in winters.

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COLD TYPE OCCLUSION:-

1. If the air behind the cold front is colder than the
air ahead of the warm front, then a cold type
occlusion will be formed.
2. Common in summers.

OCCLUSION WEATHER:-
Weather is usually bad as mixture of clouds can occur.

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OPTICAL PHENOMENA

RAINBOW:- Group of concentric arcs with colours ranging from violent to red, produced on a background
of water drops.

Primary Rainbow:-

1. Circle subtends an angle of 42o at the eyes.

2. The bow is due to the double refraction of sun rays, once
on entering the rain drop and second time on leaving the
drop, with one total internal reflection.
3. The colour of rainbow are due to refraction of different
colours (VIBGYOR)

Secondary Rainbow

1. Circle subtends an angle of 52o at the eyes.

2. Less bright than the primary.
3. The red is on the inside and the violent on the outside.

Halo

1. Circle of light around the sun or moon.

2. It is produced by refraction of light through ice crystals
present in Cirrostratus clouds.
3. Small Halo- Ring of light 22o from the sun or moon.
4. Large Halo-Ring of light 46o from the sun or moon.
5. Halo signifies the predominance of ice crystals in the cloud
and hence negligible chances of ice accretion.

Corona

1. One or more coloured rings of relatively small radius, 50 from the

sun or moon.
2. In each ring red appears on the outside and violet or blue on the
inside.
3. Formed due to diffraction of light, passing through mist, fog, or
through a thin cloud composed of very small water drops or ice
particles(Altostratus)
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4. Corona indicate moderate icing, if cloud above the freezing level.

Mirage

1. A mirage is a naturally occurring optical phenomenon in which light rays are refracted (bent) to
produce a displaced image of distant objects or the sky.
2. Mirages are observed when the temperature of the earth’s surface differs markedly from that of
the air above.
3. Inferior Mirage (Low Mirage) occurs over intensely heated water surface, soil, beach, road etc
where the lapse rate is steep.
4. Superior Mirage (Upper Mirage) occurs over snow field, cold sea surface etc where there is
Inversion.

BISHOP’S RING

1. Formed due to diffraction of light by fine dust particles present in the high atmosphere.
2. The dust may also be of volcanic origin
3. Radius of ring 22o.
4. It is a whitish faint ring, centred on the sun or moon, with a slightly bluish tinge on the inside and
reddish brown on the outside.

TWILIGHT COLOURS

1. Various colours in the sky at sunset and at sunrise by refraction, scattering or selective absorption
of light rays from the sun.

GLORY

1. One or more of coloured rings seen by an observer

around his own shadow on a cloud consisting of
numerous small water droplets, fog or on dew.
2. Coloured rings are due to the diffraction of light; their
arrangement is the same as in a corona.
3. Airborne observers often see a glory around the shadow of the aircraft in which they are flying.

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CREPUSCULAR RAYS

1. These are dark bluish streaks which radiate from the

sun. they are the shadows of clouds at or below the
horizon.

AURORA

1. An aurora, sometimes referred to as a polar lights or northern lights, is a natural light display in the
sky, predominantly seen in the high latitude (Arctic and
Antarctic) regions.
2. Aurora are the ghostly display of light in the form of
streamers, rays, arches, hands, curtains, draperies, sheets or
patches.
3. They are greenish white or pronounced red or yellow.
4. They results from bombardment of gases in the upper
atmosphere by the electric particles
5. The aurora (northern lights) form when charged particles
emitted from the sun during a solar flare penetrate the earth's
magnetic shield and collide with atoms and molecules in our
atmosphere. These collisions result in countless little bursts
of light, called photons, which make up the aurora.
6. Aurora Borealis occur in the N hemisphere and are called Northern Lights
7. Aurora Australis occur in the Southern Hemisphere and are called Southern lights.

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CLIMATOLOGY OF INDIA

Monsoon winds strongly influence the climate in India.

 IMPORTANT FACTORS ACTIVATE THE MONSOONS:-

1. The Differential Heating & Cooling Of Land And Water:-
The difference in temperature over land and water creates a low-pressure over the land mass in
India. This low-pressure attracts winds from High Pressure area.
2. The Shift Of The Position of Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone:-
The equatorial Inter-Tropical convergence zone, which is a low pressure belt of highly unstable
weather, moves northward towards India. This shift is also a cause for the onset of Monsoon in
India.
3. The Presence Of The High Pressure Area East Of Madagascar:-
The intense high pressure area that is formed east of Madagascar, at approx. 20 oS over the
Indian Ocean causes the wind to flow towards the low pressure over the Indian land mass.
4. The Heating Of The Tibetan Plateau:-
The Tibetan Plateau which gets intensely heated during summers, results in strong vertical air
current and the formation of low pressure over the Plateau at about 9Km above Sea Level.
5. The movement of the westerly Jet Stream.
6. The Tropical easterly Jet Stream over the Indian Peninsula.
 MONSOON: It is the seasonal reversal of the winds and the rainfall. As the sun oscillates between
the Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn, the region of maximum heating(Thermal Equator) also moves
N and S.
 STRENGTH OF MONSOON: The strength of monsoon is described in terms of winds at sea and
rainfall over land.
 NORTHEAST MONSOON(COLD SEASON,WINTER) – JAN,FEB
 PRE – MONSOON(HOT SEASON, SUMMER) – MARCH, MAY
 SOUTHWEST MONSOON(RAINY SEASON) – JUNE, SEPT
 POSTMONSOON(COOL SEASON) – OCT, DEC
MONSOON

SOUTH WEST NORTH EAST

(INCOMING) (OUTGOING)

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SOUTH-WEST MONSOON ORIGIN

1. The basic cause of monsoon climates is the difference in the rate of heating and cooling of land and
sea
2. In the summer, when the sun is overhead at the Tropic of Cancer, the great land masses of the
northern hemisphere are heated and a region of intense low pressure is set up.
3. The seas which warm up much slower remain comparatively cool. At the same time, the southern
hemisphere experiences winter and a region of high pressure are set up.
4. Winds blow outwards as the south-east monsoon to java and after crossing the equator are drawn
towards the continental low pressure as the south-western Monsoon.
 SOUTHWESTERN MONSOON:-
1. Starts in early June, settles by mid-July.
2. Kerela is 1st state to receive rain.
3. It comes from the Arabian Sea at the West Coast.
4. Air rises in two branches-
a. Bay Of Bengal
b. Arabian Sea

Pressure Pattern

1. A low pressure area lies over Baluchistan.

2. A trough called Monsoon trough lies over North India with its axis extending from Sriganganagar to
the Head Bay, through Allahabad.
3. A High pressure lies over Southern Hemisphere at 30oS 60oE
4. Weak ridges lie over Arabian Sea over the west Coast of India, in the Bay of Bengal over Tenasserim
Coast and over Myanmar.
5. The pressure gradient is steep along the west coast.

Axis of Monsoon Trough

1. The normal position of the monsoon trough is Ganganagar-Allahabad-kolkata to head bay.

2. The trough fluctuates North south of its normal position and accordingly governs the rainfaill.
3. To north of this trough lies the Bay branch and to the south, Arabian branch.

Surface Wind

1. Easterly to south easterly winds prevail to the north of the monsoon trough.
2. Southerly component over west Bengal
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3. North westerly winds prevail over Malabar coast.

4. Wind speed over the land is about 5-10kts and over sea 15kts.

Surface Temperature

1. Temperatures over the southern parts of the country are about 26 oC and over Rajasthan 31oC.
2. Diurnal Range is about 4oC to 9oC.

Upper winds

1. Easterly jet stream (Tropical Jet stream) prevails at 15=16km with speed of 70=80kts roughly along
13N
2. Flying in monsoon clouds is relatively smooth, as they are stratiform type and visibility is good,
except in precipitation
 ACTIONS OF SOUTHWESTERN MONSOON:-
1. Strikes Malabar Coast of Kerela by June 1st.
2. By June 10th, it reaches Mumbai.
3. Then reaches Delhi by June 29th.
4. The Arabian branch wind moves towards Northeastern side towards Himalayas.
5. The Bay Of Bengal branch wind moves towards Northwest towards Indo-Gangetic plains.
6. Date of withdrawal: from extreme west Rajasthan is 15th September. By first half of October
withdrawal from north and central India.

Break Monsoon

1. Monsoon trough shifts northwards and runs close to foot hills of Himalayas, resulting in drastic
reduction in rainfall over the country.
2. During this period the pressure rises over the country.
3. Heavy rains occur over foot hills of Himalayas, particularly over Sub Himalayan West Bengal, Nepal
and Bhutan.
4. During this stage the weather is of pre-monsoon type with widespread dust haze of moderate
Intensity.

NORTH-EASTERN MONSOON ORIGIN

1. In winter, the sun is overhead at the tropic of Capricorn, Central Asia is extremely cold, resulting in
rapid cooling of the land
2. A region of high pressure is created with out blowing winds-The North-East Monsoon.

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3. On crossing the equator, the winds are attracted to the low pressure centre in Australia and arrive
in northern Australia as the North-West Monsoon.

NORTH-EASTERN MONSOON:-

1. It begins in November(During Winter Season).

2. During winters, the Northern Hemisphere witnesses cold weather.
3. December and January are the coldest months.
4. In Himalayan Region, heavy snowfall takes place and that causes High Pressure.
5. After winters, when the sun rays move from Southern Hemisphere towards equator, it makes the
water bodies warm.
6. Wind moves from High Pressure to Low Pressure.
7. Land Mass is cold(HP), and water bodies are warm(LP).

Pressure Distribution NE Monsoon

1. On the surface there is an extensive belt of high pressure from Sahara to Siberia. India is at the
southern periphery of this high.
2. There is High pressure over N India and Low pressure over the Indian Ocean.
3. A shallow ridge over the Gangetic Plains and shallow trough extents from Kerala to Gujarat along
the west Coast.
4. North westerly winds prevail over north India and north easterly winds over south India.
5. The North easterly winds acquire moisture over the Bay of Bengal and cause rains over Tamil Nadu.

Surface Temperature

1. The average surface temperature in winters range from 14 oC over north India to 27oC over south
India.
2. Diurnal Range of temperature is about 13oC in most part of the country, 10oC over the coastal areas
and 5oC over Tamil Nadu due to clouding and rain.

Upper Winds

1. The subtropical Jet Stream prevails over North India at at height of about 12km and 27 oN with
strong westerly winds of 80-100kts, maximum being 200kts.
2. CAT is experienced over North-East India and in the vicinity of subtropical jet stream.
3. ICING- the freezing level lowers and hence ince accretion may b experienced at lower levels.

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Weather

1. In North India, clear skies, poor visibility (fog, mist and haze), dry weather, low humidity and low
temperature.
2. Above weather condition is broken by the passage of western disturbance, which are mostly
occluded fronts of extra tropical origin.
3. There is widespread Radiation fog and cold waves.(Cold wave is a rapid fall in temperature)
4. Conditions become most favourable for radiation fog after the passage of a western disturbance.
5. When maximum temperature is less than or equal to 16oC in plains, it is declared as a Cold day.
6. In the south India, North easterly winds acquire moisture from Bay of Bengal cause rains and
thunderstorm activity over Tamil Nadu.
7. Maximum rains over Tamil Nadu occur during NE monsoon.

PRE-MONSOON

Pressure Distribution

1. This is the transition season when winter pattern commences to change over to the monsoon
pattern.
2. Continuous rise in temperature and fall in pressure over the country.
3. There is weak pressure gradient over the country.
4. There is a trough over the peninsula, a weak low over Pakistan and a weak trough over east UP and
Bihar.

Surface Temperature

1. The land progressively gets heated up after January due to movement of sun rays northwards.
2. The mean maximum temperatures are about 40-42oC over the country.
3. The day temperature are highest in May, in Andaman’s they are highest in April, in Saurashtra in
June and in Rajasthan and Kashmir in July.
4. Diurnal Range: The maximum diurnal range of 18oC is over Gujarat, Saurashtra and MP. Along the
coast it is about 6oC.
5. Heat wave (A Heat Wave is a period of abnormally high temperatures, more than the normal maximum
temperature that occurs during the summer season) conditions are also witnessed.

6. When maximum temperature is 5oC or more heat wave is declared.

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Surface Winds

Month Westerly Easterly

March North of 17oN South of 17oN
April NWly up to east UP and
eastwards to northeast
India.
May SWly over Rajasthan Assam to east UP
June North of line joining
Lahore, Allahabad and
Silchar
Over Orissa, West Bengal, Bihar, Jharkhand and Chhattisgarh winds are southerly.

Upper winds

1. In april westerly strengthen with height over north India and peninsula.

Weather

1. The Season is characterised by widespread dust haze and extremely high temperature over N India.
2. Violent thunderstorm is common during this season. Dust storm are common over Rajasthan and
north west India.
3. Nor’westers affect Eastern parts of the country.
4. Poor visibility due to widespread dust haze over north India.
5. Dust Raising winds:- Strong surface winds of 30kts-50kts may be experienced between 0900 to
1700h. The visibility may reduce to a few hundred metres.

Post Monsoon

1. The monsoon starts withdrawing from northwest India by September.

2. It withdraws from northeast India by middle September and from the entire country by December.
3. The period is therefore referred as Retreating Monsoon.

Pressure Pattern

1. The monsoon trough shifts to the Bay of Bengal with its axis along 13oN.
2. A weak low lies off Chennai coast and another over Baluchistan.

Surface Wind

1. Surface winds are light and variable.

2. The sea breeze effect is pronounced alonge coasts in the afternoon hours nd is felt up to 160km
inland.

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Surface temperature

1. Temperature is nearly uniform 18oC over the country.

2. Diurnal Range is 6-7oC over the country.
3. The temperatures start falling all over the county hence it is also known as cool season.

Weather

1. Tamil Nadu gets its significant rainfall.

2. Good visibility and clear skies are the main features during this period.
3. A few tropic storms form over the central Bay and the Arabian sea and cause weather over the
coastal area.

Maximum Cyclonic Storms.

1. Occur in October over the Bay of Bengal

2. Occur in November over the Arabian Sea.
3. Severe cyclonic storms are more in November than in October. They usually form near Andaman
Seas an move towards Tamil Nadu, Andhra and Orissa.

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